Unit 2

Automatic Controllers & Control Modes

What Is Control System?

A Control System is an arrangement of physical components connected/related in such a manner as to command, direct or regulate itself or another system. A Control System consists of subsystems and processes (or plants) assembled to control the outputs of a process.

Classification Of Control System

1) If the aim is to maintain a physical variable at some fixed value when there are disturbances, this is called as regulator. Example: speed-control system on the ac generators of power utility companies. 2) The second class is the servomechanism. This is a control system in which a physical variable is required to follow (track) some desired time function. Example: an automatic aircraft landing system, or a robot arm designed to follow a required path in space.

Open-Loop Control System

Process control operations are performed automatically by either openloop or closed-loop systems.

Processes controlled only by set-point commands without feedback are open-loop.

Open-loop systems are used in applications where simple processes are performed. Open-loop systems are relatively inexpensive. Set Point Controller Process

Block Diagram of open loop control system

Closed-Loop Control System

Closed-loop control systems are more effective than open-loop systems. With the addition of a feedback loop they become self-regulating.

Components of a closed-loop system include:

I. II. The primary element sensor The controlled variable

III. The measured variable IV. The control signal V. The final correcting element

Block Diagram Of Closed loop Control System

ERROR DETECTOR
ERROR SIGNAL

SET POINT

CONTROLLER

CONTROL SIGNAL

ACTUATOR & FINAL CONTROL ELEMENT

ACTION

FEEDBACK

SENSOR(FEEDBACK ELEMENT)

CONTROLLED VARIABLE

PROCESS

Process
Complex assembly of phenomenon that refers to some manufacturing sequence. It utilizes the resources to produce certain product. Many variables may be involved in such a process, some of which have to be controlled. Classification of processes. Process Based on variables to be controlled Single variable process Based on operation Continuous process

Batch(sequential) Multi variable process process

Process Behavior
The objective of process control is to cause a controlled variable to remain at a constant value at or near some desired set-point. The controlled variable changes because of: 1. A disturbance appears 2. Load demands varies or 3. Set points are adjusted. Several process variables are controlled at once in a typical production machine. Usually, only one individual feedback loop is required to control each variable. Single-variable control loops consist of the following elements: o Measuring device o Transducer/transmitter o Controller o Final Control Element

Process Behavior Example

Flow through the pipe is the process. Fluid flow rate is the controlled variable.

Valve position is the set point.

Demand for the fluid downstream is the load. Variance in upstream pressure is the disturbance.

Sensor (Feedback Element)

It is the eye of the system.

Produces output that represents the status of the controlled variable.

The output of the sensor is called as feedback. Examples of sensors used in process control are

Thermal sensors like RTD, Thermistor, Thermocouple etc.

Level sensors like Ultrasonic, Float, Radiation sensor etc. Pressure sensors like Diaphragm, Bourdon tube, Bellows etc.

Flow sensors like Ventury meter, magnetic flow meter etc.

Optical sensors based on LED, LASER and Photodiode, Phototransistor.

Feedback Elements(Sensors)
Strain gauge Piezo-electric Capacitance Bourdon Tube Mechanical Floats Guided Wave Weight (load cell) Ultrasonic Static Pressure Type of Signals Transmitters Pneumatic 3-15 PSI Electrical Current 4 20 mA 0 20 mA 10 50 mA Voltage 05V 15V 0 10 V Digital Thermocouples RTDs / Thermistors Filled Systems Bi-metallic ON/OFF Field Bus ModBus ProfiBus

Pressure

Level

Pressure Transmitter Level Transmitter Differential Pressure Cell Flow Transmitter

Flow

Temperature pH Humidity Density Speed

Head meters (orifice, venturi) Coriolis Mass, velocity,

Temperature Transmitter

Error Detector
Compares set point(reference signal) with the feedback signal.

Produces error signal for the controller.

Error = Set point feedback signal Examples of devices used as error detector are OP-AMP based differential amplifier for analog signals. Comparison soft wares for digital signals.

Controller
The controller is the brain of the system. Receives error signal and develops output that causes the controlled variable to become equal to the set point value. Examples of controller PLC, Microprocessor, OP-AMP based controller. Different modes of controller are Controller modes Discontinuous mode Two position controller Multiposition controller Floating controller Continuous mode Proportional controller Proportional Integral controller Proportional Derivative controller Proportional Integral Derivative controller

Selection of a Controller
Controllers are designed to operate by using different control modes. Each of these modes has specific characteristics to provide different types of control actions. These control modes are: 1. On/Off 2. Proportional 3. Integral 4. Derivative The mode or combination of modes which is selected by the designer is determined by the requirement of the process

On-Off Controller (2 position controller)

Used for slow acting operations where lag is unavoidable. Final correcting element is either fully-on or fully-off. The primary drawback of on-off control is the rapid switching of the final control element. On-off differential or hysteresis is programmed into the controller to reduce cycling. Dead band refers to the differing levels at which a controller switches on and off

On-Off Controller (2 position controller)

The analytical equation for On-Off controller is given as P= 0 % Ep < 0 P= 100 % Ep > 0 Applications of On-Off controller: It is best adapted to large scale systems with relatively slow process rates. Examples of such process are 1. Room heating or air conditioning system 2. Liquid bath temperature control 3. Level control in large volume tanks.

Continuous Control
On/Off control is acceptable for process where the variable is set between two limits. For processes where the variable needs to be kept at particular set point level, proportional control is used. Proportional action can be accomplished in two ways: Time Proportioning Method Amplitude Proportional Method

Time Proportioning
Is a method whereby the output of the controller is continually switched on and off. This method is also called as PWM(Pulse Width Modulation). Here the ratio of On time to Off time called as duty cycle is varied as per the changes in the feedback signal. On versus off times are varied dependent upon process requirements. Example: Speed control of DC Motor .

Amplitude Proportional
Most common technique to produce a proportional signal. The control signal is proportional in amplitude to the error signal. The signal may be amplified and the amplification may be referred to as proportional gain and proportional band.

Proportional Control
Smooth relationship exists between the controller output and the error.

P= Kp Ep + Po Where Kp- Proportional gain between error and the controller output Po- Controller output without error
The range of error to cover 0% to 100% controller output is called as proportional band. PB = 100/ Kp Disadvantage of proportional controller is offset or SSE or residual error.

The offset error limits use of proportional mode to only a few cases particularly where manual reset of the operating point is available to reset the offset.
It is generally used in process where large load changes are unlikely or with moderate to small process lag times.

Characteristics of Proportional Controller

Offset Error

Integral Control
Because of the introduction of offset in a control process, proportional control alone is not used. It is often used in conjunction with Integral control. Offset is the difference between set point and the measured value after corrective action has taken place.

Integral Control
The offset error of the proportional mode occurs because the controller can not adapt to changing external conditions i.e. changing loads. In other words the zero error output is a fixed value. The Integral mode eliminates this problem by allowing the controller to adapt to changing external conditions by changing zero error output. Integral action is provided by summing the error over time, multiplying that sum by a gain and adding the result to present controller output.

 Integral mode controller action the rate of output change depends on the error.

Characteristics of Integral Controller

Derivative Mode
For rapid load changes, the derivative mode is typically used to prevent oscillation in a process system. The derivative mode responds to the rate of change of the error signal rather than its amplitude. Derivative mode is never used by itself, but in combination with other modes. Derivative action cannot remove offset. P(t) = KD (dEp / dt)

 The Derivative mode must be used with great care and usually with a small gain, because a rapid change of error can cause very large, sudden changes of controller output which can lead to instability. Derivative controller is not used alone because it provides no output when the error is constant. It is also called as rate controller or anticipatory control as it can take an action in advance depending upon the rate of error change.

Characteristics Of Derivative Controller

Limitations of Derivative Control

The derivative mode acts upon the rate of error signal change and it may cause unnecessary upsets.
It tends to react to sudden set point changes and will amplify noise.

The control algorithm can be altered so that derivative acts on the measurement and not on the error. This will reduce upsets.
Excessive noise and step changes in the measurements can be corrected by filtering out any change in the measurement that occurs faster than the maximum speed of response of the process. DCS system provides software with adjustable filters for each variable.

The time constant of these filters is usually adjusted from 0 to 100 seconds.
In analog system Inverse Derivative control mode is often used.

Inverse Derivative Control Mode

This control action is used on fast processes. The inverse derivative mode is opposite of the derivative mode.
While the output of Derivative mode is directly proportional to the rate of change in error, the output of inverse derivative mode is inversely proportional to the rate of change in the error. Inverse derivative is used to reduce the gain of the controller at high frequencies and is useful in stabilizing the control loop. The dynamic gain of the derivative function is selected to be 0.5 or less. The gain of the inverse derivative controller decreases from the proportional gain at low frequency to the limiting value of the proportional gain divided by this factor at high frequency. A proportional plus inverse derivative controller provides high gain to minimize offset at low frequency and low gain to stabilize the loop at high frequency.

 Inverse derivative can be added to PI Controller to stabilize the loops requiring very low proportional gains for stability. Inverse derivative should only be added when the loop is unstable at the minimum gain setting of the PI Controller. It is available in the separate unit can be added to the loop when stability problem occurs.

The addition of inverse derivative when proportionally tuned has little effect on the natural frequency of the loop.

Proportional Integral (PI) Control

Combines proportional and integral mode together and eliminates the offset inherent in proportional controller. However makes the action sluggish and increases the response time. Another disadvantage of this system is that during start up of the batch process the integral action causes a considerable overshoot of the error and the output before settling to the operation point.

Characteristics of PI Controller

Proportional Derivative (PD) Control

It involves the serial (cascaded) use of the proportional and derivative modes. The analytical expression for this mode is given as

This controller cannot eliminate the offset of proportional controllers , however it can handle fast process load changes.

Characteristics of PD Control

Proportional Integral and Derivative (PID) control

One of the most powerful but complex controller mode operations combines the proportional, integral and derivative modes. The system can be used for virtually any process condition. The analytical expression is

This mode eliminates the offset of the proportional mode and still provides fast response.

PID controller characteristics

Control Mode Summary

Control System Design Process

Electronic Controllers
1. On Off Controller with dead band Here VH = Vsp and VL = Vsp- (R1/R2) Vo

2. Proportional Controller We know that for proportional mode p = KP EP + PO For implementation of electronic controller we have Vout = Gp Ve + VO Where GP = R2/R1 = Gain of the controller

Application of proportional control for Furnace temperature control

Application of proportional control for Robot Arm control

3. Proportional Integral Controller We know that the control mode equation for this mode is given as

For electronic implementation we have

Where Proportional gain = R2/R1 Integral gain = 1/ R2.C

Proportional Integral Controller

Application of Proportional Integral Controller to Robot arm control

4. Proportional Derivative Controller We know that for the PD Control mode the equation is given as

For electronic implementation we have

Where Proportional gain = R2/(R1+R3) Derivative gain = R3.C

Proportional Derivative Controller

5. Proportional Integral Derivative Controller

We know that for PID the analytical expression is given as

For electronic implementation we have

Where Proportional gain= R2/R1 Integral gain = 1/RI. CI Derivative gain = RD . CD

Proportional Integral Derivative Controller

Application of Proportional Integral Derivative Controller for Robot Arm Control

Pneumatic Relay
Also called as pneumatic amplifier or booster. It raises the pressure and /or air flow volume by some linearly proportional amount from the input signal.

Nozzle/Flapper system
It is used to convert the pressure to mechanical motion and vice versa.

Current to pressure converters

The I/P Converter is an important element in process control and used to signal condition the output of controller to equivalent pressure signal.

Pneumatic Controllers
The pneumatic controller is based on the nozzle/flapper system. Here also we can implement different control modes. 1. Proportional Controller Pout= (x1/x2)* (A1/A2)*(Pin-Psp) + Po Where Kp= (x1/x2)* (A1/A2)

Pneumatic Proportional mode

2. Proportional Integral controller

3. Proportional Derivative Controller

4. Proportional Integral Derivative Controller

Final Control Operation

Control signal

Signal conditioning

Actuator

(motor)

Process

Final control element (valve)

Control Systems in Robotics Perspective

The Future of Control Systems

Tuning the Controller

Fine-tuning is the process to optimize the controller operation by adjusting the following settings:
Gain setting (proportional mode) Reset rate (integral mode) Rate (derivative mode)

Three steps are taken when tuning a systems

1. 2. 3. Study the control loop Obtain clearance for tuning procedures Confirm the correction operation of the system components

Trial-and-Error Tuning
Does not use mathematical methods, instead a chart recorder is used and several bump tests are made in the proportional and integral modes.

Trial-and-error tuning is very time consuming and requires considerable experience on the part of the technician or operator.

Ziegler-Nichols Tuning Methods

Two formal procedures for tuning control loops: 1. Continuous cycling method 2. Reaction curve method

Continuous Cycling Method

The continuous cycling method analyzes the process by forcing the controlled variable to oscillate in even, continuous cycles. The time duration of one cycle is called an ultimate period. The proportional setting that causes the cycling is called the ultimate proportional value. These two values are then used in mathematical formulas to calculate the controller settings.

Ziegler-Nichols Reaction Curve Tuning Method

This method avoids the forced oscillations that are found in the continuous cycle tuning method. Cycling should be avoided if the process is hazardous or critical. This method uses step changes and the rate at which the process reacts is recorded. The graph produces three different values used in mathematical calculations to determine the proper controller settings. This method is applicable only to processes with self regulation characteristics. From the response curve the following parameters are calculated L: Lag time in minutes Cp : Controlled variable change in % T : Process reaction time in minutes N = Cp / T = Process reaction rate in % / min.

 The calculations for Ziegler Nichols Process reaction method are

Mode Proportional
Proportional Integral (PI) Proportional Integral Derivative (PID)

Kp P/ NL
0.9 P/ NL 1.2 P/ NL

Ti = 1/ Ki

Td = 1/ Kd

3.33 L 2L 0.5 L

Frequency Response Method

This method involves use of Bode Plot for the process and control loops.

The method is based on the application of the Bode plot stability criterion and the effects that the proportional gain, integral time and derivative time have on the Bode plot.
Bode plot stability criterion 1. If the phase is less than 140 degrees at the unity gain frequency the system is stable. This then is 40 degrees phase margin from the limiting value of 180 degrees . 2. If the gain is 5 dB below unity when the phase lag is 180 degrees the system is stable. This is then 5 dB gain margin. Tuning : The operations of tuning using frequency response method involve adjustments of the controller parameters until the stability is proved by the appropriate phase and gain margins. Proportional Action : Multiplies gain curve by a constant and no effect on phase. Integral Action : Integral gain= Ki/ and Integral phase = - 90 degrees (lag) Derivative Action : Derivative gain = Kd* and Derivative phase=90 degrees (lead)