LABORATORY MANUAL

FOR

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

By
Prof. N. K. Jain

DELHI TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

1
Sr. No. Title Page No.
0 Basics of Experimentation 3
1 To Verify Maximum Power Transfer Theorem 13
2 To Verify Thevenin's Theorem 17
3 To Measure Power And Power Factor in A Single Phase 23
A.C. Circuit Using Three Voltmeters.
4 Open Circuit and Short-Circuit Tests On A Single –Phase 27
Transformer.
5 To Verify The Relation Between Line Voltage And Phase 34
Voltage, Line Current And Phase Current In Three Phase
Load When Connected in (A) Star (B) Delta.
6 To study a series R-L-C circuit and obtain the condition of 38
resonance.
7 To control one lamp from two different places using 2-way 45
switches as in stair-case wiring.
8 To control one lamp from two different places using 1- way 48
switches as in bed switch wiring.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

2
 BASICS OF EXPERIMENTATION

PURPOSE

Following are the purposes of performing experiments in laboratories.

1. Getting familiar with basic components,measuringinstruments&equipment.

2. Observe & Understand Basic Phenomenon.
3. Verify Theorems & laws.
4. Get Training in Technical Report Writing.
5. Study Important Characteristics of Apparatus.
6. Get the knowledge of limitations of accuracies of measuring instruments.

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

Following general instructions should be followed while working in a laboratory.

1. Never work ALONE in the laboratory.

2. Don’t touch any terminal or switch without insuring that it is dead.
3. Keep away from all moving parts.
4. Always wear shoes with rubber sole.
5. Never wear loose clothes while working.
6. Use FUSE WIRE/MCB of proper rating only.
7. Make sure that electrical connections are right &tight.
8. Circuit should be SWITCHED-OFF before changing any connection.
9. Use sufficiently long wires, rather joining two or three small ones. In
this case you have open joints which are DANGEROUS.
10. Familiarize yourself with the shock chart instructions.

GENERAL PRECAUTIONS

Following general precautions must be observed while doing any experiment in

the laboratory.

1. Note down complete specifications of machines & equipment to be used.

Ranges of all instruments to be used in the experiment are to be decided
in accordance with the specifications noted.
2. Suitable types of wires should be used for different parts of circuits e.g:
Flexible wires for connecting Voltmeter & Pressure Coil (Current is
negligible).

3
 3. Never apply full voltage to a motor at the time of starting. Use starter or a
variac. Apply a low voltage while by switching-on & increase voltage
gradually.
4. Gradually apply & switch-off an Electrical Load.
5. Keep all meters/instruments used for experiment in their proper position.
6. Any live terminal shouldn’t be touched while supply is on.
7. Supply should be switched-ononlyafter ensuring the correctness of
connections.

TREATMENT OF ELECTRIC SHOCK VICTIM

1. Immediately switch-off the power supply.

2. If switch is away or it is difficult to identify switch, pull out the plug top.
3. Pull the victim away using dry wooden stick, dry rope or dry cloth.
4. Make sure that electrical connections are right & tight.
5. Circuit should be SWITCHED-OFF before changing any connection.
6. Use sufficiently long wires, rather joining two or three small ones. In this
case you have open joints which are DANGEROUS.
7. Familiarize yourself with the shock chart instructions.
8. You can also pull away the victim by hand provided you are wellinsulated
from the ground (Standing on insulator or wearing rubber soled shoes)
9. Cut the conductor using some device/tool with insulated handle.
10.Once the Victim is disconnected from supply, he should be treated for
recovery as soon as possible. Any one of the Three Methods of Artificial
Respiration can be used.

Mouth to Mouth Artificial Respiration

Following steps should be followed for this process

1. Lay the victim on the back with his head slightly down, so that his chin
points upwards.
2. To allow proper breathing clear victim’s neck from clothing etc.
3. Take a deep breath and blow it into the victim’s mouth until his chest rises.
4. Keep victim’s noses pinching with your thumb and fore finger. Remove
your mouth to allow victim to exhale.

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 5. Repeat this process as fast as you can.

Schafer’s Method for Artificial Respiration

Steps to be followed for this process are:

1. Lay the victim on the stomach with his face on one side.
2. To allow proper breathing clear victim’s neck from clothing etc.
3. Kneel over the victim (refer fig.a)
4. Place your both hands flat on his back in such a manner that both of your
thumbs nearly touch each other and fingers spread.
5. Lean forward over the victim gradually keeping your elbow straight.

5
 6. While doing so put your weight on victim for a moment (refer fig.b)
7. Slowly release the pressure & come to the original position.
8. Repeat process 15 times per minute.
9. Method not to be used if victim has received burns on stomach.

Silvesters’s Method for Artificial Respiration

Steps to be followed for this process are:

(b).

1. Lay victim on his back as shown in figure 2a.

2. To allow proper breathing clear victim’s neck from clothing etc.
3. Place a pillow below his shoulder so that his head falls backwards.
4. Using handkerchief draw out the tongue of victim.
5. Next, take the position as shown in fig. 2a.
6. Stretch the arms of the victims by holding thembelow the elbows.

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7. Keep arms in position for 2-3 seconds.
8. Then bring the arms on each side of chest, so as to compress the chest
(figure 2b.)
9. Keep position for 2-3 seconds.
10. Repeat the process until the victim starts breathing normal.
11. Method useful when victim cannot conveniently lie on his stomach.

SUPPLY SYSTEMS

Available Supply Systems

(a) A.C. Supply systems.

These are two types mainly:

(i) Single Phase – 230 volts: Inthis system we have two wires, one is known as
Phase/line& the other are known as neutral.

(ii) Three Phase – 430 Volt (line to line)

1. This system may have three wires, one for each phase/line.
2. This system may also have four wires, three for phase/line & one for
neutral.
(b) D.C. Supply Systems

These are of two types namely,

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(i) From Battery – 6V or 12V :
1. We may use rectifiers for 6V or 12V d.c. supply for lower current
requirements if regular 6V or 12V supply is not available in laboratory.
2. This system has two wires, one being +ve &other -ve.

(ii) From D.C. Generator (or A.C. & Rectifier)

1. It is 230 volts d.c.
2. It has two wires one being +ve & other being –ve.

Fig. Supply from a D.C. Generator

Systems to Obtain Variable Voltage Supply from the Available Supply

System.

(a) D.C. Circuit: It consists of a tubular resistance having three terminals.

The two end terminals A and B are fixed and represent the two ends of
a resistance. The third terminal C is a moving contact which slides over
AB. The fixed D.C. voltage is applied across AB and a variable D.C.
voltage across CB where C is positive and B is negative is obtained.
When the sliding contact C is at B and A, the D.C. voltage is zero and
equal to supply voltage respectively.

Fig. Obtaining a variable supply from a D. C. source

(b) A.C. Circuit:Here we can get A.C. voltage by replacing a rheostat by

auto-transformer, also known as Variac/Dimmerstat. It is a coil wound on a
8
 magnetic core with its two ends A and B brought out and sliding contact C.
It is capable of providing variable output voltage ranging from 0 to 1.15 of
the full input voltage.

Fig. Obtaining a variable supply from a A. C. source

(c) Three Phase Circuit: If three single phase Variacs are connected in Star-
form, it is called as three phase Variac. When the tapping points are all near the
neutral the voltage is small whereas if they are near the line terminals the output
voltage is large. Any one limb can be used as a single phase Variac.

Fig. Obtaining a variable supply from a three phase A. C. source

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RHEOSTAT

The salient features of a rheostat are:

(a) Made up of high resistivity materials like nickel-chromium-iron alloy

closely wound over a circular tube.
(b) Available in single and double tube.
(c) Inter turn insulation is provided to avoid short circuiting of the turns.
(d) These are employed at places where resistance of a circuit is to be varied
without breaking the circuit.
(e) Normally it is 1000 Ω, 1.2 A and 100Ω, 5 A.

Fig. Using rheostat as a variable resistance

Fig. Using rheostat as a potential divider

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PLOTTING A GRAPH

Some important points to be kept in mind while drawing the graphs are:

(a) Graphs are drawn to provide a visual of relationship between two quantities.
Some important points to be kept in mind are:
(b) Parameter which is independent is taken on x-axis.
(c) Parameter which is dependent is taken on y-axis.
(d) Scales should be selected in such a way that graph appears to be a square
graph.
(e) Curve drawn should be smooth while joining the points.
(f) The points plotted should be marked by small circles,triangles or squares.

REPORT WRITING

1. It is extremely important to write concisely and completely a report on the

experiments conducted in the laboratory.
2. These records would prove to be very helpful to students in
conceptualizing the knowledge.
3. If the experimental results don’t agree with the theoretical results, the
student has an opportunity to discuss the reason for this difference.

FORMAT SUGGESTED FOR REPORT WRITING:

1. OBJECT OF THE EXPERIMENT:This clearly states the list of test to

be performed. Whether the results are desired in graph form or numerical
value should also be mentioned.
2. LIST OF APPARATUS:This should be complete in all respect. The main
apparatus, machine or equipment along with the complete specifications is
to be written.
3. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:It forms an essential and integral part of the
report. It should include the range and type of instruments used. The type
of supply, the voltage and frequency of supply should be marked on it. Use
circle master for drawing circles. Choose a proper size of circle and be
consistent with it through-out the lab file.

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4. THEORY:This should include brief theoretical background such as
statements of laws, definitions, mathematical expressions and the phasor
diagrams regarding the experiment.
5. PROCEDURE: It’s like an algorithm and should be written step wise put
in proper sequence.
6. OBSERVATIONS: It should be recorded in tabular form.
7. CALCULATIONS: Present the result of the calculations in tabular form
and details of one sample calculation can be shown.
8. GRAPHS: The graph paper used for making any graph should be cut to
the size of the journal page.
9. PRECAUTIONS: The steps to be taken to avoid errors in results are
actually termed as precautions. Important precautions should be mentioned
in the report.
10. SOURCES OF ERROR: Here, in this section, the probable sources of
error may be environmental, instrumental or personal should be reported.
11.DISCUSSION: This section contains, results, conclusions, comparison of
the results and anything important about the aim of the experiment and the
apparatus used can be mentioned here.

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 EXPERIMENT No. 1.

OBJECT: To Verify Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

APPARATUS: Variac for a.c. supply,230/0-270V,5A;two rheostats 100 Ω, 5

A;two voltmeter 0-300 V; M.I. ammeterone 0-10 A.

THEORY:

For d.c. network the maximum power transfer theorem is stated as follows.

In a d.c. network the power transferred from the source to resistive load is
maximum if the load resistance equals the Thevenin's equivalent resistance of the
network as seen from the load terminals.

For a.c. network the maximum power transfer theorem is stated as follows.

The power transferred from source to load is the maximum if load impedance is
complex conjugate of the Thevenin equivalent impedance of the network as
seenfrom load terminals.

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 Fig. Circuit for verification of maximum power transfer theorem.

PROCEDURE

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.

2. Keep the variable point of rheostat RL at maximum position.
3. Adjust the variable point of rheostat RL at some suitable position. By suitable
position it is meant that the reading in the ammeter should neither be near
maximum nor near zero.
4. Vary RL and note the voltmeter and ammeter readings till RL reaches a low
value.
5. Repeat the steps 2, 3 and 4 with a different position of rheostat Rs.

OBSERVATIONS

Record the observations in the format given below.

Observations Calculations
S.No. VL VS IL RS=VS/IL RL=VL/IL P=VL.IL
1.
2.
.
.
.
10

CALCULATIONS

The values of RS and RL can be calculated by using the following equations.

R S = VS / I L

RL = VL / IL

The power consumed by the load i.e., power delivered by the network shown by
dotted lines to the load is given by

P= VL.IL

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RESULTS

From the last column of the Table the value of R L for which power, P is
maximum should be chosen and compared to the value of R S .These should come
out to be same. Then the maximum power transfer theorem stands verified.

PRECAUTIONS

Following precautions must be observed while performing this experiment:

1. All connections should be tight.

2. The connections of the rheostat should be made carefully and correctly.
3. The positions of the variable terminals of the rheostats should be selected so
that the ammeter reading should not exceed the rheostat current rating.
4. The value of RS shouldn't change for a fixed position of variable terminal of
the rheostat representing RS.

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS

Q.1. In this experiment if the value of R S=5Ω,will the maximum power be

transferred exactly at RL=5 Ω or some other value?

The maximum power transfer will take place at a value of R Lwhich is slightly
higher than the value of RS because of the source resistance. This means if the
value of source resistance is 1 Ω, then the maximum power transfer will take
place at RL=6 Ω

Q.2. An a.c. circuit has Thevenin's equivalent impedance of (20+j10) ohm

at certain frequency.At what value of load impedance will the power
transfer to the load be maximum?

In a.c. circuits the condition of maximum power transfer is that the load
impedance should be complex conjugate of the Thevenin's impedance. Therefore,
for situation given in this question the load impedance should be (20- j10) ohm
for power transfer to the load to be maximum.

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Q.3. Is it always possible to operate at maximum power transfer condition?

No, it is not always possible to operate at maximum power transfer conditions. In

the circuits where the Thevenin's impedance is very low, the load impedance has
also to be very low for achieving the condition of maximum power transfer. If the
load impedance is also made low, the current flow may be undesirably high. It is
because of this reason that it is not always possible to operate under the
conditions of maximum power transfer.

4. Is it always advisable to operate at maximum power transfer conditions?

No, it is not always advisable to operate at maximum power transfer conditions.

Particularly in case of power equipment, where efficiency consideration is very
important, it is not preferred to operate at maximum power transfer conditions. It
is because;the efficiency under maximum power transfer is 50%.

5.Under what conditions it is advisable to operate at maximum power

transfer conditions?

Operation at maximum power transfer conditions is desirable when the output

power requirement is most important e.g., electronic equipment and starting of a
car engine.

6. What characteristics an electric circuit exhibits under maximum power

transfer conditions?

The load voltage under the condition of maximum power transfer is one-half of
the no load voltage. This means a very poor voltage regulation. The efficiency
under maximum power transfer conditions is 50%.

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 EXPERIMENT No. 2.

OBJECT: To Verify Thevenin's Theorem

APPARATUS: One MI (0-250 V) voltmeter, one MI (0-2.5 A) ammeter,

rheostats (100 W, 5 A) 4 nos.

THEORY: Thevenin’s Theorem

Any two terminals XY of a network composed of active and linear passive

elements may be replaced by a simple equivalent circuit consisting of an
equivalent voltage source Voc in series with an equivalent resistance Rth. The
voltage source Voc is equal to the potential difference between the two terminals
XY caused by the active network when no external resistance is connected to the
terminals. The Rth is calculated by looking back into the network at terminals XY
with all the sources within the network made inactive. When a load of resistance
RL is connected across XY, the actual current ILthrough circuit is given by

IL= Voc/ (RL+ Rth )

PROCEDURE

The experiment is performed in the following steps,

1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig. 1below.

2. Switch on the power supply, the switch S is closed and note down the reading
of ammeter and voltmeter. This gives load current IL .
3. Next open the switch S and note down the reading of the voltmeter. This gives
open circuit voltage VOC.
4. Next connect the circuit as shown in fig.2 below and note the readings of
voltmeter and ammeter. (This will help to calculate Rth.).

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 Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

OBSERVATIONS

The observations made in the experiment are recorded as under

VOC = ; IL =

Rth=V/I in step 4 of the procedure.

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CALCULATIONS

Now, the value of load current can be calculated as :

ILC = calculated value of IL

ILC = VOC /(RL+Rth)

The value of RL can be calculated using the voltmeter and ammeter readings
taken in step 2 of the procedure.

RESULTS

The actual value of current IL and the calculated value of load current ILC using
Thevenin's theorem should agree. Then the Thevenin's theorem stands verified.

PRECAUTIONS

1. All connections should be tight.

2. The rheostats should be set at suitable positions so that the current in the
ammeter is less than the rheostat current ratings. This value of current should also
be readable i.e., it should not be near zero.
3. Before connecting the instruments check their zero settings.
4. The terminals of the rheostats should be connected properly.
5. At no instant of time the current in ammeter should exceed the current rating of
rheostat.

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS

1. What do you mean by open circuit voltage?

Open circuit voltage is the voltage across terminals XY when the terminals XY
are open, so that the current into the XY terminals is zero.

2. Why do we use network theorems and techniques to solve electrical

circuits?

Network theorems are used to solve electrical circuits because of following

advantages:

i. A complicated network can be reduced to its simplest form.

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 ii. The analytical solution of network is highly simplified.

iii. Many times it is not required to know currents in all the branches of a
network. Rather, we are interested only in current through a particular branch or
voltage across a particular branch only. In such cases solving the network using
Kirchhoff's laws is a time consuming process. For such situations network
theorems are used to an advantages.

3. What is Norton's theorem?

Norton's theorem states that a two terminal network can be replaced by an

equivalent circuit of a constant-current source in parallel with a resistance. The
value of the constant-current source is the short circuit current developed when
the terminals of the original network are short circuited.

The parallel resistance is the resistance looking back into the original network
with all the sources within the network made inactive(as in Thevenin's theorem).

4. What is the difference between Thevenin's theorem and Norton's

theorem?

It can be easily realized that Thevenin's theorem and Norton's theorem are one
and the same thing. Let us assume that the network under consideration is a
“black box”.

The black box contains active sources and a complex network of circuit
components. If we measure the terminal voltage, we obtain the open-circuit
voltage Voc.If we short circuit the terminals and measure the current, we get the
short circuit current ISC .

5. Given the Thevenin's equivalent of an electrical circuit, how will you

determine its Norton's equivalent?

Let the Thevenin's equivalent be given as:

20
Then the Norton's equivalent would be

21
In the previous figure (the one showing Norton's equivalent)

We have,

IS = Voc/Rth

Similarly, if Norton's equivalent is given, Thevenin's equivalent can be found out

using the following relation.

VOC = IS.Rth

6. What are the limitations of Thevenin's theorem?

i. Not applicable to circuits consisting of non-linear elements.

ii. Not applicable to unilateral networks.

iii. There should not be any magnetic coupling between the load and circuit to
be replaced by Thevenin's theorem.
iv. In the load side, there should not be controlledsources controlled from
some other part of the circuit. If it is so, procedure to be followed is
different.

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 EXPERIMENT No. 3.

OBJECT: To Measure Power And Power Factor in A Single Phase A.C.

Circuit Using Three Voltmeters.

APPARATUS: Voltmeter 0-300V, MI; 3no’s; Ammeter 0-10A, MI; Single

phase load, Rheostat 5A, 100 ohm; Variac 5A, 250V/0-270V

The circuit is as shown below:

THEORY

The voltages V1, V2 and V3 are noted with the help of a single voltmeter and a
pair of probes. Now, we can draw the phasor diagram for this circuit. Since it is a
series circuit, the current I should be taken as reference phasor.

The phasor diagram is given below:

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From the phasor diagram we can write

V32=V12+V22+2V1V2cos ɸ

The power factor of the coil cosɸ

Cos ɸ= (V32-V12-V22 )/(2V1V2)

The power consumed by the coil

P=V2Icos ɸ = {(V2V1)/R} (cos ɸ)

PROCEDURE

This experiment can be performed in the following steps

1. The circuit is connected as shown.

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2. Keep the rheostat at maximum position and variac at its minimum
position.
3. Switch on A.C. supply.
4. Increase the variac position gradually, so that some appreciable reading
appears in the ammeter.
5. Note down the ammeter reading and the three voltages V 1, V2 and V3
using a single voltmeter and a pair of probes.
6. Change the setting of rheostat and repeat step 5 for a number of times.

OBSERVATION

Record the observation in the format shown below.

Observations Calculations
S.No. I(amp.) V1(volts) V2(volts) V3(volts) Power(w) cos ɸ
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

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CALCULATIONS

Calculate the value of power consumed P and the value of the power factor for
each set of observations.

PRECAUTIONS

1. All connections should be tight.

2. The zero settings of all the instruments to be used in the experiment should
be checked before connecting them in circuit.
3. The current through ammeter should not be allowed to exceed the current
rating of rheostat or load.

TUTORIALQUESTIONS

1. Why should we use the three voltmeter method when an easier method
is available (using wattmeter)?

If wattmeter is not available, this method can be used. We need to measure power
in single-phase A.C. circuits at places where wattmeter is not available.
Wattmeter being a costlier instrument, the three voltmeter method is also
cheaper.

2. Under what condition the apparent power and real power are equal?

If an a.c. circuit is purely resistive, the real power equals apparent power.

3. How can you minimize the error in three voltmeter method for
measurement of power in a single-phase a.c. circuit?

We can use a single voltmeter and a pair of probes for measuring three voltages
instead of three voltmeters in order to reduce the error.

4. Why current is taken as the reference in the phasor diagram with respect
to this experiment?

The given circuit being a series circuit, current is common to all the components.

Similarly in case of parallel circuits voltage should be taken as the reference

phasor.
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 EXPERIMENT No. 4.

OBJECT: To Perform Open Circuit and Short-Circuit Tests On A Single –

Phase Transformer and Calculate Its Equivalent Circuit Parameters. Find
the Efficiency at Various Loads. Draw Efficiency Vs. Load Curve, Find out
the Load at Which the Efficiency is Maximum. Calculate the Voltage
Regulation at Full Load at Power Factor

I. 0.85 Lagging

Ii. 0.85 Leading

APPARATUS REQUIRED: One variac,230V/0-270V, 20A; One wattmeter

2.5A,250V; One wattmeter 20A,75V; One MI ammeter 2A; One MI ammeter
20A; One MI voltmeter 50V; One voltmeter MI 250V.

THEORY

We can write Kirchhoff’s voltage equation for the primary and secondary side of
the transformer as

V1 = I1(R1+Jx1)-E1

E2 = I2(R2+JX2)+V2

The equivalent circuit gives the interpretation of the above equation

27
Simplified equivalent circuit:

Using the impedance transformation, one can draw the simplified equivalent
circuit of a transformer, as referred to the primary or the secondary.

Here K=N1/N2 is the transformation ratio or turns ratio. Thus, the total resistance
and the total reactance as referred to the primary becomes

R01 = R1 + K2R2

X01 = X1 + K2X2

Simplified equivalent circuit of the transformer as referred to the primary is given

below:

OPEN CIRCUIT TEST:

This test is performed to measure iron losses. The no-load current I0, the iron
losses W0 are measured. From these, R0 and X0 parameters of the equivalent
circuit can be calculated. Generally HT side is kept open-circuited and the rated
voltage is applied to the LT winding.

28
 Circuit for Open Circuit Test
The readings of voltmeter and ammeter are noted.

Let W0,V0 and I0 be their readings.

The iron losses: Pi=W0

The various parameters Iw,Im,R0 and X0 can be calculated as under:

Iw = W0/V0

Im2 = (I02 - Iw2)

R0 = V0/Iw

X0 = V0/Im

SHORT CIRCUIT TEST:

This test is carried out to determine the equivalent resistance and the leakage
reactance of the transformer.

29
Let the various readings be WSC,VSC, and ISC

Then

R = WSC/ISC2

Z = VSC/ISC

X2= Z2-R2
………………..

Efficiency:

P0=VI cos ɸ

 Ƞ = P0/(P0+W0+Wsc)

For any other load say, the current changes by a factor of x, then the copper loss
will be changed by a factor x2.

Then,

Ƞx= xP0/(xP0+W0+x2Wsc)

Condition For Efficiency To Be Maximum:

Iron loss = Copper loss

30
 W0=Xm2Wsc

Voltage Regulation ofa Transformer:

If E is the no-load terminal voltage and V is the full-load terminal voltage, then

% Regulation = [(E-V)/ (V)] X100

PROCEDURE:

The procedures for conducting both the tests mentioned above are given below:

Open Circuit Test:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.

2. Before switching on the supply, ensure that the variac is at a low output
voltage. Now, switch on the supply.
3. Adjust the variac output voltage to the rated voltage of the transformer.
4. Record no-load current, voltage applied and no-load power from this set-
up and switch off the supply.

Short Circuit Test:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.

2. Before switching on the supply, ensure that the variac is at zero value.
Now, switch on the supply.
3. Increase the voltage applied slowly, so that the current flowing in the
transformer winding equals the rated value.
4. Record load current, voltage applied and power from this set-up and switch
off the supply.

OBSERVATIONSANDCALCULATIONS

Observation for open-circuit test:

Voltage applied = V0

No Load current = I0

Power consumed = W0
31
Observation for short-circuit test:

Voltage applied = Vsc

Current = Isc

Power = Wsc

The calculations are done using the formulae explained under theory. The
calculation of efficiency at various loads should be recorded in the following
form:

PRECAUTIONS

1. All connections should be tight and clean.

2. Special care should be taken while selecting the range of the meters for
conducting this experiment.
3. For short circuit test, the voltage applied should be initially set at zero and
then increased slowly. If a little higher voltage than the required voltage be
applied, there is a danger of transformer being damaged.

TUTORIALQUESTIONS

Q.1. What do you expect to happen, if full rated voltage is applied to a

transformer under short circuit test?

A heavy current will flow through the transformer. First of all the fuse of the
supply should blow off. If that does not happen, transformer will get overheated,
insulation will burn and fumes will come out of the transformer.

Q.2. How do the copper losses vary with load on the transformer?

Copper losses in a transformer depend upon the square of the current flowing in
the windings. This means if the current doubles, the copper loss will become four
times.

32
Q.3. Which parameters of the equivalent circuit of a transformer can be
found through short-circuit test?

We can calculate the resistance and leakage reactance of both the windings as
referred to one of the windings of the transformer.

Q.4. What is the magnitude of no load current as compared to full load

current?

The magnitude of no-load current is about 5% of the full load current.

33
 EXPERIMENT No. 5.

OBJECT: To Verify The Relation Between Line Voltage And Phase

Voltage, Line Current And Phase Current In Three Phase Load When
Connected in (A) Star (B) Delta.

APPARATUS REQUIRES: One three phase auto transformer, 400V, 50Hz;

one Voltmeter0-600V MI type; one Voltmeter0-300V MI type; two ammeters 0-
5A MI type; Three phase load – star and delta connected (a pair of bulbs
used in each of three branches i.e. 6 bulbs were used.); Connecting wires.

THEORY

Star Connection:

In a star connection, the potential difference between any line and the neutral
gives the phase voltage (VP) whereas across any two lines gives line voltage
(VL).At no instant the three currents IR,IY and IB flow in the same direction.

We have,

IR+IY+IB=0

IL(line current)=IP(phase current)

VL=√3 VP

Delta Connection:

In a delta connection, we have,

VL(line voltage)=VP(phase voltage)

IL=√3 IP

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
34
PROCEDURE:

1. The circuit is connected as shown in the diagram (One by one).

2. Vary a.c. supply voltage and note down the reading of voltmeter (star) and
reading of ammeter (delta).

OBSERVATIONTABLE

35
 For star connection:

S.No. Line Phase Theoretical Line % Error in

Voltage Voltage Voltage = √3 VP VL
VL(Volts) VP(Volts) (Volts)
1.
2.
.
.
10
For delta connection:

S.No Line Phase Theoretical Line % Error in

. CurrentIL(Amps) currentIP current = √3 IP IL
(Amps) (Amps)
1.
2.
.
.
10

PRECAUTIONS:

1. All connections should be tight.

2. The zero settings of all the instruments to be used in the experiment should be
checked before connecting them in circuit.

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS:

Q.1. Why two bulbs have been used in each branch of the load?

The bulbs used have been rated at 230V, 100W each. The voltage in three phase
supply is 440 V. This means, if only one blub is used in each branch, the bulb
will blow off. For this reason two bulbs in series have been used.

36
Q.2. What are the advantages of three phase supply over single phase
supply?

The advantages of three phase supply over single phase supply are given below:

1. The conductor material used in a three phase system is much less as

compared to that used in a single phase system.
2. There is only one return conductor used and is called neutral. Earth
can also be used as return conductor in case of three phase supply.
This will further save the conductor material.
3. The return conductor used is of comparatively smaller size, because
the phasor sum of current in all phases is zero.
4. For a given frame size, a three phase machine gives higher output
than a single phase machine.
5. The power in a single phase circuit is pulsating at twice the supply
frequency whereas in three phase system the sum of instantaneous
powers is constant. For this reason three phase motors develop a
uniform torque whereas a single phase motor develops a pulsating
torque.
6. Single phase motors are not self-starting, but a three phase motor is
self-starting.
7. Power factor of three motor is higher than that of single phase
motor.
8. Efficiency of three motor is higher than that of single phase motor.
9. Three phase system is more reliable.
10.Parallel operation of three phase alternators is simpler as compared
to single phase alternators.
Q.3. Is the star-delta connections used in this experiment means the same
thing as is meant in case of star-delta transformation used in network
reduction methods?

No, these are two different concepts.

37
 EXPERIMENT No. 6.

OBJECT: To study a series R-L-C circuit and obtain the condition of

resonance. Draw the graphs of the following quantities versus voltage across
inductance, VL .
i) Current ii) Power factor iii) Voltage across capacitor Vc
and iv) Voltage across resistance VR.
APPARATUS: Single phase variac, 15A, 230 /0-270 V – 2nos; Rheostat 100
ohms, 5 A; Capacitor 1 kVA, 230 V, 50 Hz; Ammeter M.I. 0-5 A; Voltmeters
M.I. 0-300 V – 4 nos.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig. 1 Circuit Diagram

THEORY:

A series R-L-C circuit is shown in Fig.2. Writing Kirchhoff’s voltage law

equations we get

38
 V = VR + VL + VC = IR + I (jωL) + I ( 1/jωC)

1 1
¿ I [ R + j ωL + ] = I [ R + j{ ωL - ω C }] = IZ
jω C

Here Z is the complex impedance which can be written as

1
1 2 {ωL− }
Z = R + j{ ωL - ω C } = R2 +{ωL− 1 } ∠ tan−1 ωC
ωC √
The current I through the circuit can be written as
R

1
{ωL− }
V ∠0ᵒ ωC
I =I ∠ θ= ∠−tan −1
1 2 R
√ 2
R +{ωL−
ωC
}

Where,
V 1
{ωL− }
I= 1 2
and ωC
√ R 2+{ωL−
ωC
} θ=−tan −1
R

In a series R-L-C circuit, one cannot definitely say whether the current leads
1
or lags the voltage. It depends upon the relative values of terms ωL and ω C .
There can be three possibilities:
1 1 1
(a) ωL > ω C , (b) ωL < ω C and (c) ωL = ω C .

1
In case (a), when ωL > ω C , the angle θ is negative. It means that the current
lags the voltage. So, the circuit behaves as an inductive circuit. This condition
can be achieved by increasing L, ω or C.

39
 1
In case (b), when ωL < ω C , the angle θ is positive. It means that the current
leads the voltage. So, the circuit behaves as a capacitive circuit. This condition
can be achieved by decreasing L, ω or C.
1
Case (c) is a special case, when ωL = ω C , the angle θ becomes zero. The
circuit then behaves as a purely resistive circuit. The current through the
circuit becomes in phase with the source voltage. This condition is known as
the resonance.

PHASOR DIAGRAM

Fig. 3 shows the phasor diagrams for the series R-L-C circuit for three
different cases. Since it is a series circuit, current should be taken as reference
phasor. In this figure, ab represents the current phasor I. We know that the
voltage across the resistor is in phase with the current through it. Let ac along
ab represents the voltage across the resistor R. Starting from the point c, a
phasor cd is drawn to represent the voltage across inductor (I.XL). Obviously
cd leads ab by 90ᵒ . Phasor ce is drawn at 90ᵒ lagging ab. It represents the
voltage drop across the capacitor (I.XC). The directions of cd and ce happen to
be opposite. The resultant of cd and ce is represented by cf. This phasor cf is
positive in case (a), negative in case (b) and zero in case (c). Lastly, phasor af
represents the resultant voltage across the source voltage.

40
 Fig. 3 Phasor Diagrams

PROCEDURE

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 1. A variac is used as variable

inductance.
2. Set the variable point of the rheostat to a value of about 20 Ω.
3. Set the variable inductance to its minimum value.
4. Set the variac to zero value.
5. Switch on the AC supply
6. Set the variac to a suitable value so that readings in all the meters are
readable (say about 100 V).
7. Note down the readings of all the meters.
8. Keep the position of rheostat and variac fixed. Change the value of
inductance in steps and note down the readings of all the meters.
9. Take about 12 readings.
10.One reading for the condition that voltages across inductance and
capacitance are exactly equal. This signifies the condition of resonance.
11.Record the observations as shown in the following table.
12.Make the calculations for various quantities as shown in the table 2.
13.Draw the various graphs on the same axis.

Table 1: Observations for series R-L-C circuit.

S.No. V I VR VL VC
1.
2.
.
.
12

Table 2: Calculations for series R-L-C circuit.

41
S.No. VR VL VC V tanθ θ cos θ
R= X L= XC= Z=
I I I I V L −V C
= V
R

1.
2.
.
.
12

Fig. 4 Graphs

PRECAUTIONS

Following precautions should be taken care of while performing this

experiment.

1. All connections should be tight.

2. Meters used should of proper range.
3. Before connecting the meters in the circuit, check their zero settings.
4. The current should not increase the safe limit at any time during the
experiment.
5. A variac is being used as inductance in this experiment. The output
terminals are used for this purpose. The input terminals remain open
during experiment. A sufficient voltage may appear across the input

42
 terminals. While doing the experiments, if you happen to touch these
terminals you may get a shock. Therefore, it is advisable to put insulating
tape on the input terminals of the variac.

DISCUSSIONS

The shapes of the various graphs are given in the following figure. The
important points in the condition of resonance are mentioned below.

1. VL should be equal to VC.

2. The current should be the maximum.
3. Power factor should be the maximum and unity.
4. VR should be maximum and equal to supply voltage.

If there is/are any deviation(s) from the above facts, the reason should be
explained.

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS

Q.1. What do you understand by the term power factor in reference to

a.c. circuits?

Power factor of an a.c. circuit can be defined as cosine of the phase angle
between voltage applied and current flowing. Alternatively, it is also defined as
the ratio between real power and apparent power, in an a.c. circuit.

Apparent power = VI

Real power = VI cosɸ

Power factor = cosɸ = (Real power)/(Apparent power)

Also, another definition,

Power factor=R/Z

Q.2. What do you mean by a lagging power factor?

When the current flowing in a.c. circuit lags behind the applied voltage,the
current is said to have a lagging power factor.This happens when the inductive
43
reactance of the circuit is more than capacitive reactance.It is associated with a
positive sign.

Q.3. What do you mean by a leading power factor?

When the current flowing in a.c. circuit leads the applied voltage,the current is
said to have a leading power factor.This happens when the inductive reactance of
the circuit is less than capacitive reactance.It is associated with a negative sign.

Q.4. Define the term resonance in reference to a.c. circuits.

Resonance fundamentally means a condition under which the applied voltage and
the current through the circuit are in phase. For a.c. circuit containing R,L and C,
when the effect of inductance counterbalances the effect of capacitance , the
circuit is said to be in resonance . Under the condition of resonance following
facts can be stated:

1. Current has maximum value.

2. Impedance of the circuit is minimum.

3. Inductive reactance equals capacitive reactance.

44
 EXPERIMENT No. 7.

OBJECT: To control one lamp from two different places using 2-way
switches as in stair-case wiring.

TOOLS REQUIRED: Screw driver (12”), plier(8”), Wire cutter & stripper,
electrician knife (6”), hand saw (12”) and line tester.

MATERIAL REQUIRED:

S.No. Material Specification

1 PVC insulated copper wire 3/20 SWG
2 2-way switch 240V, 6A
3 Bulb holder Batten type
4 Round block PVC
5 Casing-capping PVC 0.75”
6 Wooden screw 2”
7 Wooden screw ½”
8 Gang box 1-way PVC
9 Bulb 100W, 240V
10 Insulation tape PVC

Route Diagram Wiring Diagram

45
PROCEDURE: Following are the steps to carry out this experiment.

1. Make the route diagram on the wooden board by deciding proper

placement of bulb and switches.
2. Cut the casing-capping of required length.
3. Fix the casing on the route defined with the help of wooden screws.
4. Lay the wires of proper length in the casing.
5. Fix the switches on the gang boxes and bulb holder on the round block.
6. Make connections of the bulb and the switches.Fix the switches and bulb
holder on their place with the help of wooden screws.
7. Get your connections checked by the teacher and then switch ON the
supply and test the wiring.
8. Make the truth table according the relationship of input and output.

ESTIMATING AND COSTING:

S.No Material Specification Qty Rate Cost

. and type
1 PVC insulated 3/20 SWG
copper wire
2 2-way switch 240V, 6A
3 Bulb holder Batten type
4 Round block PVC
5 Casing-capping PVC 0.75”
6 Wooden screw 2”
7 Wooden screw ½”
8 Gang box 1-way PVC
9 Bulb 100W, 240V
10 Insulation tape PVC
Labour cost
Total

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Joints must not be there in the wires, if there’s any it must be covered
properly with the insulation tape.

46
2. All connections must be tight and intact.
3. All accessories must be fixed properly.
4. Get the connections checked by the Instructor / Faculty before switching
‘ON’ the supply.
5. Tools should be used with proper care and deposited back with the lab staff
after use.
6. Switch must be connected in the phase (live) wire and not in the neutral.

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS:

1. What are the precautions to be observed to prevent electrical

accidents?
Electrical accidents can be prevented by using good quality rubber sole
shoes and by ensuring that the clothes and hands are not wet.

2. Under what conditions are electric shocks fatal? What are the basic
treatments for victim of electric shock?
3. Why is it necessary to use switch in the Live wire and not in the
Neutral wire?
If we connect the switch in Neutral wire then the terminals of the
equipment are always live and possess a shock hazard.

47
 EXPERIMENT No. 8.
OBJECT: To control one lamp from two different places using 1- way
switches as in bed switch wiring.

TOOLS REQUIRED: Screw driver (12”), plier(8”), Wire cutter & stripper,
electrician’s knife (6”), hand saw (12”) and line tester.

MATERIAL REQUIRED:

S.No. Material Specification

1 PVC insulated copper wire 3/20 SWG
2 1-way switch 240V, 6A
3 Bulb holder Batten type
4 Round block PVC
5 Casing-capping PVC 0.75”
6 Wooden screw 2”
7 Wooden screw ½”
8 Gang box 1-way PVC
9 Bulb 100W, 240V
10 Insulation tape PVC

Route Diagram Wiring Diagram

48
PROCEDURE: Following are the steps to carry out this experiment.

1. Make the route diagram on the wooden board by deciding proper

placement of bulb and switches.
2. Cut the casing-capping of required length.
3. Fix the casing on the route defined with the help of wooden screws.
4. Lay the wires of proper length in the casing.
5. Fix the switches on the gang boxes and bulb holder on the round block.
6. Make connections of the bulb and the switches.Fix the switches and bulb
holder on their place with the help of wooden screws.
7. Get your connections checked by the teacher and then switch ON the
supply and test the wiring.
8. Make the truth table according the relationship of input and output.

ESTIMATING AND COSTING:

S.No Material Specification Qty Rate Cost

and type
1 PVC insulated 3/20 SWG
copper wire
2 1-way switch 240V, 6A
3 Bulb holder Batten type
4 Round block PVC
5 Casing-capping PVC 0.75”
6 Wooden screw 2”
7 Wooden screw ½”
8 Gang box 1-way PVC
9 Bulb 100W, 240V
10 Insulation tape PVC
Labour cost
Total

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Joints must not be there in the wires, if there’s any it must be covered
properly with the insulation tape.

49
 2. All connections must be tight and intact.
3. All accessories must be fixed properly.
4. Get the connections checked by the Instructor / Faculty before switching
‘ON’ the supply.
5. Tools should be used with proper care and deposited back with the lab staff
after use.
6. Switch must be connected in the phase (live) wire and not in the neutral.

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS:

1. What is the main motivation of using this type of wiring?

Convenience and safety during night is the main motive for this type of
wiring. Energy is also saved.

2. What are the different types of wires and switches available in

electrical wiring? What do you understand by “SWG”?

50