021 – Airframe and Systems (25 out of 76q en 2h00)

Airframe and Systems (25)

Fuselage
Stringers:
- assist the skin in absorbing the longitudinal traction-compression stresses
- assist the skin withstand longitudinal compressive loads
- integrate the strains due to pressurization to which the skin is subjected and convert them into a tensile stress
- provide support for the skin and to absorb some of the pressurization strain as tensile loading
DURALUMIN: aluminium-copper base; difficult to weld; good thermal conductivity.
FAIL-SAFE: parallel mounting; redundancy of components; the failure of a member causes the loads to be shared between the other system
components. Fail-safe construction is a type of construction in which the load is carried by other components if a part of the structure fails.
Fail-safe component: a component in a large aircraft which is designed so that, following its failure, the remaining structure can withstand
reasonable loads without failure until the damage is detected.
Spars: wing structures that take up the vertical bending moments Mx. Spars take the bending loads acting on the wings of a non-stressed skin
aircraft.
The shell structures: efficiently transmit the normal bending stresses; the tangent bending stresses, the torsional moment (but NOT THE
SHEAR STRESSES)
Aeroplanes designed for long distances cannot simply be used for short haul flights at higher frequencies because: the lifetime of the fatigue
sensitive parts has been based on a determined load spectrum.
Strain: deformation due to stress.
Truss type fuselage framework: used in light training aircraft mainly.
Significant torsion effects in a wing during flight can be caused by aileron deflection.
Bonding of the metallic parts of an acft:
- ensure zero voltage difference between acft components +
- keep all parts of the acft at the same potential
- Bonding is incorrect  static on the radio!
Fatigue: if a material is continually loaded and unloaded it will eventually break even though the load remains the same
Torsion is caused by two layers sliding apart and tension resists a force pulling it apart.
In a stressed wing aircraft, the bending loads acting on the wings are taken by stringers and spars.

Cockpit and cabin windows

Rain repellant: only use in heavy rain when wet.
Electric heating: protect cockpit window against [bird strike + ice formation]
- An electrically heated windscreen is manufactured from a glass and polycarbonate laminate.
- Cockpit indicators of a windscreen heating system: a green ON information light + an amber system failure light.
- The inner surface of a heated windscreen is of soft polycarbonate.

Wing
Cantilever wing: vertical loads produce a bending moment which is highest at the wing root
Spars: take up the vertical bending moments Mx; spars take the upward loads.
The wing of an aircraft in flight powered by engines located under the wing is subjected to a bending moment due to thrust and drag. The
loading on the front spar of the torsion box from the wing root to the wing tip is compression then in torsion
A wing structure consists primarily of: a front and rear spar; with ribs and stringers.
Flutter: torsion and bending
Flight wing loading can be reduced by aileron up-float and maintaining the fuel at the wing tips for as long as possible.
The torsion box of a modern aircraft wing structure consists of: spars; skin; stringers and ribs.

Stabilizing surfaces
Empennage = [Horizontal + Vertical] stabilizers
T-tail plane: to withdraw horizontal stabilizer from the influence of wing turbulence/down-wash.

Air Driven systems (piston engines only)

If the discharge valves fail closed in flight the effect will be: the cabin pressure will rise to maximum differential pressure.
Flight controls (construction and operation)
Spoilers: upper wing surface devices, their deflection is symmetrical OR asymmetrical.
Krueger flaps: are a leading edge flaps close to the wing root.
yaw damper is a rudder damper designed to AVOID DUTCH-ROLL
Differential ailerons: equalize the drag on the up going and down going wings.
Mass and Balance Calculations: even out the air loads on the control surface to assist in controllability of the surface
The advantages of fly-by wire controls are: [Weight saving] + [Improvement of piloting]
Flaperons: combined flaps & ailerons
A force gradient unit is used to add artificial feel into a hydraulically power flight control system.
Servo-mechanism: Closed loop system device in which small input  large output in a strictly proportionate manner
The elevators of a conventional airplane are used to provide rotation about the lateral axis.
Trailing edge flaps: increase lift at a lower AOA
Flaps and slats are fitted to modern aircraft to reduce take-off approach and landing speeds to an acceptable level.

Inboard ailerons
- are used only when the flaps are retracted.
- reduce wing twist at high speed Trim runaway: to reduce the probability/likelihood of trim
runaway…
Trim tab: Trim switch = 2 separate switches on the elevator trim. Both
- reduces or cancels control forces (stick holding forces) switches must be made for the trim to operate.
- reduces hinge moment AND control surface efficiency

Artificial feel unit/Q-Feel: necessary in the pitch channel when the elevators are actuated by irreversible servo-control unit.
- fitted to assist the pilot to move the controls and gives increased assistance as the speed increases
- mounted in parallel
- irreversible servo command unit
- primary control surfaces]

Non-pneumatic operated de-ice and anti-ice systems

Electrical Heating: prevent icing on small surfaces [pitot tubes + windshield + propellers]
- Pitot tubes are always provided with a heater while static points MAY also be heated
- Ice protection for propellers of modern turboprop aeroplanes works electrically
Frost: causes an increase in the surface roughness which in turn increases skin friction drag.
Power for windshield heating is usually 3 phase AC.
Windscreen heating systems usually cycle on/off to maintain a windscreen temperature between [18°C and 35°C]
The elements specifically protected against icing on transport aircraft are:
- Engine air intake and pod
- Front glass shield
- Pitot tubes and waste water exhaust masts
- Leading edge of wing
The heating facility for the windshield of an aircraft is used on a continual basis as it reduces the thermal gradients which adversely affect the
useful life of the components.

Landing gear
Auto brakes are disengaged by the pilot.
Brakes: Large acft  multi-disk brakes ; main source of power acft hydraulic system
Hydraulic System: origin of the pressure for braking  the main hydraulic system.
Hydroplaning  friction factor=0
Overheat/fire warning are provided in the wheel/undercarriage bay.
The ABS AutoBrakeSystem is being disconnected after landing by pilot action.
Damping: Nitrogen + viscous liquid. Oleo-pneumatic strut  oildamping function ; nitrogen  spring function

Shimmy: A possibly damaging vibration of the nose-wheel LDG gear during taxiing - sinusoidal motion on the ground.
- Shimmy is overcome by the torque link (prevents rotation of the landing gear piston in the oleo-strut)
Torque-link: [or Scissor / Torsion link] fights shimmy - Found on LDG gears.
- Most stressed when taxiing, when making tight turns, small turning radius AND during cross wind landing
- Prevents rotation of the oleo strut in the undercarriage shock absorber; of the piston rod relative to the gear oleo strut; the
LDGgear piston in the oleo strut.
Anti-skid: reduces brake pressure to slower turning wheels
 - Landing gear skids are normally manufactured from aluminium alloy.
- To prevent excessive wear on LDGgear skids, steel shoes can be fitted to the aluminium skids
 Modern anti-skid processes are based on the use of a computer whose input data is:
o Idle wheel speed (measured)
o Braked wheel speed (measured)
o Desired idle wheel train slipping rate
Thermal fuse/ Thermal plug: hollow bolt in wheel rim which melts at a given T° to deflate the tire before tire-burst.
- protect the tire against explosion due to excessive temperature
- prevents tire burst: fitted to wheels to release air from the tire in case of overheating.
Tires:
- Acft LDG gear Tire under-inflated?  Wear at the shoulders.
- A new tire with wear on the tread (or on profile grooves) and parallel grooves can be repaired several times.
- Tire “creep” may be described as the circumferential movement of the tire in relation to the wheel flange.
tube-less tire: A tube-less tyre:
- Lower risk of bursting - Requires solid or branched wheels
- Better adjustment to wheels - Does not burst in the event of a tire puncture
- No built in air tube - Eliminates internal friction between the tube and the
- A radial side casing tire

Locking of landing gear (in up or down positions):

- By the over-centre mechanisms: LDG gear locked down when the strut is locked by an overcentre mechanism.
- On the GROUND, a latch on/in the LDG gear lever prevents accidental retraction: an electrical control system routed through the
weight on wheels switch.
Landing gear (+ lights…):
- GREEN LDG gear light (3 lights when LDG gear selected down) LDG gear LOCKED DOWN
- RED / AMBER light  at least one wheel is in the travelling or unlocked condition
- The LDG gear can be extended mechanically (gravity extension) if there is a complete hydraulic failure.
- VLE is the maximum flight speed with landing gear down.
- VLO is the maximum speed at which the landing gear can be operated with full safety.
- The two main types of landing gear used on modern aircraft: telescopic & sprung leg.
- LDG gear operating system is usually hydraulically driven.
Emergency extension of landing systems may comprise:
- Compressed nitrogen; Auxiliary hydraulic system ; freefall
Accumulator: Hydraulic brake system failure: supply a limited amount of brake back-up energy.
- The accumulator gauge reads the “BIG” hydraulic system pressure, NOT the pre-charged accumulator pressure.
- In a HP brake hydraulic system: a separate handbrake system is always fitted together with its own accumulator and its own system
components.
-

1 cantilever

2 Fork

3 Half-fork

4 Dual wheels
Hydraulics
Ram Air Turbine (RAT) drives a hydraulic pump for flight controls in case of failure of the engine driven system.
Hydraulic power is a function of System Pressure and tank capacity.
The low pressure switch of a hydraulic circuit sets off an alarm if the pump output pressure is insufficient.
For an aeroplane hydraulic supply circuit, the security components comprise the filters, the pressure relief valves, the by-passes and the fire
shut-off valve.
The aircraft hydraulic system is designed to produce high pressure and large flow.
Tanks of a hydraulic system (Hydraulic reservoirs) are pressurized by bleed air coming from the turbine-engine.
A pressure regulator is used in a hydraulic system in conjunction with a constant delivery type pump.
Axial piston pumps are often used in hydraulic systems due to their ability to produce high pressure when required but can be off loaded to
reduce power consumption.
Should a hydraulic pump seize during operation, the quill drive will shear to offload and protect the gearbox.
If a hydraulic pump switch-light ‘low’ caption illuminates, the cause is assumed to be pump output pressure low.

Hydraulic pressure typically used in the system of large transport aircraft is 3000-4000psi.
The normal pressure in a main hydraulic system is 3000psi.

Cavitation: In a hydraulic system, the reservoir (hydraulic oil entering the hydraulic pump) is pressurized in order to prevent pump cavitation
(cavitation in the pump).
Overheat detector: installed at the hydraulic pumps. But the temperature of hydraulic fluid is measured in the reservoir
Leakage / Hydraulic fuse: Internal leakage  increased fluid temperature
- Hydraulic fuse: prevents leakage if the hydraulic line brakes, prevents total system loss in case of a leaking hydraulic line, and
prevents loss of system fluid if the pipeline to a brake unit should rupture.
Hydraulic fluid levels:
- The level in a hydraulic reservoir will fluctuate with jack displacement and accumulator pressure.
- When powering up a hydraulic system, the level in the reservoir will decrease slightly (and then fluctuates)
- The viscosity of a hydraulic fluid should be the lowest to minimize power consumption and resistance to flow.

Hydraulic Fluids: PURPLE + SYNTHETIC + IRRITATING TO EYES + SKIN

- In a modern aircraft, phosphate ester based hydraulic fluid is used.
- The type of hydraulic fluid which has the highest resistance against cavitation is synthetic fluid.
- Viscosity is the tendency of a liquid or gas to resist flow.
 Thermal stability ; Low emulsifying characteristics ; Corrosion resistance ; Good resistance to combustion

VALVES:
High pressure relief valve: To allow for failure of the normal method of system pressure limiting control
Shuttle valve: [most appropriate of 2 sources of pressure  one unit]. In hydraulic system, a shuttle valve enables an alternate system
to operate the same actuators in case of normal system failure
Selector valve communicates system pressure to either side of an actuator. [1 source  2 directions]
Check Valve: [the “diode” – the “one way check valve”- the “non return check/valve” is a hydraulic device
Automatic cut-out valve: is used in a fixed volume pressure control system

Filters:
- Filters in hydraulic systems often incorporate pop out indicators to warn of an impending by-pass situation.
- Filtration in a hydraulic system is usually ensured by filters in both the pressure and return lines.

Accumulators: stores fluid under pressure & damps pressure surges in the system, stores pressure.
- The indicated pressure is the “Big number”, never the “accumulator pressure”.

Jack/Actuator: converts hydraulic pressure into linear motion.

- A single action actuator is powered in one direction only by hydraulic power, the return movement being under spring force
 Good picture: b

In the typical hydraulic system represented in the graphic, assuming hydraulic pressure throughout and no internal leakage: is lock !

Air Driven systems (turbo propeller and jet aircraft)

Cabin (conditioning) outflow valves : regulate cabin pressurization (the airflow leaving the cabin).
- Ditching control  close the outflow valves
- maximize the cabin pressure differential up to cruising altitude
- Cabin pressure is controlled by regulating the discharge of air through the outflow valves.
- Partially open during level flight at cst cabin pressure altitude.

Cabin pressure controller: maintains a pre-set cabin altitude by regulating the position of the outflow valves
- Control the cabin: altitude; altitude rate-of-change & Limitation of differential pressure
- If pressure controller AND outflow valve malfunctions (remains fully open)
 Cabin ROC increases, the Cabin Altitude increases, the differential pressure decreases.
- manually operated system  cabin altitude rate of change is normally controlled by a rate of change selector
- the pilot can revert to manual control and “beep” the control valve to the required setting

Cabin air flow (inlet/outlet) control valves: maintain cst & sufficient air flow, ventilate cabin & minimize pressure changes

Cabin pressure:
- is controlled by delivering a substantially constant flow of air into the cabin and controlling the outflow.
- is controlled/regulated by outflow valve.
- Under normal conditions, the (normal) cabin pressure altitude is not allowed to exceed 8.000ft.
- Cabin altitude = cabin pressure expressed as altitude = pressure altitude in the cabin.
- A warning device [on reaching 10.000ft = 3.000m] alerts the crew in case of an excessive cabin altitude.
- pressure cabin = aeroplane maintains cabin pressure higher than ambient pressure.
- Pressurized climb after T/O: cabin pressure decreases MORE SLOWLY than atmospheric pressure.
- Cabin pressure below ambient pressure?  the inward relief valve/negative pressure relief valve will open.

Differential pressure: is 7-9psi (max) Pdiff = Pcabin - Pambiant

- safety valve opens when the differential pressure reaches structural max diff.
- Cruising, Pressure malfunction, ROC -200ft/mn  diff pressure rises to max value  safety relief valves open.
- Cruise flight, air-con ON, outflow valves CLOSED!  pressure differential would go to the maximum value.
- Cruising, diff pressure cst  constant flow of air permitted through the cabin.
- Max operating altitude due to pressurized cabin  max positive cabin differential pressure at max cabin altitude
Cabin air: usually supplied by main engine compressors, LP and HP if necessary(JAR 25).
Conditioned air is air that has been controlled/adjusted in respect of temperature and pressure.
Cabin Temperature: (in a pressurized system) controlled automatically or by the pilot (flight crew selection).
- Automatically: sensing the output T° form the control valve in relation to the T° set on the pilot’s control panel.

Anti-icing HOT AIR primarily supplied by bleed air from the engines
- Bleed air thermal anti-icing system: Leading edges of wings + empennage are heated.
- simple, reliable system, profiles maintained (less disruption to the L/E airflow)
- has to protect leading edges, slats and the leading edge flaps, wing leading edges + slats.
De-icing: Pneumatic inflatable boots: mostly used for the wings of modern turboprop aeroplane
- cycle that lasts longer than 10 seconds, launched when approx 1.5cm of ice on LE
- pneumatic mechanical devices  only used as DE-ICING devices.
- De-icing triggered from the flight deck after icing has become visible.
- The principle upon which the vibrating probe (rosemount) ice-detector is based on ACCRETION;

A turbo fan cold air unit will cause a pressure drop as well as an associated temperature drop in the charge air = bleed air.
In the pneumatic supply system of a modern transport aircraft, the air pressure is regulated. This pressure regulation occurs just before the
manifold by the low pressure bleed air valve.
In a vapour cycle cooling system, the condenser converts the refrigerant from a gas to a liquid.
When air is compressed for pressurization purposes, the percentage oxygen content is unaffected.
The pneumatic system accumulator is useful to eliminate the fluid pressure variations.

Bootstrap system – turbo compressor air conditioning system: (FREON air-con system) – cools the bleed air
The term “bootstrap” when used to identify a cabin air conditioning and pressurization system, refers to the cold air unit (air cycle machine)
arrangement. (Bootstrap in cabin pressurization is the low pressure bleed air cold air unit)

In an air cycle machine, the turbine drives the compressor of the machine which causes a higher temperature and so increases the second heat
exchanger efficiency.

Engine bleed-air taken from the compressor section – used for air conditioning and pressurization
Air goes through:
- COMPRESSOR: compressed (to ensure maximum pressure and temperature drop across the turbine)
o Heating supply!
- (secondary) HEAT EXCHANGER cool bleed air in front + behind the compressor of the air cycle machine.
o (PRIMARY H.E.) Pre-cools the engine bleed air and then
o (SECONDARY H.E.) cools the air behind the pack’S compressor
 cool the compressor outlet air,
 ie: air from the turbo *refrigerator* outlet to the turbine inlet of the cold air unit)
o Pack/ground Cooling Fan draws cooling air over the heat exchangers (slow flights & ground operation)

- Expansion/cooling TURBINE (adequate reduction of air temperature and pressure)

o In the air cycle system, the air is cooled down by expansion in the turbine.
o Turbine drives the compressor,  causes a higher T° drop  increases the 2nd H.E. efficiency

- Water separation unit: air-conditioning-system air cannot be treated for humidity.

o After the cold air unit; AFTER the cooling system & operates on condensation+centrifugal principle.
o (centrifugal process) unit AFTER the cooling turbine (after condensation at the cooling unit outlet)

CABIN
CABIN DIFFERENTIAL
ALTITUD
PRESSURE PRESSURE
E
R.O.C. Diff press.
indicator gauge

decompressio
n
CONSTANT
CONSTANT
air flow mass
Useable fuel = the total amount of fuel that can be supplied.
If temperature rises, the fuel expands, but the indicated fuel weight remains the same.
MZFW limitation = set by regulation; is designed for a maximum load factor, (maximum bending moment at wing root).
MZFW is the total maximum permissible weight of the aircraft without useable fuel.
The engine fuel control unit (FCU) is protected from damage by debris by the fine filter located between the high pressure fuel pump and the
governor unit.
The purpose of the barometric correction in a fuel controller is to maintain the correct weight fuel to air ratio when the altitude increases.

Max cabin alt in an unpressurised a/c at which humans can continue to breathe
normally............................14000'
Max cabin alt that you can function normally for a prolonged period...is
approx..........................................10 000'
Now most pressurised a/c's use a Max cab alt of.....8000'
Since the Max cab alt is limited the next consideration is how much diff pressure can the fuselage
take.....say about 8psi...
With these two figures in hand you can set about to figure out how high can you go.Now another
consideration is the capability(in term of time) of the a/c to reach say 14000' from its max alt

At Reference. In a pressurized aircraft whose cabin altitude is 8000 ft, a crack in a cabin window
makes it necessary to reduce the differential pressure to 5 psi. The flight level to be maintained in
order to keep the same cabin altidue is: FL 230
From the table it can be seen that the pressure at 8000' is 10.92 psi
Now we've been told because of the crack in the cabin window we can maintain a pressure differential of
5psi. Therefore the air outside can only be 5psi less than that inside the cabin. ie 10.92 - 5 = 5.92
Again from the table the altitude where we get closest to 5.92 is approximately 23000' (FL230)
Fuel System
OCTANE  ANTI-KNOCK capability
Fuel is pressurized to prevent VAPOR LOCK; bubbles in fuel line due to heat. (stoppage of fuel feeding line).
Twin jet feeder box prevents pump cavitations.
A fuel flow meter works on “quantity of movement” principle.
Fuel Heaters: in the ENGINES, upstream of the main fuel filter: prevents ice formation at low T° (water in the fuel).
Moisture in Fuel Tank systems: Cloudy fuel sample  WATER in the fuel. Check them before the 1st flight of the day
- Fill the tank after each flight / to keep tanks topped off when plane is not in use.
- Water instead of fuel?  the capacitive contents gauging system will show the mass of the water.
Fuel Dumping: [system required when MTOW >> MLW]
- After dumping, sufficient fuel must remain for 45minutes at range speed having climbed to FL100.
- A specified amount must remain / dump up to a predetermined safe value.
Fuel cross-feed system: allows feeding of any/every engine from any fuel tank. In order to ensure that all fuel on board is available to any
engine on a mult-engined aircraft, it must be fitted with a cross feeder.
Fuel shut off valve:
- Switches off the fuel supply when the fuel has reached a predetermined volume or mass
- Engine fire?  (pilot controlled) shut-off valve isolates the fuel supply from the engine (fire handle pulled)

Fuel Tanks: Integral Tanks built internally using the aircraft structure: this saves weight and space
- Fuel tanks are NOT HEATED.
- Location: the wings, the center section and sometimes the fin or part of the hold
- Pressurization: Maintained by the fuel vent system.
- Surge box: inside a fuel tank: prevent sloshing of fuel away from pump inlet during abnormal maneuvers.
- Ventilation:
o through RAM air scoops on the underside of the wing.
o prevents low pressure or excessive overpressure in the tank
- Vents:
o On the top of the tank to prevent tank collapse & are routed to the opposite upper part of the fuselage
o 2% of the total tank space in each individual tank is required in fuel tanks by JAR 23&25 for vent space.
- Refueling:
o Twin jet acft  Pressure refueling made through a unique point (underwing refueling center)
o Before/During  bonding and earthing connections between ground equipment and the aircraft should be made before
filler caps are removed.
o A refueling volumetric top off unit (VTO):
 closes the fuelling valve when the tank is full.
 prevents the required tank vent space being filled with fuel
 (Allows a main feed tank to be maintained at a predetermined level automatically while being fed from an
auxiliary tank)
 A volumetric top off valve works with float switches
PUMPS: Exception: Primary LP fuel pump  driven by the engine. ??????????

Booster pumps: (fuel tank) : CENTRIFUGAL, LOW PRESSURE, ELECTRIC induction MOTOR, 115V AC, [20 to 50 PSI]
- Submerged in the fuel is to facilitate the priming of the pumps.
- Fuel pressure is measured between the booster pump and the engine or at the outlet of the high pressure filter.
- The function of a feed box in the fuel tank is to increase the fuel level at the boost pump location.

Baffles “check valves”: in integral fuel tanks; reduce unwanted lateral movement of the fuel within the tank.
Is to prevent the fuel from flowing to the wing tips during abnormal maneuver (side slipping)

Dielectric:
- Capacitance type fuel gauging system indicates the fuel quantity by measuring the dielectric change between fuel and air
- Fuel contents gauging system works on the principle of: changes in dielectric causes change in capacitance.

If tank 1 < tank 2 = use se crossfeed valve, pump 1 OFF and pump 2 ON

The diagram shown in annex represents a jet fuel system. The fuel-flow measurement is carried out :
-After the hight pressure valve “4”