INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECTS OF SELECTED ACTIVITIES ON

SECRETION OF SEROTONIN HORMONE AND SOME OTHER HORMONES

H. Bilgehan ARISOY1
1
Bahçeşehir Üniversitesi, İstanbul
e-mail: bilgehanarisoy@hotmail.com

ABSTRACT
This study examines the daily motivation sources like driving a car, listening to
music, doing exercise, dancing and how such activities affect the secretion of primarily
of serotonin but also dopamine, endorphin, adrenalin and noradrenalin. Out of the
investigated activities it was found that the primary hormones secreted during dancing
are endorphin, adrenalin and noradrenalin; while listening to music is dopamine, while
exercising, adrenalin and noradrenaline; while driving adrenaline, noradrenaline and for
all the mentioned activities these hormones are working together with serotonin. The
increase of hormone secretion examined are: 56% for women and 215% for men of
adrenaline, 242% for women and 17% for men of noradrenaline, 16,1% for women
and 54,35% for men of serotonin and 111% for both women and men of endorphin
increase during dancing. While exercising, it was examined that secretion of adrenaline
increased by 212% for women and 661% for men, while noradrenaline increased by
376% for women and 524% for men and serotonin levels increased by 19,17% for
women compared to 42,77% for men. When listening to music the serotonin levels
increase by 29,9% and dopamine levels by 24%. The most significant increase of
662% in the adrenaline-noradrenaline hormones which are also called catecholamine, is
observed during the act of driving.
In conclusion, the findings indicate that certain activities are responsible for the
increase in dopamine, endorphin, adrenaline and noradrenaline levels.
KEYWORDS: Automobile, Dance, Music, Sport, Serotonin, Adrenalin,
Noradrenaline, Dopamine, Endorphine
 INTRODUCTION
The biological functioning of the body affects the psychological and
physiological state of the individual. This biological process is provided by chemical
molecules called hormones. They are responsible for maintaining the balance and order
in the body. Organs that secrete the hormones are called the internal glands. Internal
glands, in other words the endocrine glands, form the endocrine system.
The effect of hormones on emotional state varies according to the hormone
secretion. While serotonin is known as a good feeling hormone, dopamine creates a
sense of reward feeling on the individual. Endorphine is more effective than the
serotonin hormone and has a pain relieving feature. These hormones are secreted during
situations where individuals feel good as a result of participated activities. Dancing,
doing sports, being interested in art, listening to music, going on a trip, driving an
automobile are the examples of these activities. Noradrenaline and adrenaline are
hormones that provide the abnormal strength and mobility to body in addition to
preparing the body for situations that require movement and excitement. While doing
sports, dancing, driving, these hormones increase significantly in the blood. Especially
automobile driving causes a serious increase in the hormones of adrenaline and
noradrenaline. The fact that humanity has been living with the speed more than 100 km
/ h in the last few centuries, increases the effects of driving on emotional state. High
speed also leads to increase in excitement and pleasure. This connection between the
high speed and pleasure can be solved by investigation of hormones.
The aim of this research study is to examine the effects motivational sources
such as listening to music, playing sports, dancing and automobile driving activities on
serotonin, dopamine, endorphin, adrenaline and noradrenaline levels.

1. EFFECTS OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM ON METABOLISM

Endocrine system is the main communication and control system. The system
ensures the communication of response made against to the internal and external
stimulus also require for the coordination of cell, tissue and organ functioning.
Endocrine plays an important role in the control of blood pressure and the body fluids,
also keeps the balance of electrolyte and acid-base. It’s purpose is to keep the stress
level of human body under control, maintaining the balance of inner mechanism of
humans from outside factors, keeping the chemical concentration of body fluids under
control and body-fluid volume. It is responsible for working proteins, lipids and carbon
metabolism; energy generation, storage and usage; growth and development systems
with the biological clock in harmony (1). The ability of the endocrine system to perform
these functions is provided by the secretions called hormones.
2. HORMONES
2.1 THE CHEMISTRY OF HORMONES
 Hormones are the chemicals capable of making the body and brain work
harmoniously and regulating the metabolic functioning of cells and organs. Control of
the complex systems of the organism is managed by the correct functioning of these
molecules. They are the control and excretion signals of the organism which are
secreted from the endocrine glands due to stimulus, to the receptors of the central
nervous system organs. The main responsibility of the endocrine glands is to ensure that
hormones mix with the blood in response to stimuli reaching the brain (2).

2.1.1 Target Cell

The endocrine mechanism is the organ integrity that creates the reactions to
stimulus. All hormones are in circulation throughout the body. However, not every
hormone triggers the action of every tissue cell. Each hormone make cells working
which are specific for only themselves. Specific protein receptors implement the
selected cell to respond to the specific hormone of the cell. Hormones function regularly
by attaching them to plasma membrane or inside of the cell (2).

2.1.2 Mechanism of Hormone Activity

The target cell activity which is changed by hormones’ specific impacts by
increment or reduction of the rate of normal cellular processes. This change in the rate
of normal cell functioning is the way to activate of target cells which is provided by the
hormones’ specific impacts (2).
Target cell type is the factor that generate the accurate feedback. Hormonal
stimulation affects;
 Activity of ion channels (open-close) due to rate of electrical state (cell
membrane potential) or cell membrane permeableness,
 Production of specific regulatory molecules or proteins inner side of the cell,
 Activation or deactivation of enzymes,
 Inducing of secretion activity,
 Initiation of mitosis (2).
2.1.3 Cell Signaling Types
There are different cell signaling types which are determined by the way the
hormones are released and which cells they affect. There are four types of signalling
way:
 Endocrine: The relevant gland secretes the hormone via blood which affect the
target cell of the related part of the body.
 Paracrine: This type of signal affects the only neighbor cells without usage of
blood stream.
 Autocrine: The hormone affect the cell that which is excreted from the same
cell.
  Intracrine: The hormone that produced in the cell is responsible within the same
cell. (3).
2.1.3.1 Hormone Types
Two types of hormones are generated by the organism for managing diverse
activity in the body;
 Peptide Hormones
Amino acids are the major components of the hormones can mix with the water.
Plasma’s phospholipid bilayer blocks the peptide hormones due to their fat-insoluble
structure while hormone diffusing inside of the cell. For instance, pancreas produces an
significant peptide hormone called insulin (3).
 Steroid Hormones
Steroid hormones are the fat-soluble hormone type capable of diffusing into the
cell, differently from peptide hormones. This type of hormones can be example of sex
hormones like progesterone, estrogen, testosterone (3).

2.2 THE CONTROL MECHANISM OF HORMONE SECRETION

Control of endocrine activity is regulated by precise restriction of each hormone
excretion. The body able to determine the amount of required hormone. Most of the
endocrine glands are managed by routing signals, under normal conditions.
Hypothalamus and pituitary glands are located at the bottom of the brain have
signaling pathway that interact with each other; contols most of the endocrine gland
functioning. Hypothalamic-pituitary axis is the name of this interference. Pituitary gland
is controlled by some hormones secreted from hypothalamus through the axis and also
called as “master gland” due to regulation and contol of major part of the endocrine
system functioning. For determining hormone concentration in blood stream, pituitary
gland has control mechanism called feedback loop which secretes or represses the
hormones according to hormone level in blood stream. For instance, when thyroid
hormone concentration decreased in blood, piuitary gland secretes signaling hormone to
make thyroid gland excrete more thyroid hormone. If pituitary detects high level of
thyroid hormone in blood, it excretes stimuli hormone to thyroid gland for decreasing
thyroid hormone level in blood. This regulation called feedback mechanism that
provides stability for hormone levels (4).
2.3 HORMONAL SYSTEM
Hypothalamus, thyroid, pituitary, adrenals, parathyroid, pineal body and
reproduction organs (ovaries and testes) are the main glands of the endocrine system.
Managing the production and digestion of hormones by the pancreas; makes the
pancreas a part of the hormonal system (5).
2.3.1 Hypothalamus
 Hypothalamus which is located at the base part of the brain is responsible for
temperature of body and feeling of satiety. It controls pituitary gland by excretion
hormones for regulating the stimulation or suppressing the release of hormones. The
hypophyseal is the direct hormone secretion way between hypothalamus and pituitary
glands. These released hormones from pituitary gland facilitate excretion of stimulus
hormones. There is also growth hormone excreted from the hypothalamus, is blocked
by somatostatin hormone released from the hypothalamus (5).
2.3.2 Pituitary Gland
Pea-sized gland placed the lower part of the brain underneath the hypothalamus.
Due to superintending of endocrine glands functioning and production of hormones,
makes pituitary gland most important region of the system. Inadequate production of
any pituitary gland hormone is called hypopituitarism (5).
2.3.2.1 Pituitary Gland’s Lobes (Anterior and Posterior Lobe)
The pituitary gland is composed of two part: the anterior lobe and the posterior
lobe. In company with hypothalamus contol, the hormones released from pituitary are
decribed below.
2.3.2.1.1 Anterior Lobe:
 Growth hormone: Development of bones and tissues are stimulated by growth
hormone. (Inadequate production of growth hormone causes the defects on
muscle and bone mass in adults) (5).
 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): Thyroid hormone released after thyroid
hormone activated by TSH. Thyroid hormone deficiency arises from pituitary or
thyroid gland causes hypothroidism (5).
 Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH): Stimulated adrenal gland leads to
secretion of some steroid hormones by ACTH (5).
 Luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH): Sex steroids
are responsible for the sexual activity and production, controlled by LH and FSH
(5).
 Prolactin: The hormone that responsible for stimulating production of milk in
female body (5).
2.3.2.1.2 Posterior Lobe
Following hormones produced and controlled by pituitary gland:
 Antidiuretic hormone (vazopressin): Manages water level of kidneys (5).
 Oxctocin: Responsible hormone for stimulating milk produce and contracting
uterus while childbearing (5).
Pituitary gland is a storage for the posterior lobe hormones are actually
generated by brain. Transfer of these hormones between brain and pituitary gland is
provided by brain nerves.
 2.3.3 Thyroid Gland
The location of thyroid gland is base of the neck and the gland is responsible for
body metabolism by producing thyroid hormone. Thyroid hormone controls the
growing and maturation of bones besides brain in childhood period. It also helps to
digestive, muscular, reproduction and cardiovascular systems (5).
There are two types of thyroid hormone: Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine
(T3). T3 and T4 are composed of idoine and tyrosine aminoacid obtained from
nutrition. When thyrosine combines with four iodines, combination is called Thyroxine
(T4); when it combines with three iodines called triiodothyronine (T3) (6).
Calcitonin: Calcitonin is the hormone which decreases the calcium ratio within bones
and increases within the blood, functions as opposite of parathormon. When the calcium
level increase in blood stream, calcitonin is also increased. Main responsibilities of
calcitonin are; proliferation and functioning of osteoblast cells for preventing tissue loss
on bones (7).
2.3.4 Parathyroide Glands
Thyroid and parathyroid glands are located together on the neck, parathyroide
glands are inserted in each side of thyroide glands two by two. Concentration of calcium
level in bloodstream and bone metabolism is regulated by excretion of parathyroid
hormone (5).
Parathormone (PTH):
 Parathormone (PTH) is secreted by 4 (two by two on each side) smaller glands
called parathyroid which are located behind the thyroid gland. The parathyroid
hormone is created with amino acid (pre-pro-PTH), a part of this molecule is
then cut off by this parathyroid hormone and becomes pro-PTH, again a part of
the molecule is cut off and by this parathormone becomes a protein structure
composed of 84 aminoacids (8).
 The secreted parathyroid hormone (PTH) gets split into 3 parts when circulating
through the body; PTH-C (carboxy terminal, terminus), PTH-N (amino
terminal, terminus), ve PTH-M (Mid-molecule, middle). From these three, only
PTH-M is biologically active and has a half-life of 5 minutes. The inactive PTH-
C has a half-life of 24-36 hours and makes up 90% of the PTH during
circulation. It is excreted from the body by the kidneys. In cases of chronic
kidney failure, PTH-C pieces can accumulate in the kidney. It is observed that
patients that have this symptoms display an increase in PTH 1-84 (complete
hormone) levels and this increase is helpful in the lowering of PTH resistance
which is often seen in patients with chronic kidney failure (8).
 The calcium levels in blood determine the parathyroid hormone (PTH)
level. Low levels of calcium does cause an increase in parathyroid hormone
secretion level. The parathyroid hormone does increases the calcium gathered
back from the kidney and decreases the gathering of phosphorus at the same
time. The parathyroid hormone also enables the transfer of calcium from the
 bones to the blood stream and simultaneously increases the synthesis, 1, 25-
dihidroksi vitamin D and this in return does increase the absorbtion of
vitamin D in the intestines (8).
Parathormon (PTH) usage areas:
 Diognasis and differential diognasis of hypercalcemia,
 Diognasis of primary, secondary, tertiary hyperparathyroidism,
 Diognasis of hypoparathyroidism,
 For monitoring the renal osteodystophy in patients with end-stage renal failure
(7).

2.3.5 Adrenal Glands

Triangular-shaped two adrenal glands are the crown pieces of kidneys. The
adrenal glands are composed of two parts; adrenal cortex is the exterior region and
adrenal medulla is the interior of the gland. Adrenal cortex is responsible region for
producing hormones named corticosteroids. Corticosteroids aim, organizing immune
system, sexual reproduction, the level of water and salt concentration; briefly important
part of the metabolism. As for the adrenal medulla, catecholamine hormones are
secreted. Catecholamines regulate increased tension and heart rate due to stress which
affects body and emotions (5).
2.3.5.1 Corticosteroids
 Anti-inflammatory Features of Corticosteroids:
Activation of inflammatory cells found in bone marrow, transfer of
inflammatory cells from blood to intestine, inhibition of increase the number of
inflammatory cells and development of the cells; are regulated by corticosteroids
which determine the type of anti-inflammatory affect (10).
Corticosteroids have direct affect on peptide and protein type groups like
cytokines which release the inflammatory hormones by the activation of
inflammation (10).
 Affects of Corticostreoids on Metabolism:
Affects of corticosteroids on bones and connective tissues, fatty tissues, muscles,
liver metabolism and other several organs demonstrate that corticosteroids have
various responsibilities for general metabolism (10).
 Affects of Corticostreoids on Fluid Balance:
Cortisol ensures the retention of water and salt in the body, by resembling to
another hormone that provides fluid balance, such as aldosterone. (10).

2.3.5.2 Catecholamines
 Adrenaline (epinephrine), noradrenaline (norepinephrine) and dopamine are the
chemicals in monoamine structure and examined under the title of catecholamines. They
are responsible for acute and chronic stress management. Glucocorticoids, vasopressin,
angiotensin II and growth hormones also help to catecholamines for stress management
(10).
Catecholamines act as both signal carriers and hormones as a result of being
produced in the adrenal medulla and sympathetic nerves. The cells where
catecholamines are synthesized are called "chromaffin cells" due to their red-brown
color when stained by potassium dichromate. Catecholamines are also secreted from
chromaffin cells located in the adrenergic neurons and central nervous system of the
heart, kidney, liver, gonads, postganglionic sympathetic system as well as adrenal
medulla. While 80% of all catecholamines are produced in the adrenal medulla are
epinephrine; 80% of catecholamines generated in other chromaffin cells except for the
adrenal medulla are norepinephrine (11).
The hormone that is produced naturally in the body, controls our emotional state
and plays a role in sending signals to the brain called dopamine is examined under the
heading of catecholamines. (12).
The effects of mentioned activities that doing sports, dancing, listening to music
and driving will be expressed on serotonin, dopamine, endorphine, adrenaline and
noradrenaline.
2.4 SEROTONIN
The wide and various effects of serotonin are observed on the serotonergic
system that affects brainstem, forebrain and cerebellum. It is important for connection
between nerve cells and maintaining the happy mood. As the precursor of melatonin, it
plays a major role in the healthy functioning of the body's natural clock. It manages
motor senses and autonomic functions (13,14). A study investigated in 2007,
demonstrates that presence of depression lowers the serotonin in human body. Insomnia
and anxiety also arise from lack of serotonin (13).
An alteration that affects the level of reactions to emotions and situations is also
known as positive mood chemical. It is also very effective in the functioning of
memory. Serotonin deficiency causes the observation in the situations such as disturbed
sleep, eating disorders and depression. Most of the original studies are investigating
serotonin have been performed on animal models with the guidance of animal
physiology (13,14).
Serotonin has important physiological functions on body such as perception of
pain, regulation of behaviors: sleep, body temperature and blood pressure in daily life
and especially in the abnormal situations like illnesses (15).
The actions that activates the serotonin:
2.4.1 Dancing
Before the scientists started to examine the complicated mental coordination
while dancing the question of how dancing affects the brain has not been investigated.
A neurescientist from Columbia University (2008) claimed that so called “pleasurable
double play” is initiated while dancing where the reward center of the brain is triggered
by the music and the sensory and motor skills are initiated by dancing (16).
Areas of brain that are committed to mastering dance have been determined by
studies that makes use of PET imaging. The motor cortex, somatosensory cortex, basal
ganglia, and cerebellum are included areas where the motor cortex initiates free-willed
action by planning, controlling and executing it. The control of the motor skill is
managed by the somatosensory cortex. Deep-seated in the brain an accumulation of
constructions called the basal ganglia interact with different areas of the brain in order
to achieve (effortless) movement. Taking in information from the brain and the spinal
cord and planning compound motor behaviour is the role of the cerebellum (16).
Some of PET imaging studies while visualizing the areas of brain that activated
by dance; others examine the effects of physical and expressive factors on brain
function. Many studies about the benefits of dance-related physical activity that gained
by exercise express various findings from strengthening neuron connections to memory
development (16).
How dancing influences the functioning pattern of the brain or how varying
areas of the brain are initiated through the act of dancing, are two main focuses of
different imaging studies. As an example, it was found that many advantages of dancing
are linked to the main advantages of physical exercises which can be in the form of
memory enhancement or the strengthening of neural connections. Brain health was
found to be improved through dancing as a 2003 study in the New England Journal of
Medicine claims. This study showed that the dementia risk for older people, which was
examined by the study, was only decreased by the activity of dancing out of 11 varying
activities. The chance of getting dementia is believed to be decreased by dancing
because dancing involves taking action both mentally and socially (16).
Cognitive traits such as visual recognition and even decision-making are
strengthened while Latin Zumba dancing as it was examined by a small-scale a 2012
study of North Dakota’s Minot State University (16). It is also claimed that spiritual
experience is maintained by serotonin carrier which is neurotransmitter (17). Other
findings such as rising serotonin levels which aid in the formation of new neural
connections particularly in areas which affect long-term memory, spatial recognition
and executive function resulted from various different studies conducted (16).
2.4.2 Playing Sports
Researches implemented on human and animal claimed that doing exercise is a
manner that decrease the negative consequences arising from stress (18).
Mayo Clinic claimes that exercising has psychological and physical benefits can
help to mental state and decreasing anxiety. Better Health Channel claimes that people
who exercise regularly have fewer symptoms of anxiety and depression than those who
do not exercise. In addition, antidepressant medication in the treatment of elderly
patients who do not exercise before starting exercise routines as effective as 16 weeks of
exercising (19).
 According to the British National Institute of Health and Clinical Excellence in
England, the brain increases the amount of existing serotonin while exercising. A study
in the field of neuropsychopharmacology suggests that physical activity has two ways to
increase the release of serotonin in the brain. Firstly, as a result of physical activity, an
increase of the rate and frequency of "firing" of the serotonin is observed in the brain
that also causes an increase in the synthesis of serotonin. The second way is that
continuous exercising activity increases the level of tryptophan (an amino acid used in
the production of serotonin) of brain. Although the mechanism is not clearly understood
that enhancing of mood is observed due to aerobic exercise by increasing serotonin
levels in the brain (20).

2.4.3 Listening to Music

Serotonin is a chemical neurotransmitter that controls mood in the brain.
Production of serotonin in the brain while listening to music is transmitted from cell to
cell by sending a message with the nerve endings where this reaction sustained along
the axon. Serotonin is released, transferred with a neurotransmitter and intercellular
communication is provided (20).
Music has the potential to attract the attention, healing mood, create emotions,
changing or reorganizing psychology, freshening memories, enhancing productivity,
reducing restrictions and promoting the rhythmic movement during most of the sports
and exercies (21)

2.5 ENDORPHINE
Endorphines function as reacting and defencing against negative effects on body.
They are produced in response to tension, fear or pain. Production is provided by
various parts of our body (pituitary gland, spinal cord, other parts of the brain and
nervous system). It’s most important function is to interact with receptors in cells
responsible for the control of mood and prevention of pain. It provides an effect beyond
the existing serotonin effect by eliminating the restrictive factors such as fatigue and
pain (22). For example, by virtue of the endorphine release that marathon runners can
reach the finish line with the enthusiasm even under the influence of exhaustion feeling
at the end of the race (22).
Beta-endorphine that is stronger than a powerful painkiller like morphine, is one
of the 20 different types of endorphins. It is indicated that it plays as numerous roles in
many different areas as alcoholism, diabetes and brain aging. (23)
Endorphine is a hormone produced in the brain and the amount and rate of
secretion varies according to the mood and movements of the human. The release of
endorphine hormone increases in the human body, especially at certain hours, from
23.00 to 03.00 at night. Endorphine hormone is secreted in the brain when the effort is
made. For example; While running, swimming, the body releases more endorphin
hormones. In order for the endorphin hormone to be secreted, one must do the
delighting things. In this way, the brain secretes more endorphin hormones and makes
the people feel happy (24).
 One of the most effective ways to increase endorphine is dancing. According to
the research is done by UC Berkeley’s Greater Good Science Center, the increase in
secreted chemicals in the brain during the dance affects our brain positively (22).
2.5.1 Dancing
It is required that people harmonize their movements and with each other to a
certain rhythmic beat while dancing. Dancing may have a pioneer functioning in the
evolution social bonds, cooperation and prosocial behaviors between members of a
group as dancing is based on cooperation (25, 26, 27, 28). The linkage between bonding
and synchronization are the fundaments that support the social bonding hypothesis(28).
Heightened feelings of liking each other, increase in interpersonal trust (30) (3)
(27), willing to help their partner and an increased sense of being similar in personality
have been observed conditions by people who participated tapping in synchrony with a
partner in comparison to asynchronous or solo conditions which leads to the conclusion
that synchronization between different people can affect consecutive positive social
feelings towards one another.
Neuro-hormones like endogenous opioids can lead to an explanation of why
actions that require synchrony play an important part in the feeling of social closeness
during such an activity (28). For many mammals’ endorphins are linked(32) with
bonding socially. Shared neural networks play a part in the processing of physical and
social pain (e.g. rejection versus inclusion: [33]) in humans. A positive impression of
those who are present in a social setting may come from the experience of endorphin-
induced amusement. The bonding on a social level is believed to be formed by the
endogenous opioid system (EOS) (34,35).
2.6 ADRENALINE (EPINEPHRINE) AND NORADRENALINE
(NOREPINEPHRINE)
Adrenaline is an important signal carrier secreted from the adrenal glands part of
the body and the brainstem region in the brain. The increase of the heart rate and the
sugar concentration in the blood constitutes the fight or flight action and the body
activates. The necessary physiological state is achieved by contraction of the muscles
and energy consumption. The vast majority of adrenaline in the bloodstream is secreted
from the adrenal glands, and the deficiency of these glands causes a decrease in
adrenaline density. Adrenaline provides its effect on the sympathetic nervous system
with alpha and beta receptors. It has a wide range of effects with alpha and beta
receptors found in numerous part of the body (11,36).
Adrenaline produced from adrenal glands and mixed with blood, receives
feedback from adrenergic cells found in almost every organ that depending on the
function of the organ. For example, while ensuring the contraction of muscles around
small vessels, arterioles; also provides relaxation of the muscles around the respiratory
tract in people with asthma. In addition, adrenergic hormones improve long-term
memory. The reason of same hormone generating different reactions in the body is the
different receptors (11,37).
 Noradrenaline mostly secreted from locus seruleus A1-A7 cells in pons is one of
the catecholamine chemicals and the functions as signal carrier and an internal secretion
in the nervous system and body. The bluish-colored small nucleus located in the dorsal
pons upon the base of the fourth ventricle, forms the center of the noadrenergic
innervation extending through to brain and spinal cord. Norepinephrine takes charge in
the communication between neurons as a neurotransmitter within the brain, also
functions as a neurotransmitter in the spinal cord and abdomen outside of the brain. This
hormone can be secreted directly from the adrenal glands, binds to the relevant
receptors within the cell membranes and responsible for stimulating the cells (11,37).
The main function of noradrenaline is to make the brain and body ready for
actions that will occur. While it has the low concentration levels in sleep, it rises
prominently during awakening. During dangerous and stressful situations, noradrenaline
increases significantly in the bloodstream. Norepinephrine has one of the most
important task together with adrenaline; especially in the action of war or flight
response that increases vigilance of the brain and increases alertness. During the alert
mood; it plays a major role in focusing, memory formation, retrievaling memories that
is not remembered. It speeds up the heartbeats, increases blood pressure, rises blood
sugar and provides an increase in the volume of blood transferred to skeletal muscles in
the rest of the body (11,37).
According to informations, above-stated effects that have seen as a result of
activities as dancing, driving, playing sport:
2.6.1 Dancing
Three types of stress are identified by The National Institute of Health of which
the first is stress related to challenges in daily life, the second is caused by an abrupt
difference like the loss of a valued person and the last one is initiated by life-threatening
circumstances. Out of the three the first type of stress is mostly connected to dancers as
they are distressed by their loaded work schedule and also constantly rely on their
memorization ability. How a performer perceives situations is key because it is the
initial step of the procedure as the beginning of each argued theory is the perception.
(38).
Taking Seyle’s GAS Model (1950) as a reference, if the perception of a
performer is that the circumstances are stressful a so called alarm reaction stage is
initiated. Physiological conditions such as sweating due to failure to remember what to
do might occur at this level. The type of stress a dancer is exposed to is the first type as
a dancers job is connected to be psychologically and physically demanding and
therefore this is stress the dancer is aware of and deals with in daily life. (38).
The second type of stress is a bit more of significance because it is rather
“sudden” and “unexpected.” (39). An accurate example for a dancer would be an injury
right before a great performance coming up. As the second type of stress involves a
sudden change the effect it will have on the dancer will vary as well. (38).
The feeling of being in a life threatening situation which is the third type of
stress that has a rare occurrence rate and thus is the type of stress that has the most
severe consequences (39). When a person is in serious danger such as being attacked on
the street, the fear they are in initiates the fight-or-flight response in Seyle’s Alarm
Stage.(Seyle, 1950). The perception of the person in danger makes up the psychological
part of this stage where as the physiological condition is tightly related to this kind of
stress. (38).
2.6.2 Playing Sports
The initiation of the sympathoadrenomedullary (SAM) system as a consequence
of physical, environmental and psychological stressors is regulated by catecholamines,
namely epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) (40). Activities
such as physical exercise (41), insulin induced hypoglycemia (42), hypoxia and
hipercapnia (43) ve and caffeine intake all have resulted in higher adrenaline levels (44,
45).
Due to the fact that during exercising it is known that adrenaline and
nonadrenaline are the major hormones that increase in concentration, scientists
examined the relationship between these amines and exercise and it was found that
bound to what exercise was practiced the basal concentration increase from 1,5 up to
>20 times. (41).
Similarly, several studies have demonstrated that adrenaline and noradrenaline
are involved in cardiovascular and respiratory adjustments and in substrate mobilization
and utilization (40). During the exercise, direct proportion between adrenaline increase
and muscular contraction (46, 47, 48) is ascertained by verification of biological
analysis in human urinary test (49).
2.7 DOPAMINE
Neuromodulation, such as motor control, motivation, reward, cognitive function,
maternal, and reproductive behaviors are managed by the dopaminergic system. The
periphery and the central nervous system are two locations where the neurotransmitter
dopamine is synthesized and by binding to G protein-coupled receptors takes action.
Both the peripherie and the central nervous system are areas where dopamine receptors
are widely spread and function. Neurodegenerative diseases and similar dysfunctions
can be the result of instabil activity and thus the dopaminergic signaling pathways are
vital for the care and conservation of physiological processes (50).
2.7.1 Listening to Music
Most of the people reach a consensus about the music is the powerful and
efficient stimulus (51) that mostly preferred for influencing of emotional manner during
listening. That emotionally satisfactory responses (52,53) have been evoked while
listening to music was illustrated. Especially the one of the rewarding system that
ventral striatum (54, 55, 56, 57) was examined by neuroimaging studies that observed
the brain during stimulus through music (54, 55, 56, 57, 58) which is claiming that the
dopaminergic mechanisms (59) is likely involved.
The common working mechanism of dopaminergic systems is the giving
feedback naturally to the sense of reward created by stimulants (such as nutrition and
sexual activity) in the nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area of the brain
(reward centers of the brain) (60, 61, 62). After all, the function of dopamine has never
been accurately detected (59). However, the findings suggest classical music can be
used on Parkinson's disease (PD) (63, 64), arterial hypertension (65), dementia (66),
hyperactivity disorder / attention deficit (67) as a non-pharmacological treatment
method.
While examining the effects of automobile driving among selected activities on
hormones, the hormones affected by automobile driving are expressed under a separate
heading due to the obtained datas are different and the highest values.
3. AUTOMOBILE DRIVING

Automobile driving leads to important mental stress in general (68). Significant

alterations occur such as increase in secretion of adrenaline, noradrenaline (69) from
pituitary-adrenocortical and sympathoadreno-medullary (70) interferences under the
influence of stress. Because the speed-focused coordination of functioning of eye, hand,
foot and sound simultaneously leads to brain work intensively comparing to routine
working.
There are two main types of hormones that conquer the body while driving:
Adrenaline and noradenaline that both keep the body energetic while driving. The
difference between them is the adrenaline is produced by the medulla and increases the
flow rate of blood in the muscles and veins. Noradrenaline shortens the reaction
process, increases the vigilance state of brain and acts as a neurotransmitter that
transfers chemical messages in the nervous system (70).
“Car manufacturers design cars to appeal to certain segments of the population,
including car enthusiasts,” Blaszczynski tells. “Thus, safety, recreational, and image is
promoted through sexual appeal, glamorizing images and display of wealth, and speed
for enthusiasts. ” (70) The excitement is present even while designing of automobile is
the proof that a happiness hormone as serotonin is secreted during the use of the
automobile.

4. EVIDENCES

4.1 AUTOMOBILE DRIVING

Car racing, is a good example for disciplines of sports where concentration is
highly important. Motoring, gliding, hang-gliding, parachuting… etc is an example of
sports where people mostly do it in their free times. This can be thought as an extreme,
but educational model for occupational treatments for psychological and emotional
stress can be seen in situations where, the intensity of the work low but the duration is
longer. These examples can be seen in modernized business and work system (71, 72,
73, 74, 75, 76, 77,78).
The one 1964 study that accomplished by automobile drivers with an occupant,
indicates the 100 % increment of vanilmandelic acid (3-methoxy-4-hydroxy-mandelic
acid) while urinary discharge was detected (79). It is considered that increment of
catecholamine level is originated from stressful conditions of traffic. Also the study
about the affects of automobile driving in 1969, 80% increase of catecholamine is
detected comparing to control values (69).
An another example, Figure 1 is a graph of 1987 study that demonstrates the
levels of catecholamine (adrenaline + noradrenaline) excretion during car racing and
night resting.

Figure 1. Free catecholamine excretion levels in urine procured from 10

automobile drivers (adrenaline + noradrenaline) during night resting, car racing
and maximal bicycle ergometry (mean ± SD); all differences were highly
significant (P < 0 001) (80).
Figure 1 demonstrates the increase difference of catecholamine (adrenaline and
noradrenaline) as 662% during the night resting and car racing with a graph. This ratio
demonstrates that driving of automobile at high speed is quiet affective on adrenaline
and noradrenaline increase.
The example in Figure 2 is a graph of a study which patients with low levels of
serotonin and noradrenaline were investigated that have success rates in driving ability
by the various types of antidepressant supplements. The antidepressant treatment used is
a type of treatment that allows serotonin and noradrenaline molecules that are secreted
by the cells to be reintroduced into the body by preventing them from cellular ingestion
(81).
Figure 2. Treatment groups with global driving skill (82).
It is obtained that 28% of patients are treated with selective serotonin reuptake
inhibitor, 20% of patients are treated with venlafaxine (serotonin and noradrenaline
reuptake inhibitor), 50% of patients are treated with venlafaxine (serotonergic and
noradrenergic antidepressant), 10% of patients are treated with tricyclic antidepressant
(serotonin and noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor) have passed the driving test without
having a problem (82). Consequently, 24% of all patients complete the driving test
succesfully as a result of the treatments. In addition to the fact that this situation shows a
positive effect on car use in case the amount of serotoin and noradrenaline increases, it
also supports the examples of the effect on automobile driving leads to the increase in
serotonin and noradrenaline.
4.2 SEROTONIN
4.2.1 Dancing
Figure 3, is a graph that visualizes the sports causes the change in serotonin
levels of dance athletes for before and after values.
Figure 3. Changes in serotonin concentration of the participants who are dance
athletes’ before and after values of the running and dance performances (83)
In this graph, when the serotonin levels for before and after values of dancing
activity is compared, it is indicated that the increase in percentage of women is 16,1%,
increase in men is 54,35%. These ratios are the demonstration of dancing leads to
increase in serotonin hormone level.
4.2.2 Playing Sports
During the dancing, while serotonin increase have been seen in the figure 3, also
sports leads to increase in serotonin levels. As the figure 3 represents the serotonin
levels for before and after values of sports is compared, it is indicated that the increase
in percentage of women is 19,17%, increase in men is 42,77%. These ratios are the
demonstration of sports leads to increase in serotonin hormone level.
4.3 DOPAMINE & SEROTONIN
4.3.1 Listening to Music
In figure 4, research indicated change in the CPu (brain) and the reward /
pleasure core accumulators of the participants that exposed to the classical music.
Figure 4. Concentrations of dopaminergic and serotonergic variables in the
caudate-putamen (CPu) and nucleus accumbens (NAcc) of rats exposed to classical
music. A) dopamine (DA), B) 3,4- dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC), C) the
DOPAC/DA ratio, D) serotonin (5-HT), E) 5- hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA)
and F) the 5-HIAA/5-HT ratio. Values are shown as the means ± S.E.M. *
Different from the control group (* P < 0.05; ** P < 0.01) (84).
The change in monoaminergic system of brain is the manner of the classical
music’s healing method that ameliorate various symptoms of diseases in a
nonpharmacological way (68). In this study, during exposure to melodic music, the
affects of dopamine (DA), serotonin (5-HT) on the regions, caudate-putamen (CPu) and
reward / pleasure core accumulators (NAcc) of brain, also control of these hormones on
reward and motor mechanism were investigated (84).
Auditory stimulus of serotonergic and dopaminergic systems is examinated by
making use of exposuring the classical music and these systems are affected
significantly in terms of monoaminergic approach. Auditory stimuli in CPu increased
DA concentration by 24,1% (ES = 1.351; P = 0.033; Figure 1A) and 5-HIAA
concentration by 29,9% (ES = 1.255; P = 0.035; Figure 1E) (84).
The 29,9% increment of 5-HIAA which is the main metabolite of serotonin;
24,1% increase in DA (Dopamine) concentration, activates the positive emotions of
subjects.
4.4 ENDORPHINE
The following example is a study that determines the effect of synchronized
dance on the release of endorphins through naltrexone.
Dancing synchronously in a group is found to increase the pain threshold by a
recent study that uses the same silent-disco experimental paradigm reported in Tarr et
al. (2016). To a group of people participating in the study were given 100 mg of
naltrexone which is an opioid receptor blocker to investigate the effect of endorphins in
this activity. In comparison to the control group the participants that were given
naltrexone showed a noticeably lower change in their pain threshold and even
experienced hyperalgesic effects while dancing. (85).

Figure 5. Avarage alteration (± 1se) of pain thresholds (ending- beginning) for each
treatment (n = 121; *** P ≤ 0.001, * P ≤ 0.05) (86).
 Figure 5 demonstrates the average pain threshold is determined by detecting the
secreted endorphin of naltrexone that is taken during synchronous group dance. As
stated in the figure, the pain threshold in case of using 50 mg naltrexone is increased by
approximately 111% compared to the pain threshold in case of taking 100 mg
naltrexone, this demonstrates that secreted endorphine is approximately 111% effective
on increasing the pain threshold.
This is the demonstration of dancing has affect on increasing endorphine
hormone that has the role as pain killer on body.
4.5 CATECHOLAMINES- ADRENALINE, NORADRENALINE
4.5.1 Dancing
Figure 6 and Figure 7 are the graphs of the study compares the dance athletes’
epinephrine (adrenaline)/ norepinephrine (noradrenaline) values of after and before
dance/ sport. In this study, increase of adrenaline and noradrenaline levels are examined
biochemically with the aid of blood samples during the performance.

Figure 6. Changes in epinephrine (adrenaline) concentration of the dance athletes’

before and after values of the running and dance performance (82).
In this graph, when the adrenaline levels for before and after values of dancing
activity is compared, it is indicated that the increase in percentage of women is 56%,
increase in men is 215%. These ratios are the demonstration of dancing leads to
increase in adrenaline hormone level.

Figure 7. Changes in norepinephrine (noradrenaline) concentration of the dance

athletes’ before and after values of the running and dance performance (82).
In this graph, when the noradrenaline levels for before and after values of
dancing activity is compared, it is indicated that the increase in percentage of women is
242%, increase in men is 17%. These ratios are the demonstration of dancing leads to
increase in noradrenaline hormone level.
4.5.2 Playing Sports
Figure 6 indicates the before and after values of adrenaline while sports:
percentage for women is 212%; percentage for men is 524%. Figure 7 also indicates
the noradrenaline increase in percentage for women is 376%; percentage for men is
524%.
The fact that the obtained values represent the datas are above normal that
supports playing sports causes serious effects on the increase of catecholamines
(adrenaline and noradrenaline).
Figure 7 visualizes the increase in releasing plasma adrenaline, lactate synthesis
and integrated heart rhythm during exercise.
Figure 7. Average (* SEM) values. Heart rate, plasma adrenaline and lactate levels
of six participants who completed an exercising test. S demonstrates supine
position resting state. Multiplication factor to convert Nmol / l adrenaline to pg / l:
0.19 (87).
The protocol consists of 18 minutes of continuous exercise, where speed and / or
gradient is increased every 3 minutes. In turn, the speeds are 2.7, 2.7, 2.7, 2.7, 5.4 and
6.7 km / h, and the gradients are 0, 5, 10, 12, 14 and 16%, respectively (87).
The significant increase in the level of adrenaline detected during exercise was
observed only 18 minutes after the initial value (P <0.01). The significant increase in
the lactate level after 18 minutes is the reason for the significant increase in plasma
adrenaline (P <0.005) (87).
The 16% increase in the level of adrenaline hormone secreted during exercise
demonstrates the effect of doing sports on adrenaline release.
4.6. DOPAMIN
4.6.1 Listening to Music
 Molecular level of music exited the neural processes. This type of application
can be done by PET scans which transmit biomolecules with radioactive positron
emitter (88).
Figure 8 is the demonstration of the effects of dopamine secretion while
listening music on brain with the analyze of PET data.

“Figure 8 Evidence for dopamine secretion during pleasurable music listening. (a)
Statistical parametric maps (t statistic on sagittal, coronal and axial slices) reveal
significant (P < 0.001) [11C]raclopride binding potential (BP) decreases bilaterally
in the caudate, putamen and NAcc (white arrows) during pleasurable compared
with neutral music listening (Supplementary Table 2), indicating increased
dopamine release during pleasurable music. (b) Changes in binding potential (BP)
values plotted separately for each individual; note that the change was consistent
for the majority of people at each site (88).”
When comparing satisfactory music to neutral music PET data analysis has
shown that endogenous dopamine transmission has risen as a lowering in [11C]
raclopride binding potential, bilaterally in both the dorsal and ventral striatum (P <
0.001; Fig. 2a) have indicated. The right caudate and the right nucleus accumbens
(NAcc; Fig. 2b and Supplementary Table 2) were the regions with highest percentage of
dopamine binding potential change. Through the findings the dopamine secretion in
striatal reward systems is linked to amusing music (88).
5. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

In this study, the effects of the activities; driving, listening to music, doing sports
and dancing which are the motivation sources in daily life on the levels of dopamine,
endorphine, adrenaline and noradrenaline hormones besides serotonin hormone release
were investigated.
 Serotonin is a hormone that is produced regularly in body and increases it’s
secretion during the pleasurable activities. The fact that driving automobile, listening to
music, doing sports and dancing are the activities leads to increase in secretion of
serotonin is acquired by reviewing the literature.
Dopamine is the hormone that activates the reward system of the brain.
Listening to music among these activities causes the increase in the serotonin hormone,
also leads to significant increase in dopamine.
Increment of endorphine known as pain reliever has seen mostly during the
dance activity. In the evidence obtained that decrease in the sense of pain is observed
with increase in the pain threshold by secretion of endorphine hormone during
synchronized dance activity.
Adrenaline and noradrenaline have a role in every activity leads speed and
movement. Datas have shown an increase is observing while doing sports and dancing,
they also demonstrate that the increase is above normal, especially during automobile
driving.
Following graphs summarise percentage increase of each hormone secretion
according to activity type.
5.1 Dancing

Figure 10. Increase of various hormone secretion during the dancing activity, by
percentages.
Figure 10 demonstrates increment of hormones: adrenaline is 56% for women
and 17% for men; increment of noradrenaline is 242% for women and 17% for men;
increase in serotonin is %16,1 for women and %54,35 for men; also increase in
endorphine is ascertained as %111 during dance action.
5.2 Playing Sports

Figure 11. Increase of various hormone secretion during the sports activity, by
percentages
Figure 11 demonstrates increment of hormones: adrenaline is 212% for women
and 661% for men; increment of noradrenaline is 376% for women and 524% for men;
increase in serotonin is 19,17% for women and 42,77% for men during sports.
5.3 Listening to Music
Figure 12. Increase of various hormone secretion during the listening to music, by
percentages
In the Figure 12, while listening to music 29,9% increase of serotonin increase
besides 24% increase of dopamine is visualized.
5.4 Automobile Driving
Figure 13. Increase of various hormone secretion during the automobile driving,
by percentages
The increase in release of adrenaline and noradrenaline known as catecholamine
is seen at most during automobile driving. The increase of catecholamines is visualized
as 662% in Figure 13.
Consequently, in this review study, serotonin out of the mentioned hormones
that has increased while performing all selected activities. The increase percentages are
demonstrated as 29,9% during listening to music; 19,17% for women and 42,77% in
males during playing sports; 16,1% in females and 54,35% for males while dancing. In
the sport and dance activities that the ratios of women and men are examined separately,
it is observed that the increase rate of serotonin for men is higher than the women’s
values and this situation is thought to be resulted from the differences in body structure
of men. In addition to this, another data obtained during the use of automobiles, in case
of serotonin intake to the body, normally failed patients’ driving abilities are enhanced
and the success rate was found to be 24%.
Evidences that related with the dopamine increase that found at most about the
listening to music. The 24% increase rate that is achieved, supports the idea that
listening to music has the reward effect on the individual by the activating the reward
systems in the brain.
The effects of increment of the endorphine hormone on the participants who
perform a dance synchronously is obserbed with the rate of 111% by the measuring
through naltrexone.
The hormone adrenaline appears to formation of all actions that require
movement: dancing, doing sports, driving. As a result of dancing activity, the increase
in adrenaline is 56% in women, 215% in men; The increase of noradrenaline is seen as
242% in women and 17% in men. As a result of the activity of doing sports, the
increase of adrenaline is 212% in women and 661% in men; The increase in
noradrenaline is indicated in the graphs that it is 376% for women and 524% for men.
In general, in accordance with the activities performed, the increase in muscle mass
required for the body structures is associated with the fact that male metabolism
produces more hormones than women's metabolism. In addition to these ratios, the
action with the highest increase in catecholamine, namely adrenaline and noradrenaline,
is automobile driving. The above-normal increase 662% of catecholamines show the
effect of high-speed cars on emotion and motor functions.
The increase percentages are demonstrated as 29,9% during listening to music;
19,17% for women and 42,77% in males during playing sports; 16,1% in females and
54,35% for males while dancing.
Adrenaline hormone has been observed during the all activities that require
movement: dancing, playing sports, automobile driving. As a result of dancing activity
increase percentages are obtained as 56% for women and 215% for men; as for the
noradrenaline increment is found as 242% for women and 17% for men. In
consequence of playing sports, increase of adrenaline has been seen as 212% for
women and 661% for men; noradrenaline increase values are 376% for women and
524% for men. Generally, these increase rates in accordance with the activities are
performed, are associated with the men’s metabolism produces more hormone
according to women’s metabolism due to men’s body structure includes more muscle
mass. In addition the these ratios increase of catecholamine in other words adrenaline
and noradrenaline has seen at most while automobile driving activity. The abnormal
value that indicates 662% increase of catecholamines demonstrates the affect of driving
an automobile with high velocity on emotion and motor functions.
6. SUGGESTIONS

It is the fact that hormones are secreted at various rates as a result of various
activities. In accordance with the findings, it was determined that the effects of
hormones on emotional state varying according to diversity of hormones. Considering
the activities as dancing, playing sports and automobile driving that have effects on
hormone excretion, also the effects of similar activities on selected hormones can be
examined. In addition to the hormonal change due to activities, observations of the
changes in the individuals’ during the intake of hormones externally can be the research
subject. In addition, it was stated that not only physical activities have effect, also
mental activities such as listening to music affects the hormones. Besides, intelligibility
of chemical changes of hormones that are arisen from daily activities, hormones can be
expressed in a remarkable visual study format in order to be better understood by large
masses. Also, the hormone percentages that are obtained can be used as a source of
inspiration and reference for these visual studies.

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