Hill roads : Speed, sight distance, geological conditions and alignment

selection criteria, gradient selection, hair pin bends, retaining and slope
protection structures in hill roads, use of bio-engineering elements,
drainage structures, stability of formation cut and fill slopes

A hill road is usually defined on the basis of terrain types. This can be classified
into four groups based on the ground cross slope i.e. the slope approximately
perpendicular to the centre line of the highway alignment.

Hence a hill road is one which passes through the terrain with a cross slope of
25% or more. However, there are sections along hill roads with cross slope less
than 25% also, especially when the road follows the river route but still these
sections are also referred as hill roads.

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Design & construction problems in hill roads:
A hilly or mountainous area is characterized by a highly broken relief
Widely differing elevations & steep slopes.
The formation of rocks differs in a wide range
The geological condition varies from place to place within a short section.
Hill cross slopes which were stable before the construction may turn into
unstable after the construction
Variation in hydro-geological conditions
structures for hill road may exceed (50-60)% of the total construction cost
slope needs careful arrangement of erosion protection works.
Special safety precautions

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 Special consideration in hill road design:
• Route location & alignment survey
• Geometric design of hill roads (gradient selection & design of
hair pin bend)
• Typical cross-section of hill roads
• Special structures in hill roads (retaining, drainage, slope
protection structures)
General consideration
i) Temperature ii) Rainfall
iii) Atmospheric pressure & winds iv) Geological conditions
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 Route Location in Hills
• River route (Route location along valley)
• Ridge route ( Route through mountain passes)
Alignment survey
 Reconnaissance
 Trace cut
 Detailed survey
Gradient
Altitude (m) 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Engine power reduction 11.3 21.5 30.8 39.2 46.7
(%)

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HAIR PIN BENDS

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 HAIR PIN BENDS
• Tangent length of reverse curve
• T=r tan β/2
• Where, T= length of tangent
• r= radius of the reverse curve
• β= deflection angle
• The distance from the apex of the reverse curve to the
commencement of the main curve is
• AE=BF= T+ m
• From right angled triangle AOE or BOF it will be found that, tan
β=OE/AE= R/ (T+m) = R/(r tan β/2+m)……..i
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 HAIR PIN BENDS
Length of main curve, c= π R∆/180= πRγ/180
• From trigonometry,
Hence the total length of the bend is S= 2(Cr+m) +C
• tan β = 2 tan β/2/1-tan2 β/2………………………..ii
• from equation i and ii
• R/(r tan β/2+m) =2 tan β/2/1-tan2 β/2
• R-Rtan2β/2= 2 r tan2β/2 + 2m tan β/2
• 2r tan 2 β/2 + Rtan2β/2 +2m tan β/2-R=0
• tan2β/2(2r+R) + 2m tan β/2-R=0
• tan β/2= -2m+ (4m2-4(2r+R)) 1/2/ (2r+R)
• tan β/2 = -m+m2-R (2r+R) 1/2/ (2r+R)

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Typical Cross- section of hill roads
• Cut & fill
• Bench type
• Box cutting
• Embankment with retaining walls
• Semi bridge
• Semi tunnels
• Platforms
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Cut & fill

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Bench type

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Box cutting

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Embankment with retaining walls

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Semi bridge

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Semi tunnels

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Platforms

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Special structures in hill roads
• Retaining structures
• Drainage structures
• Slope protection structures
Retaining wall based on
• Gravity walls
• Semi-gravity walls
• Cantilever walls
• Counter- fort walls
• Buttressed walls
• Crib walls
• Reinforced soil wall
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The design procedure usually comprises of the following steps
• Assemble the general information: topographical & physical surveys,
controlling dimensions.
• Analyze sub soil condition: soil profile
• Establish surcharge loads- highways, railways, building & other structures
• Select type & tentative portion of wall
• Compute earth pressure & surcharge pressure
• Analyze the structural stability
• Analyze the foundation stability
• Design structural elements
• Select drainage & backfill
• Predict settlement & movement of wall
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Drainage of water from hill slope

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 Bio- engineering
Bioengineering can be defined as the technique as the use of livening plants
either alone or in conjunction with small scale civil engineering structures for the
purpose of reducing the shallow- seated instability and controlling erosion on
slopes.
1) vegetative systems:
• Catch Function
• Armour Function
• Reinforce Function
• Support function
• Anchor Function
• Drain Function
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The systems used in bioengineering are as follows:
• Horizontal/ Vertical grass planting
• Diagonal lines of grass planting.
• Chevron lines of grass planting
• Herring bone lines of grass planting
• Random pattern of grass planting,
• Shurb/ tree planting
• Palisades
• Brush layering
• Fascines
• Bamboo planting

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Small Scale Civil Engineering Structures
Function Applicatio Site requirements Limitations
• Check-dam n

• Jute net Jute net Cheap, Smooth plane slope ,

sandy soil, Homogeneous
Shrinks , Not on fine plastic soils

Not on cobble size soil, Cannot be used in riling

• Wire fence 0
>30 slope materials
soil

• Dentition Wire fence 0

>30 slope Good foundation Cannot be used in riling soil,
expensive difficult to install, Not on soft rock
• Stone pitch Check-dam Small Need to be well keyed Expensive, Small amounts retained
gullies
• Toe wall Armour Permeable Temporary measure
• French drain Slope Cover
slope
Wind damage
Any Slope
• Unlined earth ditch Installation difficult for large area

Damaged by debris and swift water

Stone Erodible
pitching soil slope

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Interaction between Plants and Civil Engineering Structures

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Stability of formation cut and fill slopes

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Highway Drainage: importance of highway drainage, surface drainage
and estimation of water quantity, design of drainage structures, erosion
control and dissipating structures, sub-surface drains, cross drainage
structures and types
It is the process of removing & controlling excess surface &
sub soil water within the right of way
Importance of highway drainage
 Moisture in the subsoil beyond certain limit decrease the bearing capacity
 Water standing on the carriageway is a danger to high speed traffic
 Maintenance & repair works of structures increased
 Reduction in the strength of construction materials.
 Thousands of rupees are to be spent for the maintenance & repair works
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 Causes of moisture variation in sub grade soil
Free water:
• Seepage of water from higher ground adjacent to the road.
• Penetration of water through the pavement
• Transfer of moisture from the shoulders & pavement edges
Ground water:
• Seepage flow from adjacent higher land.
• Capillary rise
• Fluctuation of water table
• Transfer of water vapor due to differences in temperature in upper & lower
soil layers
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surface drainage and estimation of water quantity
Surface drainage system are:
• Hydrological analysis
• Hydraulic analysis
• Q= CiAd
• Where, Q= run off in m3/sec C= run off coefficient, i=intensity
of rainfall mm/sec
• Ad= drainage area in hectare (10000m2)
• C= (C1A1+C2A2+………….CnAn)/ (A1+A2+…………………..An)

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Hydraulic analysis
• If V is the allowable velocity, then the area of cross
section of drain “A’ can be found from the relation.
• Q= A*V
• Then value of longitudinal slope ‘s’ is determined from
manning’s formula , V=1/n*R2/3* s1/2
• Where, n= manning’s roughness coefficient.
R= hydraulic radius=A/p
• P= wetted perimeter s= longitudinal slope of
channels.
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Cross drainage
• Culverts & small bridges – more than 75%
• Causeway
A culvert is a closed conduit placed under the embankment to carry water
across the roadway
Types of culverts:-
• Pipe culvert
• Box culvert
• Slab culvert
• Arch culvert

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 Pipe culvert Box culvert

 non- perennial streams or at very small

streams where flow does not carry with it  Capable to take high impact load
debris.  Suitable for stream with large flow & heavy
 Standard size of pipe culvert like 0.5m, 0.75m, boulders/ debris movements
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 Slab culvert Arch culvert

- Made with stone masonry or concrete blocks - Proffered under high fills & deep cuts where
piers & abutments. loading heavy & foundation for abutments is
- Perennial or non perennial streams where heavy rocky.
boulder movement is not encountered. - Small span – stone masonry upto 6m, large span-
- May serve large flow but should be free from big
reinforced concrete
boulders since impact over stone masonry
- For rock foundation arch culvert may be an
abutments & piers is hazardous.
economical solution.
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Causeway:
Causeway may be dry stone & R.C.C.

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Aqueduct

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Inverted Siphon

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Erosion control & energy dissipating measures

• Lining of drains & ditch checks (check damp)

• Providing road rapid (chute)
• Providing fall or drop structures
• Miscellaneous erosion control measures
• -Vegetation, -slope pitching, lining & protection, -
bank protection, spur &check dams/walls

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Providing road rapid (chute)

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Providing fall or drop structure

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Slope pitching , lining & protection walls

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Bank protection, spur & check dams

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 Sub surface drainage system

Methods of sub surface drainage:

1.Drainage of infiltration water
2.Control of seepage water
3.Lowering water table
4.Control of capillary rise

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Drainage of infiltration water

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Control of seepage water

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Lowering water table

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Control of capillary rise

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 HighwayMaterials:
Binding Materials, types of aggregates and tests on
their gradation, strength, durability, mathematical
and graphical method of aggregate gradation,
binding materials, natural bitumen, petroleum
bitumen, road tar, penetration tests, consistency
tests, bituminous mixes and asphalt concrete, open
and dense graded mixes, design of asphalt mixes,
bitumen flash point test
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 Binding Materials
The materials used in road construction are classified into three
groups:
• Binding materials
• Mineral materials
• Other materials
Binding materials
• Stone dust or cohesive soil
• Cement, lime or other inorganic binding material
• Bitumen, tar & other organic binding materials
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 Types of aggregates and tests on their gradation
Based on size: (1) Coarse aggregate, (2) Fine aggregate
Based on type of rock: (1) Igneous rocks, (2) sedimentary rocks &
(3) metamorphic rocks
Based on strength: (1) hard aggregates, (2) soft aggregates
Based on shape: (1) rounded aggregates (2) Flaky aggregates (3)
Irregular aggregates (4) angular aggregates (5) Elongated
aggregates
Based on surface textures: (1) Glassy aggregates, (2) Smooth
aggregates (3) Granular aggregates (4) Rough aggregates
(5) Crystalline aggregates (6) Honeycomb aggregates (7)
Porous aggregates
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Testing of highway aggregates:
i. Descriptive tests
ii. Non-destructive tests
iii. Destructive tests
iv. Bitumen adhesion tests
Non- destructive test
Gradation tests
Shape test
Flakiness Index
Angularity Number=67- ((100*W)/ (Ww *Ga))

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 Destructive test:
• Abrasion test
• Crushing value test
• Impact test

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Desirable properties of road aggregates:
• Strength: Resistance of crushing
• Hardness: Resistance of abrasion (wear & tear)
• Toughness: Resistance of impact
• Durability: Resistance to weather action-for long periods
• Proper shape & size: Shapes determining interlocking,
compaction, strength
• Good adhesion: anti-stripping is determined is determined by
adhesion
• cementation

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Mathematical and graphical method of aggregate

Graphical Method: the mathematical method for the gradation of

different aggregates are suitable only to combine two or three
aggregates. In cases of more than three aggregates, mathematical
method is very complicated and sometimes quite impossible to
find the appropriate proportion. In such cases graphical methods
are used. In this method, percentage passing of different
aggregates are plotted on a single graph. Percentage passing of
each respective sieve size line is shown by vertical line, in this way
the appropriate gradation factor for different aggregates are
obtained.

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Mathematical

Q1.The size of fine, intermediate and coarse aggregate from the

crushing plant and desired specifications of aggregate for road
construction is given in table below. Determine by the mathematical
method, the proportion of aggregate A, B and C to be mixed to
produce an aggregate complying with the given specification.

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B. S. Sieve Percentage Passing in given sieve Specifications
size, mm size

Aggregate Aggregate Aggregate Limits Mid Point

A B C
25.0 100 100 100 100 100
12.7 100 100 94 90-100 95
4.76 100 100 54 60-75 67.5
1.18 100 66.4 31.3 40-55 47.5
0.300 100 26.4 22.8 20-35 27.5
0.15 73.6 17.6 9.00 12-22 17.00
0.075 40.1 5.00 3.10 5-10 7.5
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Bituminous materials

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Bitumen:
bitumen is a viscous liquid or solid material black or dark brown in color, having
adhesive properties, consisting essentially of hydrocarbons, derived from crude
oil during fractional distillation or asphalt occurring in natural form
Road tar:
Tar is the viscous liquid obtained when natural organic materials such as wood
& coal carbonized or destructively distilled in the absence of air
• RT1= lowest viscosity & is used for surface painting in very cold conditions
• RT2= standard surface painting under normal climatic condition
• RT3= used for surface painting, renewal coats & premixing chips for top
course & light carpets
• RT4= used for premixing tar macadam in base course
• RT5= for grouting, highest viscosity among the road tars.
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S.N. Bitumen Tar
1 It is the product of fractional distillation It is the fractional distillation of crude
of crude oil tar obtained by destructive distillation
of coal(coal product)
2 It has black to dark brown color It has black to dark brown color
3 Has lesser affinity with aggregates in Has better affinity in presence of water
presence of water

4 Has better weather resisting property Has poor weather resisting property
5 Is less temperature susceptible Is more temperature susceptible
6 Contains less free carbon Contains more free carbon
7 Not recommended to use in service Recommended to use in such area as
station, fuel station area due to solubility tar does not loss viscosity in oil.
in petroleum oil
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Cutback bitumen: . In cutback bitumen suitable solvent is used to lower the
viscosity of the bitumen
There are different types of cutback bitumen
Rapid curing (RC): surface dressing
Medium curing (MC): premix with less quantity of fine aggregates
Slow curing (SC): premix with appreciable quantity of fine aggregates
Bitumen Emulsion
Bitumen emulsion is a liquid product in which bitumen is suspended in a finely
divided condition in an aqueous medium and stabilized by suitable material.
Rapid setting (RS): surface dressing work
Medium setting (MS): preferred for premix and patch repairs work
Slow setting (SC): rainy season Bitumen
“emulsions are ideal binders for hill road”
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 Tests on bituminous binders & their significance
Consistency tests: Composition tests:
1) Penetration test 1)Distillation test
2) Viscosity test 2) water content test
3) Softening point test 3) loss on heating test
4) Ductility test
4) ash content test
5) Float test
5) solubility test

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 Bituminous mix design:
The mix design (wet-mix) determines the optimum bitumen content
Mix design: Mix design is done for determining
• An economical blend ( mixture)/ With proper gradation of aggregates
• Adequate proportion of bitumen /To fulfill desired proportion of mix
Constituents of a mix
• Coarse aggregates: Offer compressive and shear strength and shows good
interlocking properties. E.g. Granite
• Fine aggregates: Fills the voids in the coarse aggregate and stiffens the
binder. E.g. Sand, Rock dust
• Filler: Fills the voids, stiffens the binder and offers permeability. E.g. Rock
dust, cement, lime
• Binder: Fills the voids, cause particle adhesion and gluing and offers
impermeability. E.g. Bitumen, Asphalt, Tar
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Open graded
 An aggregate in which a skip between the sieve gradations has been
deliberately achieved so that the voids are not filled with
intermediate-size particles.
 An aggregate that contains almost no mineral filler
 A compacted aggregate with relatively large void spaces.
 Dense graded hot mix asphalt is also known as asphaltic concrete and
designated by the abbreviation AC
Carpets are laid in single courses or double courses
Thickness of single course not exceed 7.5 thickness including wearing
In open graded mixes failure is mostly due to the wearing of binder
In dense graded mixes tends to waving and deformation.
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 Requirements of Bituminous mixes
• Stability
• Durability
• Flexibility
Marshall method of
• Skid resistance
bituminous mixes Design
• Workability
 Selection of aggregates
 Selection of aggregate
grading
 Proportioning of aggregate
 Preparation of specimen

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Determination of specific gravity of compacted specimen
 Gt= 100/ ((w1/G1) + (w2/G2) + (w3/G3) + (w4/G4))
W1, w2, w3, w4 are % by weight of coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, filler
material, bitumen
G1, G2, G3, G4 are specific gravity respectively of W1, w2, w3, w4
• Measurable specific gravity at laboratory is Gm = Weight/ Volume
• Percentage air voids in the specimen Vv= (Gt-Gm)/Gt
• Percentage volume bitumen content, Vb=( % weight of bitumen/ Specific
gravity of bitumen)* Gm
• Voids in mineral aggregate (VMA)= Vv+Vb
• Percentage –voids filled with bitumen VFB= 100* Vb/VMA
• Stability test on compacted specimens
• Selection of optimum bitumen content.
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Introduction & test apparatus
• Marshall method of designing bituminous mix is named behind a bituminous engineer-
Mr. Bruce Marshall
• Test is applicable to hot mix design of bitumen & aggregates with maximum size 2.5 cm
• In this test, the resistance to plastic deformation of cylindrical specimen of bituminous
mixture is measured when loaded at the periphery at a rate 5 cm per min.
• Stability of the mix is defined as a maximum load carried by compacted specimen at
standard test temperature of 600c
• The flow is measured as the deformation in units of 0.25 mm between during stability test
• The apparatus consists of a cylindrical mould 10.16cm & 6.35 cm height with a base plate
& collar
• 4.54 Kg load at 45.7 cm of fall to compact the specimen
• Loading machine of 5 tons capacity at rate of 5cm per minute.
• A dial gauge is used to measure the deformation.
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