(Reapproved 2002)

Guide for the Design of Durable Parking

Structures
Reported by ACI Committee 362

Thomas G. Weil Thomas J. Downs

Chairman secretary

James C. Anderson David M. Fertal David C. Monroe

Michael L. Brainerd John F. Gibbons Lewis Y. Ng
Ralph T. Brown Harald G. Greve Carl A. Peterson
Debrethann R. Cagley Keith W. Jacobson Suresh G. Pinjarkar
Girdhari L. Chhabra Norman G. Jacobson, Jr. Predrag L. Popovic
Anthony P. Chrest Anthony N. Kojundic Robert L. Terpening
Jo Coke Gerard G. Litvan Ronald Van Der Meid
Thomas J. D’ Arcy Howard R. May Carl H. Walker
Boris Dragunsky Gerard J. McGuire Stewart C. Watson
Bertold E. Weinberg

This guide is a summary of practical information regarding design of park- Chapter 2-Structural system, p. 8
ing structures for durability. It also includes information about design 2.l-Introduction
issues related to parking structure construction and maintenance
2.2-Factors in the choice of the structural system
The guide is intended for use in establishing criteria for the design and 2.3-Performance characteristics of common construction types
construction of concrete parking structures. It is written to specifically 2.4-Performance characteristics of structural elements
address aspects of parking structures that are different from those of other
buildings or structures. 2.5-Problem areas
2.6-Below-grade structures
Keywords: Concrete durability; construction; corrosion; curing; finishes; 2.7-Multiuse structures
freeze-thaw durability; maintenance; parking structures; post-tensioning;
precast concrete; prestressed concrete.
Chapter 3-Durability and materials, p. 20
3.1-Introduction
CONTENTS
3.2-Drainage
Chapter l-General, p. 2 3.3-Concrete
l.1-Introduction 3.4-Protection of embedded metals
1.2-Definition of terms 3.5-Protection of concrete
1.3-Background 3.6-Guidelines for selection of durability systems for
1.4-Durability elements floors and roofs

ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and Com- Chapter 4-Design Issues related to construction
mentaries are intended for guidance in planning, designing, exe- practice, p. 35
cuting, and inspecting construction. This document is intended 4.l-Introduction
for the use of individuals who are competent to evaluate the 4.2-Concrete cover
significance and limitations of its content and recommenda- 4.3-Vertical clearances for vehicles
tions and who will accept responsibility for the application of the
material it contains. The American Concrete Institute disclaims 4.4-Floor elevations for drainage
any and all responsibility for the stated principles. The Institute
shall not be liable for any loss or damage arising therefrom.
Reference to this document shall not be made in contract docu- ACI 362.1R-97 became effective May 8,1997. This report supercedes ACI 362.1R94.
Copyright Q 2002, American Concrete Institute.
ments. If items found in this document are desired by the Archi- All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any
means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by electronic or
tect/Engineer to be a part of the contract documents, they shall be mechanical device, printed. written, or oral. or recording for sound or visual reproduc-
restated in mandatory language for incorporation by the Archi- tion or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device. unless permission in
writing is obtained from the copyright proprietors.
tect/Engineer.

362.1 R-l
362.1R-2 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

4.5-Materials increases slump of freshly mixed mortar or concrete

4.6-Placement and consolidation without increasing water content or maintains slump with
4.7-Finishing a reduced amount of water, the effect being due to
4.8-Curing factors other than air entrainment.
4.9-Reinforcement-Repair of corrosion protection Admixture, high-range water-reducing-A water-re-
4.10-Application of sealers ducing admixture capable of producing large water reduc-
4.11-Application membranes tion or great flowability without causing undue set retar-
4.12-Specialty concretes dation or entrainment of air in mortar or concrete.
4.13-Environmental considerations Air content-The volume of air voids in cement paste,
4.14-Field quality control mortar, or concrete, exclusive of pore space in aggregate
particles, usually expressed as a percentage of total
Chapter 5-Design issues related to maintenance prac- volume of the paste, mortar, or concrete.
tice, p. 37 Air entrainment-The incorporation of air in the form
5.1-Introduction of minute bubbles (generally smaller than 1 mm) during
5.2-Suggested minimum maintenance program the mixiig of either concrete or mortar.
5.3-Fix it now!! Air void-A space in cement paste, mortar, or con-
crete filled with air; an entrapped air void is char-
Chapter 6-References, p. 38 acteristically 1 mm or more in size and irregular in
6.1-Cited references shape; an entrained air void is typically between 10 pm
6.2-Acknowledgment and 1 mm in diameter and spherical or nearly so.
Bleeding-The autogenous flow of mixing water with-
in, or its emergence from, newly placed concrete or mor-
CHAPTER l-GENERAL tar; caused by the settlement of the solid materials within
the mass; also called water gain.
l.l-Introduction Bond-Adhesion and grip of concrete or mortar to
ACI 318 requires a general consideration of the dura- reinforcement or to other surfaces against which it is
bility of concrete structures. Because some concrete placed, including friction due to shrinkage and longi-
parking structures have undergone significant deteriora- tudinal shear in the concrete engaged by the bar defor-
tion, it is the purpose of this guide to provide specific mations; the adhesion of cement paste to aggregate.
practical information regarding the design, construction, Bond breaker-A material used to prevent adhesion
and maintenance of parking structures with respect to of newly placed concrete or sealants and the substrate.
durability. Bonded member-A prestressed concrete member in
The guide is primarily concerned with those aspects of which the tendons are bonded to the concrete either
parking structures that differentiate them from other directly or through grouting.
structures or buildings. Thus, the guide does not treat all Cast-in-place-Concrete which is deposited in the
aspects of the structural design of parking structures. place where it is required to harden as part of the
structure, as opposed to precast concrete.
1.2-Definition of terms Cementitious-Having cementing properties.
Reference is made to the following selected terms to C.I.P.-Cast-in-place, referring to a method of con-
help clarify the intent of the information provided crete construction. See cast-in-place.
throughout the document. Unless otherwise noted, the Chert-A very fine grained siliceous rock character-
terms are as defined in ACI 116R and are repeated here ized by hardness and conchoidal fracture in dense varie-
for the convenience of the reader. ties, the fracture becoming splintery and the hardness
Admixture-A material other than water, aggregates, decreasing in porous varieties, and in a variety of colors;
hydraulic cement, and fiber reinforcement, used as an it is composed of silica in the form of chalcedony, cryp-
ingredient of concrete or mortar, and added to the batch tocrystalline or microcrystalline quartz, or opal, or com-
immediately before or during its mixing. binations of any of these.
Admixture, accelerating-An admixture that causes an Cold joint-A joint or discontinuity resulting from a
increase in the rate of hydration of the hydraulic cement, delay in placement of sufficient time to preclude a union
and thus shortens the time of setting, or increases the of the material in two successive lifts.
rate of strength development, or both. Composite construction-A type of construction using
Admixture, air-entraining-An admixture that causes members produced by combining different materials (e.g.,
the development of a system of microscopic air bubbles concrete and structural steel), members produced by
in the concrete, mortar, or cement paste during mixing. combining cast-in-place and precast concrete, or cast-in-
Admixture, retarding-An admixture that causes a de- place concrete elements constructed in separate place-
crease in the rate of hydration of the hydraulic cement, ments but so interconnected that the combined compo-
and lengthens the time of setting. nents act together as a single member and respond to
Admixture, water-reducing-An admixture that either loads as a unit.
 DESIGN OF PARKING STRUCTURES 362.1R-3

Concrete-A composite material that consists essen- two stems and a combined top flange.
tially of a binding medium within which are embedded Elastic design-A method of analysis in which the de-
particles or fragments of aggregate, usually a combination sign of a member is based on a linear stress-strain rela-
of fine aggregate and coarse aggregate; in portland- tionship and corresponding limiting elastic properties of
cement concrete, the binder is a mixture of portland the material.
cement and water. Elastic shortening-In prestressed concrete, the
Concrete, precast-Concrete cast elsewhere than its shortening of a member that occurs immediately on the
final position. application of forces induced by prestressing.
Concrete, prestressed-Concrete in which internal Expansion joint-A separation provided between ad-
stresses of such magnitude and distribution are intro- joining parts of a structure to allow movement where
duced that the tensile stresses resulting from the service expansion is likely to exceed contraction.
loads are counteracted to a desired degree; in reinforced Flat plate-A flat slab without column capitals or drop
concrete the prestress is commonly introduced by ten- panels (see also flat slab).
sioning the tendons. Flat slab-A concrete slab reinforced in two or more
Construction joint-The surface where two successive directions and having drop panels or column capitals or
placements of concrete meet, across which it may be de- both (see also flat plate).
sirable to achieve bond and through which reinforcement Fly ash-The finely divided residue resulting from the
may be continuous. combustion of ground or powdered coal and which is
Contraction joint-Formed, sawed, or tooled groove transported from the firebox through the boiler by flue
in a concrete structure to create a weakened plane and gases.
regulate the location of cracking resulting from the Isolation joint-A separation between’adjoining parts
dimensional change of different parts of the structure. of a concrete structure, usually a vertical plane, at a
Control joint-See contraction joint. designed location such as to interfere least with perfor-
Corrosion-Destruction of metal by chemical, electro- mance of the structure, yet such as to allow relative
chemical, or electrolytic reaction with its environment. movement in three directions and avoid formation of
Corrosion inhibitor-A chemical compound, either cracks elsewhere in the concrete and through which all or
liquid or powder, that effectively decreases corrosion of part of the bonded reinforcement is interrupted (see also
steel reinforcement before being imbedded in concrete, contraction joint and expansion joint).
or in hardened concrete if introduced, usually in very Joint sealant-Compressible material used to exclude
small concentrations, as an admixture. water and solid foreign materials from joints.
Crack-A complete or incomplete separation, of Jointer (concrete)-A metal tool about 6 in. (150 mm)
either concrete or masonry, into two or more parts long and from 2 to 41/2 in. (50 to 100 mm) wide and hav-
produced by breaking or fracturing. ing shallow, medium, or deep bits (cutting edges) ranging
Crack-control reinforcement-Reinforcement in con- from 31~~ to J/ in. (5 to 20 mm) or deeper used to cut a
crete construction designed to prevent openings of joint partly through fresh concrete.
cracks, often effective in limiting them to uniformly Nonprestressed reinforcement-Reinforcing steel, not
distributed small cracks. subjected to either pretensioning or post-tensioning.
Creep-Time-dependent deformation due to sustained Plastic cracking-Cracking that occurs in the surface
load. of fresh concrete soon after it is placed and while it is
Deformed bar-A reinforcing bar with a manufactured still plastic.
pattern of surface ridges intended to prevent slip when Plastic shrinkage cracks-see plastic cracking.
the bar is embedded in concrete. Post-tensioning-A method of prestressing reinforced
Deicer-A chemical such as sodium or calcium chlor- concrete in which tendons are tensioned after the con-
ide, used to melt ice or snow on slabs and pavements, crete has hardened.
such melting being due to depression of the freezing Pour strip-A defined area of field-placed concrete
point. used to provide access to embedments, improve tolerance
Delamination-A separation along a plane parallel to control between adjacent elements, or enhance drainage
a surface as in the separation of a coating from a sub- lines. Pour strips are typically associated with pretopped,
strate or the layers of a coating from each other, or in prestressed structures but may be utilized with other
the case of a concrete slab, a horizontal splitting, structural types as well (not defined in ACI 116R).
cracking, or separation of a slab in a plane roughly Precast-A concrete member that is cast and cured in
parallel to, and generally near, the upper surface; found other than its final position; the process of placing and
most frequently in bridge decks and caused by the corro- finishing precast concrete (see also cast-in-place).
sion of reinforcing steel or freezing and thawing, similar Prestress-To place a hardened concrete member or
to spalling, scaling, or peeling except that delamination an assembly of units in a state of compression prior to
affects large areas and can often only be detected by application of service loads, the stress developed by
tapping. prestressing, such as pretensioning or post-tensioning (see
Double-tee-A precast concrete member composed of also concrete, prestressed; prestressing steel; preten-
362.1R-4 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

sioning; and post-tensioning). to member depth.

Prestressed concrete--See concrete, prestressed. Stirrup-A reinforcement used to resist shear and
Prestressing steel-High-strength steel used to pre- diagonal tension stresses in a structural member, typically
stress concrete, commonly seven-wire strands, single a steel bar bent into a U or box shape and installed per-
wires, bars, rods, or groups of wires or strands (see also pendicular to or at an angle to the longitudinal rein-
prestressed; concrete, prestressed; pretensioning, and forcement formed of individual units, open or closed, or
post-tensioning). of continuously wound reinforcement. Note - the term
Pretensioning-A method of prestressing reinforced “stirrups” is usually applied to lateral reinforcement in
concrete in which the tendons are tensioned before the flexural members and the term “ties” to lateral reinforce-
concrete has hardened. ment in vertical compression members (see also tie).
Pretopped-A term for describing the increased flange Strand-A prestressing tendon composed of a number
thickness of a manufactured precast concrete member of wires twisted about center wire or core.
(most commonly a double-tee beam) provided in the Superplasticizer-See admixture, high-range water-
place of a field-placed concrete topping. (Definition by reducing.
ACI 362.) Tie-(l) loop of reinforcing bars encircling the longi-
Rebar-Colloquial term for reinforcing bar (see rein- tudinal steel in columns; (2) a tensile unit adapted to
forcement). holding concrete forms secure against the lateral pressure
Reinforcement-Bars, wires, strands, or other slender of unhardened concrete.
members embedded in concrete in such a manner that Tooled joint-A groove tooled into fresh concrete with
they and the concrete act together in resisting forces. a concrete jointer tool to control the location of shrink-
Retarder-An admixture that delays the setting of age cracks. See contraction joint.
cement paste, and hence of mixtures such as mortar or Unbended post-tensioning-Post-tensioning in which
concrete containing cement. the post-tensioning tendons are not bonded to the sur-
Saturation-(l) in general: the condition of coexis- rounding concrete.
tence in stable equilibrium of either a vapor and a liquid Unbended tendon-A tendon that is permanently pre-
or a vapor and solid phase of the same substance at the vented from bonding to the concrete after stressing.
same temperature; (2) as applied to aggregate or con- Water-cement ratio-The ratio of the amount of
crete, the condition such that no more liquid can be held water, exclusive only of that absorbed by the aggregates,
or placed within it. to the amount of cement in a concrete, mortar, grout, or
Screeding-The operation of forming a surface by the cement paste mixture; preferably stated as a decimal by
use of screed guides and a strikeoff. mass and abbreviated w/c.
Shrinkage-Decrease in either length or volume. Water-cementitious material ratio-The ratio of the
Shrinkage, drying--Shrinkage resulting from loss of amount of water, exclusive only of that absorbed by the
moisture. aggregate, to the amount of cementitious material in a
Shrinkage, plastic-Shrinkage that takes place before concrete or mortar mixture.
cement paste, mortar, grout, or concrete sets. w/c-See water-cement ratio and water-cementitious
SI (Systeme International)-The modern metric ratio.
system; see ASTM E 380. Yield strength-The stress, less than the maximum
Silica fume-Very fine noncrystalline silica produced attainable stress, at which the ratio of stress to strain has
in electric arc furnaces as a byproduct of elemental sil- dropped well below its value at low stresses, or at which
icon or alloys containing silicon; also is known as con- a material exhibits a specified limiting deviation from the
densed silica fume and microsilica. usual proportionality of stress to strain.
Slab-A flat, horizontal or nearly so, molded layer of
plain or reinforced concrete, usually of uniform but 1.3-Background
sometimes of variable thickness, either on the ground or Parking structures are built either as independent,
supported by beams, columns, walls, or other framework. free-standing structures or as integral parts of multi-use
Spall-A fragment, usually in the shape of a flake, de- structures. Parking structures may be above grade, at
tached from a larger mass by a blow, by the action of grade, or partially or fully below grade.
weather, by pressure, or by expansion within the larger Many different terms are used to describe parking
mass; a small spall involves a roughly circular depression structures. Some of the common terms include garage,
not greater than 20 mm in depth nor 150 mm in any parking garage, parking deck, parking ramp, parking
dimension; a large spall, that may be roughly circular or structure, parking facility, multilevel parking deck, and
oval or in some cases elongated, is more than 20 mm in open parking structure. This guide uses the general term
depth and 150 mm in greatest dimension. “parking structure.”
Spalling-The development of spalls. 1.3.1 Differences from other structures-The open
Span-Distance between the support reactions of parking structure (defined in various building codes as
members carrying transverse loads. having a large percentage of the facade open) is sub-
Span-depth ratio-The numerical ratio of total span jected, in varying degrees, to ambient weather conditions.
 DESIGN OF PARKING STRUCTURES 362.1R-5

Similarly, a completely enclosed parking structure is often

ventilated with untempered outside air. Frequently, park-
ing structures are very large in plan compared to most
enclosed structures. They are exposed to seasonal and
daily ambient temperature variations. These temperature
variations result in greater volume change effects than
enclosed structures experience. Restraint of volume
changes can create cracking of floor slabs, beams, and
columns, which, if unprotected, may allow rapid ingress
of water and chlorides, leading to deterioration.
The primary live loads are moving and parked vehi-
cles. For roof levels, consideration is frequently given to
some combination of vehicular and roof loads (water or
snow). At barrier walls or parapets some building codes
typically require consideration of a lateral bumper load.
Similar to a bridge deck, a parking structure is Fig. 1.1-Deicing salt-bearing slush brought into structure
exposed to weather. The roof level is exposed to precipi- in car wheel well
tation, solar heating, ultraviolet, infrared radiation, and
chemicals carried by wind and precipitation. deck is objectionable.
The edges of an open parking structure may be subject 1.4.1 Corrosion of embedded metal
to the same weather conditions as the roof, and other 1.4.1.1 Reinforcement-The electrochemical mech-
areas may experience runoff from the roof. All floors are anism of chloride-induced corrosion of steel embedded
subject to moisture in the form of water or snow carried in concrete is complex and continues to be studied. The
in on the undersides of vehicles, as shown in Fig. 1.1. high alkalinity of concrete inhibits corrosion of steel
This moisture may contain deicing salts in some climates. embedded in sound, dense concrete by forming a protec-
Unlike a bridge deck, the lower levels of a parking tive ferric oxide layer on the steel surface. Water-soluble
structure are not rinsed with rain. The structure’s expo- chloride ions can penetrate and undermine this protec-
sure to chlorides may be increased due to poor drainage tive layer, decrease the electrical resistivity of the con-
of the slab surface. In marine areas, salt spray, salt-laden crete, and establish electrical potential differences. These
air, salty sand, and high-moisture conditions can produce changes, in the presence of sufficient moisture and
serious corrosion. oxygen, promote corrosion of the steel.
When corrosion does occur, the resulting expansion
1.4-Durability elements frequently causes fracturing and spalling of the concrete.
The durability of parking structures is related to many If the fracture extends to the concrete surface, it appears
factors, including weather, the use of deicer salts, con- as a feather-edged fracture surface or spall, similar to
crete materials, concrete cover over reinforcement, drain- that shown in Fig. 1.2.
age, design and construction practices, and the response When closely spaced reinforcement in a slab corrodes,
of the structural system to loads and volume change. See horizontal fractures may occur that are not visible at the
Table 1.1 for common durability problems. surface. These subsurface fractures may create one or
The most common types of deterioration and unde- more delaminations at the various reinforcement levels
sirable performance of parking structures are due to (Fig. 1.3 and 1.4).
corrosion of reinforcement, freezing and thawing, Repeated traffic, freeze-thaw damage, or both, may
cracking, ponding of water, and water penetration. In dislodge the concrete above the delamination. With time,
climates where deicer salts are used, symptoms of deter- the loose material is lost, resulting in a spall or pothole
ioration may include: spalls and delaminations in the (Fig. 1.3 and 1.5). Spalls can be hazardous to pedestrians
driving surface, leakage of water through joints and and vehicular traffic as well as being detrimental to
cracks, rust staining, scaling of the top surface, and structural integrity. Spalls can be caused by corrosion of
spalling of concrete on slab bottoms, beams, and other reinforcement, severe damage due to freezing and thaw-
underlying concrete elements. Even walls and columns ing, concentrated forces at bearing points and connec-
suffer distress from leakage, splash, and spray of salt-con- tions, or a combination of these factors.
taminated water. The lives of parking structures have Without effective protection, corrosion of reinforce-
been shortened by the same effects as described in ment frequently occurs on bridges and parking structures.
NCHRP 57 Durability of Concrete Bridge Decks. The source of chlorides is commonly deicer salts in
Even in climates where deicers are not used, water northern sites and saltwater spray or salt laden air near
penetration through parking structure floors is often oceans. Chlorides may also be placed in the concrete
perceived as poor performance. In parking structure during construction in the form of admixtures or as
floors located over enclosed retail, office space, or other constituents of the concrete mix.
occupied space, water penetration through the slab or Chloride ion content versus depth from the surface of
362.1R-6 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

Table 1.1 - Potential durability problems

Potential problem area Action to be taken to prevent or minimize the problem (guide section)
Cracking (1.3.3)-Cracking can be controlled but not l Choice of structural system has significant influence (2.3-2.5, 3.5.2.5)
prevented 100 percent l Design for volume change (2.51)

Leaking (1.3.3) a Drainage (3.2.2)

l See cracking (3.5.2.5)
l Install and maintain joint sealant and isolation joint seals (3.5.2)

Freeze/thaw (scaling) (1.3.2) l Air entrainment (3.3.3.4)

0 Drainage (3.2)
0 Protective coatings (3.5.1)

Corrosion (1.3.1) 0 Drainage (3.2)

0 Quality concrete (3.3)
0 Concrete cover (3.4.1)
l Protection of reinforcement (3.4.2)
0 Protective coatings (3.5.1)
a Other embedded metals (3.4.3)
0 Silica fume (3.3.3.3)
l Corrosion inhibitors (3.4.4)
0 Dampproofing admixture (3.4.5)
l Cathodic protection (3.4.6)

Low quality concrete 0 Water-cement ratio (3.3.3.1)

0 Air entrainment (3.3.3.4)
0 Admixtures (3.3.3.5)
0 Finishing (3.3.4)
l Curing (3.3.4.2)

TOP OF CONCRETE ICE LENSES MAY

WEARING SURFACE FORM IN CRACK
f f

DELAMINATION

BY-PRODUCTS

Fig. 1.2-Spa11 due to corrosion of exposed steel (excerpted

from NCHRP Synthesis 4)
Fig. 1.3-Schematic of delamination and pothole in flat
a parking structure can be as high as the levels shown in slab construction
Fig. 1.6, in regions where deicing salts are used. The core
shown in the figure is from an unprotected 13-year-old mended by ACI 318 is 0.06 percent and 0.15 percent by
concrete slab located in a corrosive environment. Chlor- weight of cement, respectively, for prestressed and non-
ide ion contents of concrete are reported in various ways: prestressed reinforced concrete. It is generally believed
(1) percent by weight of cement, (2) percent by weight of that the corrosion threshold is a chloride ion content of
concrete, (3) pounds per cubic yard of concrete, and (4) 0.2 percent by weight of cement. In a normal weight con-
parts per million of concrete. Conversion among the four crete containing 564 lbs. of cementEyd3, this equates to
reporting methods requires knowledge of the cement 1.1 lb&d3, 280 ppm, or 0.028 percent by weight of con-
content of the concrete and the concrete unit weight. crete. See NCHRP 57, Durability of Concrete Bridge
The maximum water-soluble chloride ion content in the Decks, for conversion factors expressing chloride content.
hardened concrete at ages from 28 to 42 days recom- Corrosion can occur in uncracked concrete due to
 362.1 R-7

Fig. 1.4-Core showing top delaminations

chloride ions, moisture, and oxygen permeating into the

concrete (see Section 3.3.3.1). However, corrosion of
reinforcement is generally more severe and begins earlier
at cracks and places where water can easily penetrate.
Information on corrosion of metals in concrete is avail-
able in ACI 222R, Corrosion of Metals in Concrete.
1.4.1.2 Bonded prestressing steel-The corrosion of
prestressing strand in pretensioned double-tees and
inverted tee-beams used in parking structures has nor-
mally occurred where there is a breach in the sealed Fig. 1.5-Potholes in floor surface
joints and where brackish water reaches the bottoms of
members.
Corrosion of grouted, prestressing steel has occurred SOLUBLE CHLORIDE ION CONTENT
(LBS. a- PER CU. YD.)
where the grout did not encase the wires, bar, or strand 0 IO 20 30
within a grout duct, and moisture or chlorides gained
access to the open void.
1.4.1.3 Unbonded prestressing steel-Most cases of
corrosion of unbonded prestressing steel in parking struc- F
3 3.
CHLORIDE ION
IN CONCRETE
tures have involved either natural saltwater or deicer salt E
j

I
exposure to loosely sheathed systems with inadequate 2
0 -’
APPROXIMATE
amounts of grease. Other areas most susceptible to cor-
THRESHOLD
rosion include poorly grouted stressing end anchorages, IO.
intermediate stressing points at construction joints, and
regions of insufficient concrete cover. Cp&
: iI

1.4.1.4 Other embedded metals-Corroded electrical

conduits have been observed in structures exposed to
deicer salts. Likewise, uncoated aluminum has been ob- Fig. 1.6-Chloride ion content of concrete versus depth
served to corrode in concrete containing chloride and
particularly where the aluminum has been in contact with exposed to a freezing and thawing environment. Cyclic
the steel reinforcement. Embedded metals of all kinds freezing and deicer scaling is discussed extensively in ACI
should be specifically reviewed for their durability and 201.2R Guide to Durable Concrete. The phenomenon
function. usually begins with the loss of thin flakes at the surface.
1.4.2 Freezing and thawing damage-Scaling of con- As deterioration progresses, coarse aggregates may be ex-
crete is a deterioration observed in parking structures posed. In advanced stages, the surface may progress from
362.1 R-8 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

The addition of air entrainment is the most effective

method of increasing the resistance of concrete to
damage due to freezing and thawing. The entrained air-
void size and spacing in. the concrete is also important
(see ACI 345R). Severe abrasion accelerates the deter-
ioration of concrete undergoing scaling. Good drainage
(pitch of surface to drains) diminishes the severity of
freezing and thawing exposure by reducing the moisture
content of the concrete.
1.4.3 Cracking and water penetration-Cracking of
concrete exists in many forms. Some common types are:
microcracking, partial depth cracks in the top of mem-
bers, and through-slab cracks. Observations of parking
structures suggest that corrosion will occur earlier and is
much more likely at wide cracks than at untracked or
finely cracked areas. For information on resistance to
Fig. 1.7-Scaling of floor surface cracking, see Section 3.5.2.5.
In addition to abetting corrosion, water penetration
through the slab is undesirable. When substantial
amounts of water penetrate completely through the slab
at cracks and joints, corrosion and freeze-thaw damage
of the sides or bottoms of underlying members may
occur. Damage to ribs, joists, webs, beams, columns,
heavily loaded joints, and bearings is more critical to
structural integrity than damage to the slab because these
elements support larger tributary areas. Severe damage
to a beam at an isolation joint is shown in Fig. 1.8.
The potential problems and actions that may be taken
to reduce or eliminate the problem are listed in Table
1.1. The action portion of the list references the sec-
tion(s) of the text that discuss the action or problem.

CHAPTER 2-STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

The selection and design of a structural system for a

parking structure involve making choices from many con-
struction methods and materials. Other considerations
affecting the design include the site, functional require-
ments, economics, appearance, performance for the pur-
pose intended, durability, and building code requirements
relating to strength and safety. This chapter examines the
preceding factors and how they may affect the perfor-
mance and durability of the structural system of a
parking structure.

2.2-Factors in the choice of the structural system

2.2.1 Site-Geographic location and site selection will
Fig. 1.8-Spalling of beam soffit beside leaking isolation influence architectural and structural planning. Antici-
joint pated temperature and humidity ranges, and the proba-
bility of a corrosive environment, should be evaluated
an exposed aggregate appearance to that of rubble. Fre- during the design process to determine what protective
quently, with prolonged water saturation and repeated measures should be incorporated into the design.
freeze-thaw cycles, the concrete will develop fine cracks 2.2.2 Functional requirements-Complete functional
paralleling the exposed surface. The presence of deicers design of a parking facility is not within the scope of this
will accelerate this deterioration (Fig. 1.7). guide, but a limited review is necessary to discuss the
 DESIGN OF PARKING STRUCTURES 362.1R-9

selection of a structural system. In general, the structure

should easily accommodate both vehicles and people.
The functional design of the facility should consider
various elements such as parking stall and aisle dimen-
sions, ramp slopes, turning radii, traffic flow patterns,
means of egress, security features,. and parking control
equipment. Some or all of these factors may affect the
layout of columns, depth of structural members, and the
design of the structural system.
2.2.3 Economics-Construction cost is an important
factor in selecting the structural system. The structural
system must provide the needed level of durability, func-
tion, and aesthetics to be perceived as economical. In-
clusion of one or more of the various available protection Fig. 2.1-Imprint of wheel loads
systems, in and of itself, however, will not adequately
address the importance of structural system economics. special equipment, soil, and planter boxes require design
2.2.4 Aesthetic treatment-Aesthetics are not within the consideration.
scope of this guide. However, parking structures are 2.3.5.3 Snow/live bad combination-Many model or
often designed so that a structural element serves a local building codes require consideration of roof loads
significant architectural function as well. For example, an (usually snow) in addition to the normal vehicular loads.
exterior beam may be designed to carry gravity loads, Simple addition of vehicular and snow loads may be too
barrier loads, and lateral loads. But, if exposed to view, conservative for the elastic design of principal members.
it may also affect the aesthetics of the building. Further, For example, the required load may be 50 psf for parking
the functional design may require sloping floors, but hori- plus 30 psf for snow, resulting in a design load of 80 psf.
zontal elements may be preferred at the building exterior The estimated actual load, if cars and snow are on the
for aesthetic reasons. These considerations may affect the deck at the same time and no supplemental uniform load
choice of structural systems and the exterior framing. such as an overlay is added, probably would not exceed
2.2.5 Building code requirements-Requirements of 30 psf (maximum) for cars plus 30 psf for snow for a
model and local building codes vary. They affect: total of 60 psf. Thus the probability of maximum snow
loads exceeding code requirements is unlikely, even when
0 Structural design and loading criteria vehicular loading is at its maximum.
0 Fire resistance The committee recommends designing the structure to
a Barrier requirements support the following load combinations:
0 Ventilation requirements
l Height and area limits related to type of construc- a) Strength design for unreduced vehicular load and
tion snow (that is, 50 psf + snow) at roof level. For
l Ramp slope limits example: 1.4D + 1.7L + 1.2S
0 Perimeter openness requirements b) Serviceability check on load combination of
l Headroom clearance requirements reduced vehicular load and snow at roof level.
0 Means of egress For example: D + 0.6L + S
2.2.5.1 Gravity loads-Building codes commonly re-
quire a uniformly distributedload of 50 psf or a 2000 lb 2.2.5.3 Wind loads-Parking structures and their
concentrated wheel load (whichever is more critical) components should be designed to resist the design wind
anywhere on a floor (whichever is more critical), with pressures indicated in the applicable building codes.
additional load for snow (see 2.2.5.2) on the top level. Model building codes have methods with which to calcu-
Some codes require that the size of the concentrated late wind pressures using basic wind speed, importance
wheel load tread print be 20 square in. (Fig. 2.1). Most factor, exposure factor, and projected areas.
codes require designing members for the worst case The building facade should be considered solid unless
among several patterned load cases. Typically, slabs are a rigorous analysis is made for the effective wind pres-
designed for bending and punching shear due to wheel sure on the members exposed to wind or if the applicable
loads. code requires a different approach.
The use of reduced live loads is usually appropriate, 2.2.5.4 Seismic loads-Continuously ramped floors
where allowed by code or permitted by appeal, since commonly found in parking structures complicate the
actual automobile loads in fully loaded parking structures lateral force analysis (see Section 2.5.3). The ramp slabs,
seldom exceed 30 psf. However, added reserve capacity cast-in-place or precast, must be able to support the
in design may be desirable to account for future in- seismic bending and shear forces.
creased loadings due to added material such as overlays If seismic loading is required by the local building
used in repair. Unusual loads due to fire trucks, other code, the seismic loading case should be checked to see
362.1R-10

constructed of precast prestressed concrete or cast-in-

place post-tensioned concrete, detailed design infor-
mation for these structural types may be obtained from
the Pecast/Prestressed Concrete Institute and the Post-
Tensioning Institute. See Chapter 6-References.
2.3.1 Cast-in-place (CIP) concrete construction
2.3.1.1 Post-tensioned CIP Construction-Post-
tensioning introduces forces and stresses into a structure
in addition to those induced by gravity and applied loads.
The post-tensioning forces are used to counteract gravity
loads, reduce tensile stresses, and reduce cracking.
\CAST-IN-PLACE SLAB
Post-tensioned spans may be longer for a given mem-
ber size, or the members may be smaller for a given
span, compared to concrete with nonprestressed rein-
P LAN VIEW forcement. It is not necessary, or even desirable, to
design the post-tensioned reinforcement to carry all the
Fig. 2.2-Plan at transfer girder gravity loads.
The quantity of post-tensioning included in the struc-
whether it or wind load governs. In seismic regions, ture is based on the required structural capacity and the
proportions and details required for earthquake resis- serviceability requirements. Generally, the post-tensioning
tance must be provided even if wind forces govern. ACI will balance a portion of the dead loads (less than 100
318 (Chapter 21) and the Building Seismic Safety Council percent) and will provide the minimum precompression
Recommended Provision for Seismic Design Requirements indicated in Table 3.2. Precompression in excess of 300
for Buildings are excellent sources of information for use psi for slabs or 500 psi for beams, and balancing more
with the local building code. than 100 percent of the dead load should generally be
2.2.5.5 Barrier loads-Few model and local building avoided as this may result in undesirable cambers, addi-
codes prescribe lateral load requirements for vehicle tional cracking, and increased volume changes.
barriers at the perimeter of floors. The design objective In addition to the drying shrinkage and temperature
is to resist the load of a slow-moving vehicle. In its movements that affect all concrete structures, post-ten-
Suggested Building Code Provisions for Open Parking sioning introduces volume changes due to elastic short-
Structures, The Parking Consultants Council of the ening and creep which must be accounted for in the
National Parking Association recommends a single design.
horizontal ultimate load of 10,000 lb. One of the highest Post-tensioning a structure reduces cracking; however,
concentrated, lateral forces required on a barrier is if cracks do occur, they tend to be larger than those
12,000 lb (City of Houston, Texas, Building Code). The found in concrete structures reinforced with nonpre-
South Florida Building Code requires that the barrier stressed reinforcement. Providing additional nonpre-
load be applied 27 in. above the floor. Other building stressed reinforcement in areas where cracks are likely to
codes require barrier type curbs and energy-absorbing occur has proven effective in controlling the size of
capability at the perimeter of the floor. Curbs or wheel cracks.
stops alone are usually not considered effective barriers The cracks shown in Fig. 2.2, which run parallel to the
against moving vehicles. transfer girder, are common. These cracks are most likely
In the absence of a local building code that prescribes the result of tensile stresses caused by flexure in the top
lateral vehicular load requirements, the committee of the slab at the girder. Additional nonprestressed rein-
recommends the National Parking Association single hor- forcement in the slab will help control this type of
izontal ultimate load of 10,000 lb, distributed over a l-ft- cracking.
square area applied at a height of 18 in. above the adja- Adequately detailed, manufactured, and installed un-
cent surface at any point along the structure. bonded tendons include protection of the prestressing
steel against corrosion. The latter is usually accomplished
2.3-Performance characteristics of common construc- by placing the prestressing steel in a sheathing filled with
tion types grease. The Post-Tensioning Institute has developed and
Selection of a structural system should include con- publishes specifications entitled Specifications for Un-
sideration of those performance characteristics that are bonded Single Strand Tendons. The stressing pockets
applicable to parking structures. Structural systems for should be fully grouted to protect the anchorage devices
parking structures require more attention to durability and ends of tendons from moisture. Special care is
than do weather-protected structural systems. Vibration needed to avoid the creation of a path at the interface
under moving loads should be checked during system between steel and grout permitting water to penetrate to
selection; see PCI Design Handbook, Chapter 9 for guid- the anchorage. In corrosive environments, the referenced
ance. Since many free-standing parking structures are PTI specification has stringent requirements for encap-
 362.1R-11

sulation of the tendon. Effective sealants, coatings, or

bonding agents should be considered for added protec-
tion against water penetration at pockets (see Fig. 2.3).
P/T ANCHOf3
Sealant installed at each construction joint will
minimize water penetration through slabs, if properly CONTINUOUS ANCHOR BAR (TYP)
installed and maintained (see Section 3.5.2.). At closure
strips, tendons should be cut off and the anchorage
protected before closure concrete is placed.
2.3.1.2 Nonprestressed CIP construction-Perfor-
mance under conditions of vehicle-induced vibrations is
generally good in reinforced CIP concrete structures with
nonprestressed reinforcement.
Although no direct relationship between crack width
and corrosion has been established, the committee’s P/T POCKET: COAT WITH BONDING
AGENT, FILL WITH NUN-SHRINK
experience indicates that corrosion is frequently found in GROUT.
negative moment areas where flexural cracking has
occurred. One method of reducing crack width is to in-
crease the amount of reinforcement in the negative Fig. 2.3-P/T end anchorage detail
moment area. This reduces the steel stress and reduces
the Z factor (ACI 318). The application of this concept
requires engineering judgment in setting maximum values the Design and Construction cover many topics helpful in
for steel stress or minimum values for Z factor. Some the design of precast prestressed parking structures.
designers choose a maximum dead load steel stress of Proper pretensioning reduces service load cracks, thus
15,000 psi or keep the Z factor as low as 55. The PCI reducing the rate of water penetration into or through
Design Handbook illustrates a method that uses recom- the member. Pretensioned concrete units have already
mended maximum values for the Z factor. undergone full elastic shortening prior to erection; how-
The corrosion resistance of nonprestressed CIP ever, the effects of temperature, long-term creep, and
systems can be increased by taking one or more of the shrinkage of pretensioned members after erection should
following measures: increase concrete cover, add a be considered, as indicated in Table 2.1.
concrete overlay, coat nonprestressed reinforcement with 2.3.3 Structural steel construction-Cast-in-place or
epoxy, apply traffic bearing membranes, reduce concrete precast concrete has been combined with structural steel
permeability, or use a corrosion inhibitor. framing for parking structures. Stay-in-place metal deck
2.3.2Precast/prestressedconcreteconstruction-Precast forms and other exposed steel wiIl not perform well in
concrete members are typically manufactured with close areas where deicing salts are used or where there is
dimensional tolerances. However, the design of a precast airborne chloride unless the steel is protected with
parking structure should provide for adequate casting special coatings. Exposed steel framing should be treated
and assembly tolerances. Units should not be forced into with a weather-resistant, anti-corrosion coating. Joints
position during erection. Stresses developed by forced between the steel and concrete should be adequately
fitting can cause localized failure. Coordination of drains, sealed to minimize moisture penetration.
expansion joints, blockouts, and embedded items is 2.3.4 Other performance considerations
necessary to properly detail such structures. Member 2.3.4.1 Drainage-For a detailed discussion of
deflections and cambers are important and should be drainage considerations, see Chapter 3. In general, CIP
considered. construction simplifies design for good drainage because
Correct detailing of connections between precast variations in slope can be easily accommodated. Concrete
members is critical to achieving good performance. topping placed over precast construction allows sloping
Because parking structures are typically exposed to the of the CIP topping for drainage. Pretopped precast mem-
full range of temperature extremes, connections should bers can be sloped in two directions, but may crack if
not be too rigid. Because connections may be exposed to twisted excessively. The amount of torsion a member can
water through leaking joints or blowing rain, the exposed tolerate without cracking depends on several factors that
components should be protected. In corrosive environ- include length and cross section dimensions. For exam-
ments, epoxy-coated, hot-dipped galvanized, or stainless ple, many pretopped double-tees with a 60-ft span will
steel may be used to reduce metal corrosion. Field- develop torsional cracking when the ends have a differ-
applied coatings may also be used to protect exposed ential slope greater than approximately 1 percent. Dif-
welds and plates. The effectiveness of field-applied ferential slope is the difference in slope between
coatings is directly related to the thoroughness of surface transverse lines across the top of each end of the double-
preparation. tee. Therefore, in some cases, proper drainage slopes
The PCI Design Handbook, PCI Connection Manual, may require the use of field-applied topping in limited
and PCI’s Parking Structures: Recommended Practice for areas of the structure.
362.1 R-12 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

SLOPE END BAY

-7

Fig. 2.4-Longitudinal section

ibility often require the use of connections that are
simple and permit rotation. Precast structures normally
have selected column lines with moment-resistant frames
or shear-walls to resist lateral forces.
Lateral force resistance may be provided by frames,
walls, and columns fixed to foundations. In certain cases,
sloped floors may be used as truss elements (see Fig.
2.4).

2.4-Performance characteristics of structural elements

2.4.1 CIP floor systems with thin slabs
2.4.1.1 CIP systems with nonprestressed thin slabs-
Thin slab systems, such as waffle slabs (Fig. 2.5) and pan
joists may require less concrete than one-way slab de-
Fig. 2.5-Waffle slab signs. These systems involve slabs of 4 in. or less in
thickness, stiffened by ribs or joists underneath.
Waffle slabs and pan joists typically develop through-
slab cracking and may require special waterproofing and
durability measures. Through-slab cracks can be expected
to occur in these systems due to differential shrinkage
between slab and joist. Flexural cracks in the negative
moment region are also likely to fully penetrate thin
slabs. The cracks permit water to reach the reinforce-
ment, causing leaching on the underside and corrosion of
unprotected reinforcement. Crack control using sealed
joints is generally not practical for cast-in-place thin
slabs.
An example of a composite system with thin slab char-
acteristics is one that incorporates precast pretensioned
joists spaced up to 8 ft-8 in. on centers and spanning 40
to 64 ft, and supporting a nominal 4-in. slab (see Fig.
2.6).

.; 1,
Waffle slabs, pan joists, cast-in void systems, and
untopped hollow-core systems typically do not perform
well in parking structures. Added protection such as
Fig. 2.6-Cast-in-place slab (not shown) on precast joists vehicular trafficmembranes, epoxy-coatednonprestressed
on inverted tee beams reinforcement bars and other protective measures should
be considered (see Table 3.1).
2.3.4.2 Lateral load resistance-Moment-resisting Prestressed hollow-core units with topping (Fig. 2.7)
frames are used in monolithic CIP structures to accom- behave like the thin-slab systems described previously
modate lateral loads. It is typical for every column line to and usually have higher deflections. The effects of elastic
provide such a frame, resulting in a distribution of lateral deflection and creep deflection on drainage should be
forces. considered. Weep holes in the downslope core ends will
The segmental nature of precast concrete and its flex- help drain condensation and water that may accumulate
 DESIGN OF PARKING STRUCTURES 362.1R-13

Fig. 2.8-Flat slab with column capitals and drop panels

ADD REBAR PRECAST COLUMN

r4r4’-a- --\ ,- SLAB EDGE

r
ADD REBAR
r4x2’-0”

Fig. 2.7-Cast-in-place topping (not shown) on precast

hollow core units

inside the cores.

One-way and two-way slab systems with nonpre-
CAST-IN-PLACE SLAB SLIP FACE
stressed reinforcement wilI generally produce visible
cracks at supports due to flexure. When subjected to
restraint of volume change forces, these cracks may pene-
trate the entire slab.
2.4.1.2 CIP systems with post-tensioned thin slabs- Fig. 2.9-Plan view of column-slab interface
CIP post-tensioned joists or precast pretensioned joists
with post-tensioned slabs have been used in parking The slab should be properly reinforced and preferably
structures. These systems often have large span-to-depth freed from the column along the column faces parallel to
ratios as compared to other structural systems. the beam span. When grout is used, yielding or pullout
2.4.2 CIP thick-slab floor Systems-Two-way thick slab of the insert, as shown in Fig. 2.10, has been observed.
systems without drop panels are called flat plate slabs. This condition is caused by bending of the beam at the
Those with drop panels or column capitals are flat slabs. column. A large bending force ot rotation occurs upon
These slabs can be conventionally reinforced or post- removal of the temporary shores placed to support the
tensioned. beam during the slab placement. Installation of grout
In flat slab or flat plate construction (Fig. 2.8), the after removal of shores and with dead load in place will
area at the intersection of the slab and column can reduce the bending forces and limit subsequent problems
become congested with nonprestressed reinforcement. due to rotation. Design and detail of the connection is
This condition is especially true on roofs, where heavier critical to the durability of the structure. The slab should
loads may occur and where column bars are hooked into still be separated along the column side to prevent slab
the slab. Proper consolidation may be impossible if rein- cracking due to beam rotation.
forcement is too closely spaced. Entrapped air voids can Post-tensioning applied to the slab section parallel to
fill with water and cause deterioration due to steel the beam will be partially transferred to the precast beam
corrosion or freeze/thaw damage. If congestion cannot be if there is a bond between them. The reduction of the
avoided, access for concrete placement and special re- post-tensioning force in the slab and the additional force
quirements for placement to eliminate voids should be introduced into the beam should be considered in the
provided in design. design.
Two-way slabswith nonprestressed steel reinforcement 2.4.4 Nonprestressed slab and precast beam floor s y s -
tend to develop cracks at the columns. These cracks may terns-This hybrid system usually has a thin slab and non-
permit rapid corrosion of the reinforcement, and require prestressed reinforcement with precast prestressed joists
special protection consideration. (see Fig. 2.6). A variety of girder and column layouts are
2.4.3 Post-tensioned slab and precast beam floor s y s - used to support the beams. With this system, slabs have
tems-When grout is not used between the column and an increased tendency to crack. Causes of cracking in-
the precast beam end, rotation of the beam at the sup- clude: differential shrinkage between beam and slab,
port can cause the slab to crack, as shown in Fig. 2.9. normal overall volume change shortening, reduction of
362.1R-14 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

2.5-Problem areas
2.5.1 Volume change effects-Volumetric changes affect
frame action in structures of large plan area. Large shear
SLAB PULLS AWAY, and bending moments can occur in the first level and top
INSERT OR DOWEL YIELDS
THREADEDREBAR OR level frames, especially at or near the building periphery.
Aside from corrosion, distress from unanticipated volume
CAST-IN-PLACE SLAB changes or inadequate details to accommodate volume
changes are the most common problems found in existing
parking structures.
GROUT
Volume changes of structural elements are due to
ROTATION
3 2’ drying shrinkage, elastic shortening, horizontal creep, and
temperature change. The deformations and forces result-
IF GROUT ABSENT 8 PRECAST BEAM ing from structural restraints to volume changes have
SPACE AVAILABLE,
SOME ROTATION IS BEARING PAD
important effects on connections, service load behavior,
POSSIBLE. and strength. They must be considered in design to
I / I - HAUNCH
comply with ACI 318. The restraint of volume changes in
moment-resisting frames causes axial forces, as well as
PRECAST COLUMN _/ ~ j moments, shears, and deflections. While these effects are
not unique to parking structures, they are generally much
more significant than in other common building types
due to exposure to temperature and humidity changes.
The basic types of concrete construction discussed in this
chapter are each affected differently by volume change.
The PCI Design Handbook provides recommendations for
predicting the types of volume change described in this
Fig. 2.10-Section of Fig. 2.9 at column section.
2.5.1.1 Drying shrinkage-Drying shrinkage is a
the slab cross section where the floor beams penetrate decrease in concrete volume with time. A significant
above the slab bottom, rotation of the beam at its sup- portion of the shrinkage occurs in a short time. Drying
port, and others as discussed in previous sections. Meth- shrinkage is due to the reduction in concrete moisture
ods of crack control include: using thicker slabs, content, is unrelated to externalIy applied loads, and is a
increasing reinforcement above code minimum require- function of the ambient humidity.
ments, and following recommendations for thin CIP slabs When shrinkage is restrained, restraint forces may be
referenced in this report. reduced by cracking at weak points. For proper durability
2.4.5 Precastlprestressed concrete floor systems-Parking and serviceability, the design should consider drying
structure floors are typically made of double-tee mem- shrinkage. See ACI 209R for typical methods of com-
bers; however, some limited use of single tees, hollow- puting shrinkage, and ACI 224R and ACI 223 for
core and other shapes are employed (see Fig. 2.11). methods of reducing the effects of shrinkage.
Plank and tees may or may not use composite cast-in- 2.5.1.2 Elastic shortening-In prestressed concrete,
place topping. The latter, referred to as “pretopped,” axial compressive forces applied to the concrete by pre-
“untopped,” or “integrally topped,” have become more stressing tendons cause the concrete to shorten elasti-
common in recent years. “Pretopped” is the preferred cally. Elastic shortening will cause loss of prestressing
term. force that must be accounted for in determining final
In both site-topped and pretopped precast concrete, prestressing forces. Elastic shortening is additive to
welded connections between members are typically used drying shrinkage. In precast pretensioned concrete
to help equalize deflections between adjacent members members, elastic shortening occurs in the plant prior to
and to transfer horizontal diaphragm forces across the erection, while in post-tensioned concrete, all elastic
joint. shortening occurs during construction and affects the
If floor members have CIP toppings, shrinkage of the structural elements in place at that time.
topping coupled with the change in section at the joint 2.5.1.3 Creep-Creep is the time-dependent inelastic
between adjacent members typically causes cracks in the change of dimension in hardened concrete subjected to
topping over the joints. Contraction joints should be sustained forces. The total creep may be one to three
tooled, not sawn, into the fresh CIP concrete topping times as much as short-term elastic deformation. Creep
above all edges of the precast concrete elements. These is primarily dependent upon the level of sustained con-
joints should be sealed after the concrete has cured and crete stresses. Creep is associated with shrinkage, since
shrunk. For specific recommendations, see Section 3.5.2 both occur simultaneously and provide a similar effect:
and refer to the PCI publication Parking Structures: increased deformation with time. In prestressed concrete
Recommended Practice for Design and Construction. structures, creep can result in additional axial movement
Fig. 2.11-Precast double-tee systems

of horizontal elements over time as well as increases in the overall dimensions of the structure. Temperature
camber or deflection. In reinforced concrete structures, changes occur in both daily and seasonal cycles. The
creep-induced deflections can change the slope of sur- structural movements and forces resulting from temper-
faces intended for drainage. The same may be true for ature changes are a major design consideration in most
creep-induced camber increases in prestressed structures, concrete parking structures. Rotations or forces at the
See ACI 209R for a detailed discussion of creep effects ends of members caused by this effect can cause distress
and the prediction of creep. in both simple span and rigid frame construction.
2.5.1.4 Temperature change-A temperature change 2.5.1.5 System comparison for volume change
may cause a volume change that will affect the entire effects-Table 2.1 compares the relative effect of various
structure. Parts with different cross sections, and different causes of volume change on the horizontal elements of
sun exposures, are affected by temperature change at three structural systems. See Section 2.5.1.7.
different rates. This difference can cause restraint 2.5.1.6 Considerations for volume change-The
between attached members and bending in members with degree of fixity of the column base has a significant effect
varying temperature across their depth or thickness. on the magnitude of the forces and moments caused by
Solar heat can affect specific areas, such as the roof volume changes. Assuming that the base is fully fixed in
and sides of buildings, more than the rest of the the analysis of the structure may result in a significant
structure. A temperature-induced volume change can be overestimation of the restraint forces. Assuming a pinned
expansion or contraction, so it may increase or decrease base may have the opposite effect. The degree of base
362.1R-16 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

Table 2.1 - Relative effect of volume changes on structural frames

Structural system

Volume change type Cast-in-place Cast-in-place

nonprestressed concrete Precast pretensioned concrete post-tensioned concrete
Elastic shortening None None Full
Shrinkage Partial1 Partial2 Full
Creep None3 Partial Full
Temperature change Partial1 FIllI Full

Notes: 1) Cracks in the concrete slabs and beams absorb a significant amount of movement, resulting in a reduction of the volume change effects on the
structural frame.
2) Shrinkage of topping placed over precast elements primarily results in cracking of the topping over joints in the precast elements.
3) Primary effect of weep is increased deflection of beams or slabs which may affect dminage. Creep can also affect precast and post-tensioned
member deflection.
4) May be “partial” under some conditions, with connection details absorbing part of the volume change movement (see Sections 2.3.2 and 2.4.5).

fixity used in the volume change analysis should be A

consistent with that used in the analysis of the column
forces and slenderness. A change in center of rigidity or I I STAIR /ELEVATOR
column stiffnesses will change the restraint forces,
moments, and deflections.
Areas of a structure that require careful analysis for
control of volume change are:

a) Any level with direct exposure to the sun and the

columns and flexural members directly beneath.
b) The first supported level and the attached col-
umns.
c) In the northern hemisphere, the south face.
d) The west face.

Creep and drying shrinkage effects take place grad-

ually. The effect of shortening on shears and moments at
a support is lessened somewhat by creep and micro-
cracking of the member and its support. The adjustment
of effects due to creep and drying shrinkage can be
estimated using the concept of equivalent shortening as
described in the PCI Design Handbook.
2.5.1.7 Design measures for volume change effects-
Volume change forces must be considered in design ac-
cording to ACI 318. Isolation joints can permit separate Fig. 2.12-Partial plan of cast-in-place post-tensioned floor
segments of the structural frame to expand and contract structure
without adversely affecting structural integrity or ser-
viceability. Dividing the structure into smaller areas with
isolation joints may be complicated by the presence of elastic shortening and shrinkage. To be effective, pour
interfloor connecting ramps. Expansion joints may be strips must continue vertically and horizontally through
required to transmit certain forces across the joints. the entire structure.
It is often desirable to isolate the structural frame Experience and practice have shown that the distance
from stiff elements, such as walls, elevator cores, and between expansion joints can vary with construction
stair cores (Fig. 2.12). This isolation is particularly method. Cast-in-place structures with nonprestressed-
important in post-tensioned structures. Of course, the steel reinforcement typically contain shrinkage cracks that
resulting frame should be designed for necessary lateral can relieve a buildup of temperature related strains.
stability and all required loads and deformations. Expansion joints in such structures are typically spaced at
Measures such as pour strips reduce the effects of 250 to 300 ft. Precast structures contain numerous joints
 362.1R-17

SHEAR FORCE DUE

TO MOMENT COUPLE

EXTERIOR COLUMN ---.__

-1
EXTERIOR COLUMN
CRACK DUE TO HIGH
JOINT SHEAR i7 t
\ -
I
ADDITIONAL TIES

BEAM ,
1
BEAM

- ‘7’
\I. A /
‘.\
-._ _ /” Fig. 2.14-Shear in joint caused by moment at beam end
and restraint at column ends

Fig. 2.13-Free-body diagram of beam-column joint in rigid

frame by beam negative moments can exceed the shear capacity
of the column concrete alone. Ties may be required with-
in the joint (Fig. 2.13 and 2.14). See reports from ACI
that also can relieve a buildup of temperature-related committee 352R for additional information. Shear in the
strains; and expansion joints can be spaced at approx- columns between the joint regions may require increased
imately 300 ft. Cast-in-place post-tensioned structures, tie reinforcement to resist shear within the column
however, typically exhibit few shrinkage cracks and have height. Where column vertical bars lap, both develop-
no joints or connections. Therefore, expansion joint ment of those bars and the corresponding column tie
spacing of approximately 250 ft is recommended for post- requirements need evaluation.
tensioned structures. Volume change effects may have a In cast-in-place post-tensioned structures, shortening
significant effect on the design when the distance be- of the first supported level beams due to elastic short-
tween isolation joints or total building length exceeds the ening, creep, and shrinkage, may induce tension in the
previously recommended values, or when stiff elements beam bottoms at columns near the building end. Similar,
are located away from the center of the structure, and but lesser, effects will occur at intermediate levels.
columns are relatively stiff. Appropriate reinforcement should be provided. In special
Plan shapes, such as “L” or ``U'' shapes, with re-entrant situations, it may be desirable to temporarily or per-
corners, should be divided into simple rectangles with manently separate beams from supporting walls or col-
isolation joints between adjacent rectangles. umns or both. Hinges or slide bearings may be employed
Connecting CIP post-tensioned horizontal members to to reduce restraint.
columns or walls after post-tensioning has been applied In nonprestressed flat slab and flat plate construction,
can eliminate forces on the structure caused by the column-slab joints merit similar design considerations.
elastic shortening of those horizontal members. These types of slabs often crack adjacent to the column
2.5.2 Beam-column joints-Columns in parking struc- or joint, reducing durability.
tures are often subjected to unusual forces compared to Precast concrete beam-column joints also require spe-
those in other buildings. The local effects of the elastic cial attention. Joints in precast concrete structures are
shortening, relatively high joint moments and shears often subjected to repeated movement or forces due to
associated with long spans, and the effects of volume cyclic volume change and vehicular traffic, which may
change all contribute to highly stressed beam-column result in member cracking, and water ingress, resulting in
joints. deterioration and structural distress. Such joints should
Exterior columns and beams typically will have high be detailed to allow for temperature movements.
joint moments, which require special attention to the an- 2.5.3 Variable height columns-Successive levels of a
chorage of the beam top bars and post-tensioning where multilevel structure are typically serviced by sloping
applicable. In columns, the shear within the joint caused ramps (Fig. 2.4). These ramps may comprise entire floors
 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

CRACKS IN SLAB DUE TO

UNEOUAL DEFLECTION
/
SUPPORT
/ r

II I COL. HEIGHT

L- SLAB L SUPPORT
I Y
ILPOSSIBLE LOCATION (ALONG ENTIRE LINE) FOR
ISOLATION JOINT OR ADDITIONAL REINFORCE-
MENT IN SLAB AND STRONGER FLANGE-TO-
Fig. 2.15-Section at interior column FLANGE CONNECTIONS.

Fig. 2.17-Floor cracking due to incompatible deformation

shears in that direction as well.

2.5.4 Torsion-Exterior spandrel beams built integrally
with the floor slab are not only subjected to normal grav-
ity loads and axial forces, but may also be subjected to
torsional forces equal to the restraining moment at the
beam-slab joint. AC I 318, Chapter 11, addresses design
requirements with respect to torsion in combination with
shear and bending for nonprestressed members. Design
must also control cracking to provide adequate durability.
Precast spandrel beams are among the most complex
members to analyze in precast parking structures. ACI
318 addresses combined shear and torsion in nonpre-
stressed members. See the PCI Specially Funded Re-
search and Development Project No. 5 for recommen-
dations for such precast prestressed members.
2.5.5 Stair and elevator shafts-Shafts sometimes
interrupt the regular pattern of structural framing.
Differential deflections in the adjacent structure may
result, causing localized cracking (see Fig. 2.17). For
Fig. 2.16-Section at interior column instance, one beam or tee may end at the wall of a shaft
while the adjacent one continues. The effect of dead load
deflection may be minimized by prestressing; however,
and be used for both parking and through traffic. Ramps differential deflections due to live load will surely occur
may also be for traffic only, with no on-ramp parking between the beams and cause stress concentrations in the
permitted. adjacent slab or connections. Differential movement
The presence of integrated ramps has a significant between the shaft walls and the structural slab should be
effect on the behavior of the structure. Internal ramps anticipated and proper detailing applied. In precast
interrupt floor diaphragms and complicate their analysis. structures, local differential cambers may also create a
High moments and shears due to gravity loads and re- problem. Refer to Grid B in Fig. 2.18. Design solutions
straint of volume change are induced in columns adjacent may include adding nonprestressed reinforcement across
to ramps where monolithic beams enter opposite sides of Grid B, cast-in-place topping across the Grid B joint, or
the columns at varying elevations (Fig. 2.15 and 2.16). installing an isolation joint between the two members on
Restraint of volume change in the direction perpendi- either side of Grid B.
cular to the beam span can induce high moments and 2.5.6 Isolation joint--An isolation joint should be
 DESIGN OF PARKING STRUCTURES 362.1R-19

achieved by making the structure on one side of the joint

independent from the opposite side. This independence
is usually obtained through the use of separate columns
on either side of the joint.
2.5.7 Sliding joint-A sliding joint will provide one side
of the joint with vertical support only, and little or no
lateral force buildup for the other side. The joint is
usually a bearing assembly that will slide and rotate while
supporting the vertical load. Only slide-bearing materials
that will not corrode should be used. These materials
might include stainless steel and a low friction polymer.
All slide-bearing materials develop some friction, thus
the bearing assembly should he designed to transmit
limited horizontal force, often combined with variable
rotations, and should be adequately attached to tbe re-
spective structural elements. It is desirable to prevent
differential vertical movement of each side and hori-
zontal movement parallel to the joint because expansion
joint seals generally have little ability to deform in this
manner. Fig. 2.18-Partial plan of double tee floor structure
Slide bearings may deteriorate with time, especially if
they are not maintained in a clean and dry condition. It
is recommended that bearing stresses on the sliding joint possibilities include using expansive or shrinkage-com-
material be designed for half of the manufacturer’s allow- pensating concrete (ACI 223) to reduce shrinkage effects.
able stress. Experience has shown poor performance may Entrance ramps approaching the underground garage
result when full allowable bearing stresses are developed usually should be separated from the main structure,
on some assemblies. Retainers may be required to keep even if this separation requires construction of below-
bearings from moving out of the joint. Well-designed grade expansion joints in retaining walls.
slide bearings that are protected from weather have been There may be substantial temperature differences
observed to perform reasonably well. Sliding joints between portions of the structure above and below grade,
should only be used for supporting slabs and precast particularly in an unheated structure. The structure
floor units. should be designed to accommodate the resulting volume
The performance of slide bearings in supporting change differential, possibly by introducing a vertical
beams and girders has been found to be unsatisfactory in expansion joint in the upper structure beginning at
many cases. The heavy reactions of most beam bearings ground level.
may cause undesirable cracks due to volume changes. 2.6.1 Structural features of below-grade structures-In
Details should clearly show concrete being excluded from the design of below-grade structures, three factors should
the required open joint space. receive due consideration: possible moderated tempera-
tures and movements; greater chance of problems due to
2.6-Below-grade structures higher relative humidity and ground water; and vertical
Below-grade structures of any kind present special and lateral loads from the structure above and from the
problems. In parking structures, these problems may be surrounding soil.
magnified by the large plan area, the presence of an 2.6.2 Volume change in below-grade structures-Volume
upper structure, or both. changes in open parking structures are greater than in
Peripheral foundation walls are generally of monolithic enclosed parking structures, due to their exposure to
construction. Walls may be in place well before the sup- wider temperatures and relative humidity changes. How-
ported floor systems so that much of their shrinkage has ever, the range of temperature changes to which below-
already occurred by the time the slabs are constructed, grade parking structures are subjected is not as great. In
but they may not be backfilled. Connecting floor struc- those parking structures that extend partially above
tures to these walls, without allowing for temporary or grade, appreciable bending and shear forces may be
permanent differential horizontal movement, frequently generated in columns by differential movement of floor
results in distress within the floor system and walls. framing between levels (most notably between the foun-
One approach is to make isolation joints continuous dation and first supported level). Also see Section 1.3.1.
across an elevated structure and its underlying below-
grade structure; however, it may be impractical to place
joints in retaining walls and their foundations in the same 2.7-Multiuse structures
locations. Wall joints may have volume change character- In buildings with garages underground or built into the
istics different from the interior floor structure. Other lower levels, special problems occur. The most economi-
362.1 R-20 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

cal column spacing for offices or apartments is not neces- freezing temperatures never occur and deicing salts are
sarily the best for garage facilities, where columns are not used.
spaced 56 to 60+ ft on center measured perpendicular to l Zone II represents areas where freezing occurs and
the drive aisles. Because upper level column spacings dif- deicing salts are never or rarely used.
fer from those of the garage, deep girders may be needed 0 Zone III represents areas where freezing and the
to transfer upper story loads to the garage columns. use of deicing salts are common.
Deep transfer girders often require more floor-to-floor l Coastal Chloride Zone I (Zone CC-I) represents
height at the transfer girder level. Resulting disconti- areas which are in Zone I and within 5 miles of the
nuities in story stiffness may complicate lateral analysis Atlantic or Pacific Oceans, Gulf of Mexico, or Great Salt
of the building. Lake.
Forming for the garage slabs may differ from the l Coastal Chloride Zone II (Zone CC-II) is area in
upper level slabs, and additional nonprestressed steel Zones I and II within one-half mile of the salt water
reinforcement may be required at the transfer girder bodies described in Zone CC-l.
level. For this reason, designers should try to eliminate
transfer girders. Closer column spacings may require A map of the United States depicting the approximate
compromises in parking layout and ramp locations, but boundaries of these zones is shown in Fig. 3.1. However,
will generally be satisfactory for parking if the columns it is intended that the criteria for durability measures
form a regular grid. used in ACI 318 apply and that the map be used only to
Some garages support earth fill above. Others support remind designers to incorporate the appropriate mea-
plazas, pools, fountains, sculptures, full-sized trees, small sures.
buildings, mounded gardens, clock towers, recreational It is neither economically feasible nor necessary to
areas, streets, bridges and other loads. Most of these incorporate all the available measures in a single facility.
“roof-top” facilities require the structural frame to have To guide the specifier in selecting an effective combina-
substantially more load-carrying capacity with larger tion of protective measures, the following categories will
members than a typical parking level. be discussed:

l Good design practice

CHAPTER 3-DURABILITY AND MATERIALS l Internal measures
l External measures requiring periodic maintenance
3.1-Introduction
There are many measures that may be taken in a 3.1.1 Good design practice-Good design practice in-
parking structure to improve durability and reduce the cludes: provision of adequate drainage, design and
probability of premature deterioration. Selecting the right detailing for crack control, proper cover, concrete mix
combination of protection systems is not a prescriptive design considerations, concrete finishing, and curing.
process. It requires careful analysis of the facility’s These measures are basic to all facilities, regardless of
physical and structural characteristics as well as the physical, structural, or environmental characteristics.
environment to which it will be subjected. These con- When freezing-and-thawing-induced deterioration is a
siderations should be balanced against the economic concern (generally in Zones II and III), air entrainment,
requirements of the project. For example, higher initial concrete consolidation, finishing practices, and aggregate
costs may be offset by increased longevity and lower life quality are items that should be given special considera-
cycle costs. tion. In parking structures, all floors should be con-
For durability of concrete structures, ACI 318 defies sidered exposed to weather, and thus should meet the
several exposure conditions and sets durability measures recommendations of this guide as well as the minimum
for each. These exposure conditions are: requirements of ACI 318.
Concrete intended to have low permeability when 3.1.2 Internal measures-Internal measures are those
exposed to water. (This criterion is interpreted to that are incorporated into the initial concrete construc-
apply to all parking structures not covered by sub- tion, including concrete mix design choices (see Section
sequent criteria.) 3.3.3). Adequate concrete cover over reinforcement,
Concrete occasionally exposed to moisture prior to coatings for reinforcement, protection of post-tensioned
freezing and where no deicing salts are used. and pretensioned tendon systems, and other embedded
Concrete exposed to deicing salts, brackish water, metals is also included. Considerations for this type of
seawater or spray from these sources and that may protection are included in Sections 3.3 and 3.4.
or may not be subject to freezing. 3.1.3 External measures requiring periodic mainten-
ance--This category includes products generally applied
To assist in the specification of the appropriate level to the concrete once it has cured. Sealant systems used
of protection to be provided in a parking structure, it is for isolation (expansion), contraction, and construction
suggested that five geographic zones be defined: joints are a part of this category. Also included are pro-
l Zone I represents the mildest conditions where tective coatings used to bridge cracks (traffic bearing
 DESIGN OF PARKING STRUCTURES 362.1R-21

For durability of concrete structures, ACI 318 defines several exposure conditions and sets durability measured for each.
These exposure conditions are:

0 Concrete intended to have low permeability when exposed to water. (This is interpreted to apply to all parking
structures not covered by the subsequent criteria.)
0 Concrete occasionally exposed to moisture prior to freezing and where no deicing salts are used.
0 Concrete exposed to deicing salts, brackish water, sea water, sea water or spray from these sources and may or
may not be subject to freezing.

To assist in identifying these exposure conditions, five exposure zones are defined and approximately illustrated on the map.

0 Zone I represents the mildest conditions where freezing is rare and salt is not used. This area is generally defined
as all areas south of Zone II and south and west of Zone III except those areas above an elevation of 3000 feet
where freezing occurs.
0 Zone II represents areas where freezing occurs and deicing salts are not or rarely used. This area is generally
defined as the area south of Zone III and within 100 miles south of interstate highway 40 from the Atlantic Ocean
west of the Continental Divide, plus all areas in Zone I above an elevation of 3000 feet and below an elevation of
5000 feet, plus areas in the State of Oregon and Washington west of the Cascade Range except for those areas
above an elevation of 5000 feet.
0 Zone III represents the areas where freezing and deicing salts are common. This area is generally considered to
be areas north of and within 100 miles south of Interstate Highway 70 from the Atlantic Ocean west to Interstate
Highway 15, then north to Interstate Highway 84, then northwest to Portland Oregon then west to the Pacific
Ocean plus areas with Zones I and II above an elevation of 5000 feet when deicing salts are used.
0 Coastal Chloride Zone I (Zone CC-I) represents areas with Zone I and within 5 miles of the Atlantic Ocean, Gulf
of Mexico, Pacific Ocean, and the Great Salt Lake.
0 Coastal Chloride Zone II (Zone CC-II) is areas within zones I and II and within one half mile of the salt water
bodies described in Zone C-l.

* Where deicer salts are used.

It is intended that the local exposure conditions and actual use of deicing salts be used to determine the appropriate
exposure zone. The map is only a guide to assist in the application of the zone definitions outlined above (Ref. 6.3).

Fig. 3.1 -Corrosion zones

362.1R-22 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

membrane and membranes with protective wearing strength should be the result of structural and envi-
course) and treatments to reduce moisture penetration ronmental considerations. Additional strength generally
(concrete sealers) (see Section 3.5). increases durability and abrasion resistance. Tables 3.1 to
3.4 specify the minimum design compressive strength
3.2-Drainage recommended, for each structural type and exposure
The slope of the slabs should be designed in such a zone.
manner that water flows in the desired direction without The required water-cementitious ratio in Tables 3.1 to
ponding. A minimum slope in any direction of 11/2 per- 3.4 may result in concrete strengths greater than noted in
cent is recommended with 2 percent being preferred. the table.
This slope does not usually require special slab toler- 3.3.2 Permeability-Low-permeability concrete is of
ances, and will generally overcome inaccuracies in paramount importance in reducing corrosion of em-
construction and deflection estimates. Camber and bedded steel. Such concrete is more resistant to penetra-
deflections, however, should be taken into consideration tion of water, chloride, and oxygen than that with higher
when establishing a drainage pattern. permeability. Low-permeability concrete also has lower
Water flow should be directed so that its path is not electrical conductivity, further reducing the opportunity
obstructed by islands, curbs, columns, or any other for corrosion. Special attention should be given to prac-
element that would impede or trap it. Flow should be tices that help produce less permeable concrete such as:
directed away from stairs and elevators, which should be proper finishing and curing, low water-cement ratio, ad-
raised above the parking surface. Integral curbs or mixtures, silica fume, and polymer-modified concretes.
thickened slab edges should be used where necessary to Fig. 3.2 illustrates the relationship between permeability
direct water away from the slab edge. Where curbs are and water-cement ratio.
placed as an addition to the slab, the construction joint The use of ASTM C 1202, Rapid Chloride Permeabil-
should be sealed. ity Test, is frequently referred to as a standard of per-
To reduce leakage, isolation, contraction, and con- formance for resistance to chloride absorption. Concrete
struction joints should be located at high points. If this is mix designs with resistance levels of 1000 coulombs or
not possible, care should be taken that joints do not dam less are often represented as being resistant to chloride-
water. Joints should not be located adjacent to drains. induced corrosion. Some have questioned the reliability
If localized ponding occurs after construction is of this test as a standard because of a lack of supporting
complete, adding additional drains is the preferred data showing correlation to salt ponding tests which may
corrective measure. Grinding the concrete surface to be considered more representative of field conditions.
correct drainage is an alternative. The application of See NCHRP 244.
overlay materials to the slab to correct drainage has often 3.3.3 Mix proportioning-As noted previously, many of
not performed well. the choices made in selecting the mix proportions affect
Drains should not be located in the main path of the performance and durability of concrete. It is impor-
pedestrian or vehicular traffic. Roof water should be tant to understand how the various components of the
collected by large drains with traps to catch sand and mix contribute to durability or lack of durability.
debris. Continuous trench drains should be avoided if 3.3.3.1 Water-cementitious ratio-AC1 318 requires
possible. Trench drains require frequent cleaning because a water-cementitious ratio no greater than 0.40 for corro-
they trap silt and other sediment. Ledges supporting sion protection of concrete exposed to deicing salts, but
grates are frequently damaged by traffic or corrosion, allows the ratio to increase to 0.45 for normal weight
resulting in unsupported or missing grates. Concrete concrete if concrete cover is increased by 0.5 in. This
trench drains often crack and leak at their inverts. If a Guide recommends maintaining the water-cementitious
trench drain is used, a premolded system with cast-in- ratio at 0.40 with the increased cover. This recommenda-
slopes and outlets at both ends should be considered. For tion is applicable to Zone III and Coastal Zone II. Fig.
structural floors, sloping the floor to several separate 3.3 shows the effect of water-cementitious ratios on
drains is preferable in order to minimize structural chloride penetration. Low water-cementitious ratios in
discontinuity. conformity with the requirements of (Table 3.1 to 3.4)
When protective wearing courses are used over mem- produce significantly less permeable, more durable con-
branes, drainage at both the level of the membrane and crete. Because concrete with a low water-cementitious
the top of the wearing course should be provided. ratio may require special placing techniques, a high-range
water-reducing admixture (superplasticizer) should be
considered. Silica fume and some types of fly ash are
3.3-Concrete considered cementitious materials. When these are added
Selecting and specifying concrete for a parking struc- to the concrete, their presence should be considered in
ture involves many components, that affect the durability. calculating the water-cementitious ratio. See ACI 211.1.
These include: strength, permeability, aggregates, cement, 3.3.3.2 Aggregates-ACI 201.2R discusses aggregate
air entrainment. quality with regard to concrete durability. Absorptive
3.3.1 Strength-The specified design compressive aggregate particles such as chert or lignite can create
 DESIGN OF PARKING STRUCTURES 362.1R-23

Table 3.1 -Cast-in-place reinforced concrete (Recommended minimum Considerations for durability. The recommen-
dations in these tables assume drainage as noted in Section 3.2.2, cover tolerance as specified in ACI 318, and
maintenance as noted in Chapter Sh)

Design clemenlb Durability zone (see Fig. 3.1)

Note cracks and construction joints to
be sealed to prevent leakage I II/CC-I III/CC-II
Strength. psi 3500 4000 5000
Concrete
Air, percentg Not required 6% f 2 61/2 * 2
W/C ratio (maximum) 0.45 0.40 0.40
Reinforcement covering Slab top 1 1/ 2 1 1/2 2#
in in. and protectionC slab bottom 9% +5 lo
2-in. cover recom- Beam 1 1/2 1 1/2 1!4
mended for #6 through Column 1% 1 1/2 1%
#18 bars Walls (exterior face) 1% 1!4 1 1/2
Sealer-all floors Membrane-all floors
Sealer/membraneU - Sealer-roof only membrane roof and roof

a) Nomenclature: W/C = water/cementitious.

b) These recommendations are for thick slab structural systems as described in Chapter 2 and are not intended for slabs on grade. (If thin slab systems are used, a
membrane is recommended for all exposure conditions.)
c) Fire-resistive considerations may require greater bottom cover than noted herein.
d) Sealer should meet the criteria developed in NCHRP Report 244. Abrasion resistance and skid resistance should be considered in addition to NCHRP 244 criteria.
e) If a corrosion inhibitor or epoxy-coated non-prestressed reinforcement is used, the top cover may be reduced to l’/1 in.
f) Silica fume may be used in lieu of sealer application if the permeability of that concrete is determined to be low by acceptable standards.
3/
g) Only required where freezing occurs. Measure at the point of placement. Target air content for 4 in. aggregate. See Section 3.3.3.4
h) Additional protection is recommended for mixed use structure and when maintenance is unlikely.

surface pop-outs due to freezing and thawing. ASTM

C 33 sets maximum limits on the amount of chert in the
coarse aggregate for various climatic regions. When spe-
cifying architectural concrete or where local experience
shows excessive pop-outs, it may be desirable to set lower
limits for chert content than those required by ASTM
c 33.
In addition to freeze-thaw aspects of aggregates dis-
cussed earlier, other qualities, covered in ACI 201.2R,
also have an effect on durability. A well-graded aggregate
tends to produce more durable concrete than concrete
that has a predominance of one aggregate size, because
it is more dense and has less paste for a given volume.
Combinations of cement and aggregate subject to dele-
terious alkali-aggregate reactions should not be used in
parking structures. It may also be necessary to evaluate
aggregates for their abrasion characteristics in areas
where experience indicates that abrasion resistance may
be less than desired.
j+fJ$fy 3.3.3.3 Silica fume-Silica fume (microsilica) con-
crete has become widely accepted as providing a high
degree of resistance to chloride intrusion by reducing the
mortar matrix permeability.
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 When permeability and corrosion resistance are part
WATER-CEMENT RATIO of the design criteria, it is suggested that trial mixes be
made and examined under ASTM C 1202 or AASHTO
Fig. 3.2-Relationship between coefficient of permeability T 277 prior to construction start-up. Test specimens
and water-cement ratio for mature portland cement pastes should be made in accordance with ASTM C 31, cast in
(Note, this is FROMACI 225R, Fig. 6.6) 4 x 8-in. cylinder molds, and tested at 56 days of
362.1R-24 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

Table 3.2 -Cast-in-place post-tensioned concrete (Recommended minimum considerations for durability. The recom-
mendations in these tables assume drainage as noted in Section 3.2.2, cover tolerance as specified in ACI 318, and
maintenance as noted in Chapter sh)

Design clementb Durability zone (see Fig. 3.1)

Note cracks and construction joints to be
sealed to prevent leakage I II/CC-I III/CC-II

Strength, psi 3500 4000 5000

Concrete Air, percentg Not required 6 1/ 2 f2 61/2 f 2

W/C ratio (maximum) 0.45 0.40 0.40
Reinforcement cover, Slab top 1 1/2 1!4 T
in in. and protectionc Slab bottom % % lo
2-in. cover recom- Beam 1Yl 1!4 lyi
mended for #6 through Column 1Yz 1!4 1 1/2
#18 bars Walls (exterior face) 1 1/2 1 1/2 1 1/2
P/T tendons - PTI Spec ENCAP ENCAP
SealeF Roof only All floors and roof All floors and roof

a) Nomenclature.: PTI Spec = minimum requirements of PTI specifications for unbonded single strand tendons; ENCAP = encapsulated tendons per PTI specifications;
= water/cementitious.
b) These recommendations are for thick slab structural systems as described in Chapter 2 and are not intended for slabs on grade. (if thin slab systems are used, a
membrane is recommended for all exposure conditions.)
c) Fire-resistive considerations may require greater bottom cover than noted herein.
d) Sealer should meet the criteria developed in NCHRP Report 244. Abrasion resistance and skid resistance should be considered in addition to NCHRP 244 criteria.
e) If a corrosion inhibitor or epoxy-coated non-prestressed reinforcement is used, the top cover may be reduced to I’b in.
f) Silica fume may be used in lieu of sealer application if the permeability of that concrete is determined to be low by acceptable standards.
g) Only required where freezing occurs. Measure at the point of placement. Target air content for ‘/, in. aggregate. See Section 3.3.3.4.
h) Additional protection is recommended for mixed use structure and when maintenance is unlikely.

maturity. In addition, chloride penetration should be commends target air contents slightly higher than the
checked by AASHTO T 259. The accepted mix design minimums shown in ACI 318, but with increased toler-
should then be used throughout the duration of the ances, which keep the lower bound consistent with ACI
project, with only minor modifications allowed for 318. As noted in ACI 318, the air content required to
construction and weather variables. provide freeze-thaw resistance varies with aggregate size.
The use of silica fume may require modification of the These recommendations are based on the collective ex-
timing of finishing processes because bleed water is re- perience of the committee.
duced or eliminated. Trial slabs and consultations with a The air content of each load of concrete should be
manufacturer’s representative are recommended. Early determined at the point of placement (not at the truck)
curing of silica fume concrete is critical due to fast drying to verify that the concrete meets specifications. Air
and the potential for plastic shrinkage cracking. Fogging content can be diminished due to pumping or other
and other special procedures may be required with silica placement techniques. Estimates of air loss can be made
fume concrete (see ACI 234, awaiting publication). by measuring air content at both the point of discharge
3.3.3.4 Air entrainment-Deterioration of saturated and the point of placement until consistent air loss data
concrete may occur when concrete freezes. Water ex- has been established. An adjustment can then be made
pands by approximately 9 percent when it freezes. This to the air content measured at the point of discharge for
change in volume causes stresses to develop, sometimes the sake of convenience. The actual air loss should be
resulting in a rupture of the concrete at the surface (see established, however, at the beginning of each concrete
ACI 201.2R). placement as well as each time the placement conditions
Freezing and thawing deterioration can be avoided by change. Experience has shown the incidence of truck-
the use of properly entrained air in the concrete. Air loads of concrete not meeting the specifications, and the
entrainment is achieved by adding an air-entraining ad- prevalence of problems related to inadequate levels of air
mixture to the concrete mix. The type and quantity of air entrainment, justifies this level of testing for parking
entraining admixture should be selected and batched to structures in Zone III.
be compatible with other admixtures and additives. Air 3.3.3.5 Admixtures-The use of admixtures in appro-
contents should follow recommendations in Tables 3.1 to priate quantities and combinations is often required to
3.4 and ACI 318. In Tables 3.1 to 3.4 the committee re- achieve a workable wncrete with the desired durability.
 DESIGN OF PARKING STRUCTURES 2S2.1 R-25

Table 3.3 - Precast pretensioned concrete with CTP topping (Recommended minimum considerations for durability.
The recommendations in these tables assume drainage as noted in Section 3.2.2, cover tolerance as specified in ACI
318, and maintenance as noted in Chapter Sh>

Design element Durability zone (see Fig. 3.1)

Note cracks and construction joints to be
sealed to prevent leakage I I II/CC-I I III/CC-II

Topping concrete Strength, psi 3500 4000 5000

Air, percentd Not required 6H f 2 6% f 2
W/C (maximum) 0.45 0.40 0.40
Strength, psi 5000 5000 5000
Precast concrete Air, percent Not required 6% 2 2 61/2 d 2
W/C (maximum) 0.45 0.40 0.40
Reinforcement cover in CIP - topping lY2 lY2 2e
in. and protectiont’s P/C - TT lY2 1YS 144r
2 in. cover recom- P/C - beam 1 1/2 199 lY#
mended for #6 P/C - column 1% 159 19
through #18 bars Walls (exterior face) )i w lY?r
P/C flange edge - Liq. galv Liq. galv SS
connectors
P/C exposed plates - Rust preventive paint Et? or HD galv Et?’ of HD galv
I
ScalerJ - Roof only All floors and roof All floors and roof

a) Nomenclature:E/C = epoxy-coated; HD = hot dipped: S S = stainless STEEL; W/C = water/cementitious ratio; P/C = precase concrete; Liq. galv = liquid galvanizing.
b) Fire-resistive considerations may require greater bottom cover than noted herein.
c) Sealer should meet the criteria developed in NCHRP Report 244. Abrasion resistance and skid resistance should be considered in addition to NCHRP 244 criteria.
d) Measured at point of placement-only required in freezing temperature regions. Target air content is for 3/4-in. aggregate. See Section 3.3.3.4
e) If a corrosion Inhibitor or epoxy-coated non-prestressed reinforcement is used, t e top cover may be reduced to 1’1, in.
f) Silica fume may be used in lieu of sealer application if the permeability of that concrete is determined to be low by acceptable standards.
g) Ends of strands to be protected in Zones II, III, CC-I, and CC-II.
h) Note the exposed plate only need be epoxied; the anchors are not required to be epoxy-coated.
i) Additional protection i s recommended for mixed use structure and when maintenance is unlikely.

AVERAGE CHLORIDE CONTENT, lb Cl-/ y4’

20 40 60 80 100 120 140
I I t t t t

-100
I I 1 t t t t
L
0.M 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35
AVER- CHLORIDE CONTENT. percent

Fig. 3.3-Effect of water-cement ratio on salt penetration (Note, this is from ACZ 222R, Fig. 3.1)
362.11-26 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

Table 3.4-Precast concrete - pretopped (Recommended minimum considerations for durability. The recommenda-
tions in these tables assume drainage as noted in Section 3.2.2, cover tolerance as specified in ACI 318, and
maintenance as noted in Chapter Sh)

Concrete

a) Nomenclature:E/C = epoxy-coated; HD = hot dipped; SS = stainless steel: W/C = water/cementitious ratio; P/C = precase concrete; Liq. galv = liquid galvanizing.
b) Fire-resistive considerations may require greater bottom cover than noted herein.
c ) Sealer should meet the criteria developed in NCHRP Report 244. Abrasion resistance and skid resistance should be considered in addition to NCHRP 244 criteria.
d) If a corrosion inhibitor or epoxy-coated non-prestressed reinforcement is used, the top cover may be reduced to 1 ‘I2 in.
e) Only required where freezing occurs. Measure at the point of placement. Target air content for ‘/, in. aggregate. See Section 3.3.3.4.
fl Silica fume may be used in lieu of sealer application if the permeability of that concrete is determined to be low by acceptable standards.
g) Ends of strands to be protected in Zones II, III, CC-I, and CC-II.
h) Additional protection is recommended for mixed use structure and when maintenance is unlikely.
i) Any field cast elements should meet the requirements for CIP topping Table 3.3 or applicable portions of Table 3.1.
j) Note: the exposed plate only need be epoxied; the anchors are not required to be epoxy-coated.

However, admixtures should be used with care and com- containing chlorides should not be used in concrete for
patibility verified by a testing laboratory or experience. parking structures.
Water-reducing and set-controlling admixtures are classi- 3.3.3.6 Fibers--When fibers are considered for use
fied by ASTM C 494 into seven types: in concrete, they are usually compared to welded wire
fabric. Although each of these products helps to control
A. Water reducing cracking, they differ as to how and when they function.
B. Retarding Alkali-resistant synthetic fibers added to concrete help
C. Accelerating control the incidence of plastic shrinkage cracking. Syn-
D. Water reducing and retarding thetic fibers can reduce plastic shrinkage cracking as
E. Water reducing and accelerating much as 80 percent when compared to a control speci-
F. Water-reducing high range men. Synthetic fibers only control plastic shrinkage,
G. Water-reducing high range and retarding however, and thus cannot replace structural welded wire
fabric. Steel fibers, on the other hand, are added to
Type B, C, D, and E admixtures may be used to nor- concrete to increase flexural strengths and impact
malize setting characteristics of concrete during abnor- resistance, and restrict crack widths after the cracks form.
mally hot or cold temperatures. High-range water-re- Synthetic fibers provide most of their benefit early after
ducing admixtures (superplasticizers) may be needed in concrete placement by controlling shrinkage cracks, while
concrete with a water-cement ratio of 0.40 or less to steel fibers are also effective after the concrete sets. See
provide a workable concrete. The reduction of water in ACI 544.3R for information relating to steel fibers.
the mix will tend to reduce shrinkage. Bleeding will be 3.3.4 Finishing and Curing-Finishing the concrete sur-
greatly reduced, however, increasing the tential for face at the proper time and the subsequent curing of the
plastic shrinkage cracking. The water- educing or set- concrete are the final steps in the basic construction
controlling admixture must be compatible with the air- process. All too often these activities do not receive the
entraining admixture discussed in Section 3.3.3.4. proper attention, although they significantly contribute to
ACI 318 sets overall chloride limits for parking the durability of the structure.
structure concrete. Calcium chloride and admixtures 3.3.4.1 Finishing-Recommendations for finishing as
 DESIGN OF PARKING STRUCTURES 362.1 R-27

Permeability to water rapidly reduces with cement hydration

36,300,OOO
2,050,000
191,000
23,000
5.900
1,380

Fig. 3.4-Curing versus permeability

outlined in ACI 302.1R should be followed. Although ment from corrosion. ACI 318 Section 7.7 provides mini-
consolidation is necessary to eliminate entrapped air, it mum cover requirements. The cover recommendations
is important not to finish with free water on the surface provided in Tables 3.1 to 3.4 may exceed the minimum
because this practice can cause loss of air entrainment, requirements of ACI 318 (Zone III) in order to provide
and increase the water-cement ratio at the surface. True- some extra protection in corrosive environments as
ness of the surface affects drainage and merits special suggested in ACI 318. A reduction in cover to the
attention. The surface texture should be appropriate for minimum ACI 318 requirements is allowed in these
vehicular and pedestrian traffic as well as to provide tables when extra corrosion protection for the reinforcing
adequate skid resistance. A light-to-medium broom finish steel is provided through the use of epoxy coating or a
or a swirl finish with texture similar to a broom finish are corrosion inhibitor.
most commonly used. The following are recommendations when specifying
3.3.4.2 Curing-Proper curing of concrete is essen- concrete cover:
tial because it decreases permeability and reduces the a) Increased cover over reinforcement does not
potential for shrinkage cracking. Fig. 3.4 shows the effect provide absolute corrosion protection but
of curing time on coefficient of permeability. significantly postpones the onset of chloride-
Early and proper curing is especially important for induced corrosion. Adequate (or generous) cover
concrete that doesn’t bleed or that bleeds very little. over reinforcement is important in reducing
Examples are concretes containing entrained air, silica corrosion.
fume, a corrosion inhibitor, or other modifiers. Curing b) Cover tolerances should be specified and ACI
practices should follow ACI 308. Curing of each area 117 gives guidance for specifying these toler-
should begin immediately following the start of the ances. It may be difficult to place reinforcement
finishing operation for that area. Field experience has so that concrete cover is within the specified
shown that curing with wet burlap covered with plastic tolerances. Other tolerances for placement of
sheets for a minimum of 7 days (ACI 345R) produces reinforcement, formwork construction, concrete
good results for cast-in-place concrete. Sodium silicate thickness, and finish are sometimes not compat-
solutions are not recommended for use as a curing agent. ible with the cover tolerance.
The heat curing methods typically used in the production c) Cover over column and wall reinforcement
of precast concrete elements have generally reduced should be similar to top cover in adjacent slabs,
chloride penetrability. particularly if these are at or near gutter lines or
in areas exposed to salt-laden slush.
3.4-Protection of embedded metals d) Precast members exposed to salts should have
Corrosion is a severe problem that may render the cover requirements at their ends, as well as along
parking structure deficient before it has reached its full their sides, bottoms, and tops.
service life. Various protection measures for conventional
reinforcement and prestressing steel are discussed in this All parking floors within a parking structure should be
section. See ACI 201.2R and ACI 222R. considered “exposed to weather” in interpreting ACI 318,
3.4.1 Concrete cover over reinforcement Section 7.7. Detailing of connections is an especially
Concrete cover is important in protecting reinforce- important part of obtaining adequate concrete cover.
362.1R-28 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

Areas that deserve special attention are: For bonded systems, procedures that provide adequate
a) Slab-to-beam junctions where slabs are sloped grouting of ducts should be used.
transverse to beam. (Watch for minimum cover 3.4.2.3 Pretensioning/connections for precast systems-
on low side of beam.) Although many precast concrete systems for parking
b) At changes in slope, bars should be properly structures have good corrosion-resistance characteristics,
bent in slabs and in beams to maintain proper corrosion damage to prestressed and non-prestressed
cover at high and low ends. reinforcement in precast members has occurred. Flange-
c) At beam-column connections, avoid interference to-flange connections and bearing areas, such as ends of
between slab top steel and beam reinforcing by double-tees, beams, ledges, haunches, etc., are parti-
adjusting depths accordingly, both in design and cuIarIy vulnerable. Most corrosion of embedded rein-
detailing. Maintain minimum spacing require- forcement in precast members is associated with unre-
ments. Check for interference among post-ten- paired failure of joint seals.
sioning, beam reinforcement, and column ver- Connections in precast systems require special atten-
tical reinforcement. tion. Since they are located near the driving surface, tee-
to-tee connections may suffer premature corrosion dam-
Project specifications and details should define sup- age if exposed to water. Minimum protection for all con-
ports for reinforcement. Slab bars and post-tensioning nections should be provided as suggested in Tables 3.3
tendons should be chaired separately from beam rein- and 3.4. Unprotected connections should not be used in
forcing to assure that slab tendons and bars are in their any area exposed to water, whether chloride-contam-
correct position. inated or not.
3.4.2 Protection of reinforcement-In addition to the 3.4.3 Other embedded metals-To reduce the formation
concrete cover discussed earlier, additional protection of of galvanic cells in the structural system, electrical
the reinforcement can be provided by coatings and other contacts between dissimilar metals, particularly between
techniques. These are discussed in the following. uncoated reinforcement and stainless steel, lead (some-
3.4.2.1 Coated steel reinforcement-Epoxy-coated times used to flash floor drains), brass, copper (also used
reinforcement requires longer tension development as flashing materials), and bronze should be avoided.
lengths than does uncoated reinforcement (See ACI 318). These metals are less susceptible to corrosion than un-
Tests of beams with epoxy-coated bars have shown in- coated reinforcement and wiII tend to promote corrosion
creased flexural crack widths and larger spacing between of the reinforcement if in contact or close proximity. It is
cracks. Limited observations of structures constructed also desirable to isolate any galvanized or aluminum ele-
with epoxy-coated reinforcement have shown similar ments from the reinforcement to avoid a small anode-
results. (galvanizing or aluminum) large cathode (reinforcing sys-
Epoxy-coated reinforcement should conform to ASTM tem) effect, which can promote premature loss of the gal-
A 775. Zinc-coated (galvanized) reinforcement should vanized coating or the aluminum element. Electrical
conform to ASTM A 767. The project specifications components can affect structural performance. For exam-
should include job site requirements for coated rein- ple, embedded metal conduit with insufficient cover may
forcement. Requirements should include handling, lead to rusting, spaIIing, leaks, and even failure of cir-
placing, supports, and repair of damage to the coating cuitry. Unprotected aluminum conduit can be susceptible
(see ACI 301). Epoxy-coated wire and welded wire fabric to severe corrosion in moist concrete. If used, embedded
should conform to ASTM A 884. conduit should be located below the top reinforcement
Epoxy-coated prestressing strands meeting ASTM and meet or exceed the minimum cover requirements.
A 882 may present a fire resistance problem. The epoxy For these reasons, it is better practice to place metal
may melt at relatively low temperatures resulting in a conduit on the concrete surface. Embedded plastic con-
reduction or loss of bond along the pre-tensioning strand. duit is an alternative.
End anchorages should be provided for epoxy-coated Double-tee stainless steel edge connectors should be
strand in fire-resistive precast concrete construction. of ferritic, not austenitic, stainless steel, to lessen the
The Fourth Edition of the PCI Design Handbook re- chance of stress corrosion in a chloride environment.
commends against the use of epoxy-coated prestressing 3.4.4 Corrosion inhibitor-Corrosion inhibitors offer
strand in precast members because of the potential protection to embedded reinforcement. With a corrosion
deterioration of the epoxy coating during normal heated inhibitor the initiation of corrosion is delayed, the
curing practices. It has been observed that the bonding corrosion rate is reduced, and the service Iife of the
capabilities of epoxy coatings can start to deteriorate at structure is extended.
temperatures ranging from 160 to 180 F. One type of corrosion inhbitor is calcium nitrite.
3.4.2.2 Post-tensioned tendons-Unbonded systems Calcium-nitrite-based corrosion inhibitor assists in
should be specified in accordance with the Post-Ten- chemically passivating the outer surface of the rein-
sioned Institute’s Specifications for Unbonded Single forcement.
Strand Tendons. Tendon protection by encapsulation 3.4.5 Dampproofing admixture-An organic admixture
should be used in Zones II and III. consisting of amines and esters in a water medium has
 DESIGN OF PARKING STRUCTURES 362.1R-29

also been used to delay the initiation and rate of 3. Ability to withstand harsh climatic conditions
corrosion through its hydrophobic properties. See ACI
212.3R and ACI 222R. Other known dampproofing Abrasion resistance and skid resistance should be
agents may have similar effects. considered in addition to NCHRP 244 criteria.
3.4.6 Cathodic protection-Cathodic protection of rein- High-quality sealers meeting the criteria established in
forcing steel is primarily used for the rehabilitation of NCHRP Report 244 typically screen out over 90 percent
existing structures rather than for new parking structures. of chlorides.
However, cathodic protection is a method of protecting All sealers require adequate surface preparation. Light
steel reinforcement from corrosion. sandblasting, water blasting, or steel shotblasting are
Use of cathodic protection may be considered in lieu often recommended by the sealer manufacturer. How-
of epoxy coatings, concrete sealers, or corrosion inhi- ever, such preparation may not be needed for new con-
bitors. Concrete additives and concrete mixes specifically crete if it is free of contaminants and properly finished.
formulated to resist chloride intrusion are not required Most sealers must be applied to dry concrete with a
with cathodic protection. Concrete cover in excess of specific amount of concrete curing completed.
ACI 318 Section 7.7 is also not required. Sealers can be categorized as surface (film forming) or
Cathodic protection requires that all of the steel penetrants. Compatibility of all concrete sealers with sub-
reinforcement have electrical continuity. Electrical sequent striping or other specified finishes should be ver-
continuity of uncoated reinforcement is typical in many ified.
structural systems, but must be assured for cathodic pro- Surface sealers, including various acrylics, epoxies,
tection to function effectively. Special connections are urethanes and methyl methacrylates, provide a film over
required to assure electrical continuity of epoxy-coated the surface to which they are applied and may penetrate
reinforcement. slightly into the pores of the concrete surface. They are
Although cathodic protection of high-strength steel subject to wear and deterioration when exposed to traffic,
(pretensioned and post-tensioned) is theoretically pos- and may need replacing more frequently than penetrants.
sible, the possibility of hydrogen embrittlement has dis- Their presence can be visually monitored and the need
couraged its use. to replace may be easily determined and accomplished
Detailed information, design, and maintenance consid- o n a spot basis. Their effect on skid resistance should be
erations for cathodic protection of steel-reinforced con- considered. Some materials are subject to deterioration
crete structures can be found in the National Association when exposed to light. In general, surface sealers are not
of Corrosion Engineers Standard Recommended Prac- recommended for parking structures.
tices RP 0187 and RP 0390. Penetrants, including silanes and siloxanes, penetrate
the concrete, reacting with cementitious materials. They
3.5 Protection of concrete typically last longer than surface sealers, and are less
3.5.1 Protective treatments-Specifying protection of subject to wear under traffic or deterioration from sun
concrete provided by applied sealers or membranes re- exposure.
quires a basic understanding of the benefits and limi- Recommendations vary with differing environments
tations of the products. Leaking joints can be a constant and structural systems. See Tables 3.1 to 3.4.
source of frustration and may lead to extensive structural 3.5.1.2 Traffic-bearing membrances-A traffic-beating
damage. membrane typically consists of a fluid-applied, multilayer
3.5.1.1 Concrete sealers-Concrete sealers slow the elastomeric polyurethane or neoprene material with an
rate of moisture absorption and chloride penetration. integral nonskid traffic topping of similar material or
They should be used to assist rather than be a substitute modified epoxy. These materials are designed to allow
for durable concrete. Sealers cannot bridge cracks and direct exposure to pedestrian and vehicular traffic.
should not be expected to provide protection from mois- Graded sand or traprock is embedded in the traffic top-
ture absorption or chloride penetration at cracks. Silanes ping layers to provide a non-skid surface. The number
and siloxanes may prevent entry of water into cracks by and thickness of the traffic topping layers and amount of
rendering the crack sides water-repellent. The water- aggregate can be varied to provide different levels of
repellency is limited by the width of the crack, shape of resistance to wear. For example, entry/exit lanes, driving
crack, and the movement present. There are numerous aisles, and turning areas receive more wear than do park-
concrete sealers available that vary greatly with respect to ing areas. Proper surface preparation is important for all
their makeup, characteristics, and performance. Sealers traffic-bearing membranes.
should be evaluated based on the criteria established in Traffic-beating membranes provide waterproofing pro-
NCHRP 244 (Concrete Sealers for Protection of Bridge tection that is superior to concrete sealers, and their
Structures) and ASTM C 672 (Scaling Resistance to De- elastomeric properties allow them to bridge small cracks
icing Chemicals) for the following: successfully. Many manufacturers offer systems that are
resistant to deterioration from sunlight exposure. Most
1. Moisture absorption can be economically maintained by replenishing with ad-
2. Chloride penetration protection ditional traffic topping and aggregate, provided that the
262.1 R-30 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

lower layers that provide the waterproofing protection Problems can be minimized by selecting the proper seal
have not deteriorated. for the expected service conditions and by locating joints
Recommendations vary with differing environments at high points and away from areas where water must
and structural systems. See Tables 3.1 to 3.4. pass to reach drains. In no case should water be allowed
3.5.1.3 Membranes with protective wearing courses- to pond on these joints. At areas of pedestrian use, select
These systems typically consist of a bonded, hot-applied systems that reduce potential tripping hazards. On design
rubberized membrane that is approximately 1/8-in. thick. drawings, a section should be shown along the length of
An asphaltic material or a concrete topping is placed every isolation or expansion joint to ensure proper
over the membrane to provide a durable driving surface. detailing of conditions at ends, curbs, columns, walls, etc.
The thickness of the membrane and its initial flexi- Proper sealing of isolation and expansion joints is a
bility provide crack bridging capabilities, particularly with function of several factors. Total movement of a joint
systems that incorporate fabric sheet reinforcing at should account for the volume changes discussed in
pre-existing cracks and joints. The need for preventive Chapter 2. Failure to adequately account for volume
maintenance of the protective wearing course is generally changes during design can be a contributing cause to
minimal. However, since the membrane is concealed by joint failure in post-tensioned parking structures. Volume
the protective wearing course, repair of the membrane is and speed of traffic over the joint and exposure to snow-
generally expensive, and leaks are often difficult to locate plows may be important design factors. Ease of splicing,
if the membrane is not bonded to the concrete deck. The transitions, terminations, and repair are also important.
weight and thickness of the protective wearing course Various types of joint sealing systems for structural
should be considered when analyzing a parking structure isolation and expansion joints are available. Appropriate
for allowable design load and determining floor-to-ceiling selection involves an understanding of design features
clearance. and limitations of each type of joint system, including
3.5.2 Joint sealant systems-The placing of joints in ADA requirements associated with tripping hazards.
parking structures introduces discontinuities in the sur- 3.5.2.2 Types of isolation and expansion joint seaIing
face, allowing penetration of water and deleterious water- systems-Types of isolation and expansion joint sealing
borne chemicals into the slab if not properly sealed. Joint systems commonly used include factory-molded elasto-
sealing systems must be watertight to avoid leakage and meric seals, extruded elastomeric seals, and strip (or
premature deterioration of underlying structural ele- gland) seals.
ments. Factory-molded expansion joint seals involve the use
Joint design is important to prevent early joint system of an elastomeric material, usually urethane. The ure-
failure. Refer to ACI 504R for information regarding de- thane joint seal is adhered to the sides of the joint, but
sign of joints and installation of sealants. is not bonded across the bottom to allow free movement
Proper maintenance of the joint sealant system is of the elastomeric material.
critical to the long-term performance of parking struc- Urethane joint sealing systems are factory premolded
tures (see Chapter 5). to minimize the problems associated with field applica-
3.5.2.1 Isolation and expansion joints-Isolation and tion (see Fig. 3.5). These seals are susceptible to damage
expansion joints are provided in parking structures to re- from snowplows and should not be used in such areas.
lieve stresses associated with volume change forces. Their They also may become slippery in some weather condi-
function is to reduce the length of structure subject to tions.
volume change; to facilitate change of direction of the Extruded elastomeric seals differ in material as well as
predominant shape of the structure; and, where desired, manufacturing process. One common type is the com-
to separate stair towers or other stiff building elements pression seal, characterized by a compartmentalized
from the parking structure. In special situations, it may (honeycombed) cross section, predominantly manufac-
be desirable to provide for load transfer across an ex- tured by extruding polycholoroprene (neoprene), a
pansion joint to minimize vertical displacement across the material offering resistance to compression set. Another
joint or to transfer lateral loads parallel to the joint. type of compression seal is a flexible cellular foam or
Transfer of lateral loads parallel to the joint should be expanded vinyl acetate, impregnated with polybutylene or
done with caution and with consideration of all aspects similar compound. This type of joint has been observed
of structural behavior. Isolation joints may also separate to perform poorly in parking structure applications
grade beams from the structure, and isolate columns because of a tendency to take on a compression set in
from a slab-on-grade. Isolation joints are characterized by colder weather.
a complete break through the full cross section of the For compression seals to be effective, some degree of
structure, allowing predicted movement to occur without compression must be maintained at the joint interface
harmful repercussions. Joint movements may occur verti- and the joint material must remain elastic. This need re-
cally as well as horizontally. Related isolation joints for quires a uniform joint width and clean, straight, smooth,
earth-quake design are referred to as seismic joints. spall-free joint faces. This requirement can be accom-
Effectively sealing isolation and expansion joints is plished by armoring the joint with metal angles.
difficult and some periodic maintenance will be required. Some of the problems associated with displacement of
 DESIGN OF PARKING STRUCTURES 362.1R-31

FACTORY MOLDED URETHANE SEAL .-\

SEALANT NOSING \

BOND AKER - \ TRAFFIC PLATE

(BONDED O N EDIES O N L Y )

\ SEALANT BEDDING
Fig. 3.5-Factory molded urethane expansion joint seal

SPECIAL FILLER FLOOR

ISOLATION OR
EXPANSION JOINT
HOLES PUNCHED A T
INTERVALS IN SEAL

Fig. 3.6-Example of a chemically adhered, extruded rubber expansion joint seal

compression seals may be reduced or eliminated by the in recent years in response to field problems associated
use of mechanically locked seals with metal retainers or with other types. These seals consist of a preformed elas-
membrane flanges, allowing the seal to remain functional tomeric sealing element mechanically locked, fixed, or
beyond its nominal width (see Fig. 3.6). otherwise bonded at each side of the joint face. Move-
Strip (or gland) sealing systems have become popular ment is accommodated by a fold or bulb within the ele-
 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

JOINTS RESTRAINED BY l/2” x 3/4” TOOLED JOINT USING

CONTlNUOUS REINFORCEMENT GROOVING TOOL & SEALED WITH
AND CONNECTIONS BETWEEN POLYURETHANE SEALANT. TYPICAL
PRECAST MEMBERS AT ALL TEE FLANGE CONNECTIONS.

CAST-IN-PLACE TOPPING

FLANGE - F L A N G E / u TEE FLANGES

CONNECTOR
SPACING VARIES

Fig. 3.7.1-Typical control detail in field-placed topping at precast tee flange-to-flange joint

ment. A small face is presented at the top to wheel and amount of traffic, direct exposure to sun and weather,
foot traffic, reducing traffic exposure problems. An ar- the amount of cyclical movement in the joint, the use of
mored edge or a special nosing is commonly employed to proper preparation and installation techniques, the
minimize snowplow damage. These systems come in a presence of standing water over the joints, and proper
wide variety of configurations and are not easily maintenance.
categorized. Precast, prestressed structures with cast-in-place
Joint fiiers that do not retain moisture are suggested concrete topping with a joint system have shown a high
for use on parking structures. Joint fillers that absorb or degree of success in controlling anticipated cracks
retain moisture can contribute to accelerated failure of because of the highly predictable cracking pattern that
the sealant, corrosion of adjacent steel, or increased occurs. Contraction joints should be placed at all edges
scaling due to freeze-thaw cycling. Care should be taken of every precast member (see Fig. 3.7.1 and 3.7.2). Joints
when installing these materials during times of tempera- should be extended through any cast-in-place elements,
ture extremes. Sealing these joints should be deferred such as curbs or islands, and placed over joints between
until normal temperatures exist. precast members. Cracking may occasionally occur in the
3.5.2.3 Contraction joints-Contraction joints (some- topping at random locations due to restraint from the
times called control joints) are used to make various underlying precast section. These cracks should be
structural systems more watertight. To be successful, the sealed.
following criteria should be met: Contraction joints iu concrete topping over precast
concrete are created during the concrete finishing pro-
1. Controlled cracking should be induced at prede- cess. Joints should be accomplished by tooling a “V” con-
termined locations where cracking is likely to occur. figuration into the plastic concrete with a common con-
2. A sufficient number of joints to reduce stresses in crete groover similar to the tool used to provide sidewalk
the concrete must be included so that formation of joints. The ``V'' should be at least %-in. deep and % in.
additional cracks will be minimized. wide at the top with a %-in. radius edge at the driving
3. The joints should be installed and maintained in surface. After curing, the grooved joint should be pre-
such a way as to provide long-term watertightness. pared by grinding with a V-shaped abrasive wheel,
cleaned, primed, and sealed with a quality sealant re-
Type and location of joints and detailing of their seals cessed slightly below the driving surface to minimize
are unique to each type of structure and require special contact with wheel traffic. Movement in these joints is
consideration. Sealant effectiveness depends on the qual- typically restrained by the presence of reinforcement
ity and durability of the surrounding concrete, the steel, welded wire fabric, or welded connections through
 DESIGN OF PARKING STRUCTURES 362.1R-33

JOINTS RESTRAINED BY l/2” x 3/4” T O O L E D J O I N T

CONTINUOUS REINFORCEMENT SEALANT (Typ.)
AND CONNECTIONS BETWEEN WH
PRECAST MEMBERS

TlE STIRRUPS -_
TEE FLANGE

DOUBLE TEE BEARING PAD

STEM

INVERTED
TEE BEAM

Fig. 3.7.2-Typical control detail in field-placed topping over tee and inverted tee beams

tions through the crack or joint. No bond breaker or Leakage at monolithic construction joints may be re-
filler rod is normally required to successfully seal joints duced if, before the second casting, laitance is removed
of this type because movement is restrained across the to promote a positive bond.
joint or crack. Following placement, monolithic construction joints
A “V” shape sealant cross section has very little should be tooled and sealed. Sealing should be accom-
movement capability, and if the crack or joint is not plished by filliug the construction joint with an elas-
restrained, the shape factor of the sealant or seal element tomeric sealant (see Fig. 3.8). Monolithic construction
becomes critical to success. Refer to ACI 504R for joints are usually restrained from movement because of
sealing of a moving joint. the amount of reinforcement crossing the joint.
Sawing joints is not a recommended alternative to Optimum configuration of the joint sealant is depen-
tooling. The main advantage of a tooled joint over a dent on the amount of movement anticipated during the
sawed joint is that it creates a reduced cross section service life of the structure (see ACI 504R).
before the concrete has reached initial set. The reduced 3.5.2.5 Cracks--Cracks in concrete occur for a
section minimizes the probability of cracking adjacent to variety of reasons. Since cracks are a source of moisture
the joint or prior to the time the joint is provided. and chloride intrusion into the concrete, sealing them is
Tooling rounds and compacts the edges, providing a an important issue.
shape more resistant to spalling than the square edge of There are several common methods of sealing cracks.
a sawed joint. The effectiveness of a given method is dependent upon
3.5.2.4 Construction joints-Construction joints are the underlying cause and behavior of the crack. See ACI
created at predetermined locations where one concrete 224R and ACI 224.1R for a more complete discussion of
placement is terminated and another is begun later. De- the causes of cracking. Many cracks in parking structures
pending on structural design, joints may be monolithic are subject to dynamic movement due to temperature
(that is, the interfaces of the joint are soundly bonded to change. Effective repairs for these cracks must be able to
insure complete structural integrity of the slab), or withstand ongoing movement in the crack. The most
function as isolation or contraction joints. effective method to accomplish this repair is to provide
Construction joints are often sources of leakage in a groove of approximately ‘/1 in. wide by Yz in. deep
parking structures. Deicers allowed to penetrate through sealed with an elastomeric sealant.
the joint may result in corrosion of reinforcement or For small cracks (approximately 0.015 in. or less) that
other embedded metals. show little or no movement, treatment with a penetrating
 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

SLOPE OR TOOL EDGES FOR SAME REASONS

STATED IN 352.3

FIELD MOLDED SEALANT

FORMED GROOVE IN
PLASTIC CONCRETE

CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION JOINT FACE

SLAB REINFORCING A

Fig. 3.8-Typical sealant detail over construction joint in cast-in-place structural slab

silane or siloxane sealer may render the crack hydro- combination of protective measures.
phobic. One course of action to repair multiple small Recommendations in the text differentiate between
cracks is to treat the surface area with a silane or parking levels exposed directly to the elements (roof) and
siloxane sealer, then retreat specific cracks that continue parking levels not exposed directly to the weather (floor).
to leak at a later date with the rout and seal method. The recommendations refer to general parking areas and
Another method of sealing cracks is the use of epoxy adjacent drive lanes. Isolated ramps, helices, or access
injection. This process involves injecting epoxy into a lanes with concentrated traffic may require protection
crack under pressure to fill the void and adhere the sur- greater than the minimum recommendations. Other phy-
faces back together. This approach should be considered sical or functional characteristics that may justify
if the crack is static and it is desirable to restore the exceeding these minimum recommendations are:
structural integrity of the cracked section. A variation on
this method is to gravity feed a low-viscosity epoxy, meth- 1. Multiple use structure
acrylate, or other polymer into the crack to fill the void 2. Perimeter of parking level exposed to the weather
and make it watertight. In either case, it is important that 3. Occupied space directly below parking level
the underlying cause of the crack be determined and cor- 4. Heated space above or below parking level
rected prior to the repair, or a new crack may develop to 5. Isolated single-lane entrance or exit without
replace the one being fixed. Epoxy injection is not a alternate access
recommended procedure for repairing moving cracks. 6. High traffic volumes

3.6-Guidelines for selection of durability systems for Section 3.6.4 provides descriptions of these characteris-
floors and roofs tics and their effects on the durability system.
3.6.1 Introduction-The performance of parking struo Not all available protection measures are appropriate
tures requires special attention to durability systems in all or compatible. Tables 3.1 through 3.4 provide minimum
environments. Selecting the right combination of protec- recommended durability measures for different types of
tion systems is not a prescriptive process. This section is structural systems and service environments.
provided to assist the designer in selecting an appropriate 3.6.2 Structural considerations-Recommended durabil-
 DESIGN Of PARKINQ STRUCTURES 362.1R-35

ity measures are dependent upon the structural system should be considered for these areas.
chosen and their service environment. For example, slabs 3.6.4.5 High traffic volumes or valet parking-In a
that tend to crack (thin slabs and nonprestressed slabs) parking structure with high traffic volumes or valet
should be provided with traffic grade membranes on the parking, abnormal abrasion of the surfaces in the drive
roof in certain conditions and on all floors in others. lanes may be a problem. Elements of the floor or roof
Measures to isolate and protect internal metal elements protection system that are in contact with the vehicle
in the slab will also vary from system to system. tires may undergo extensive wear. Design and detail the
3.6.3 Environmental considerations-Chapter 1 dis- joints to prevent tire contact with joint sealants. A
cusses various exposure conditions and types of deter- membrane with a protective wearing course should be
ioration that may occur. Fig. 3.1 defines various exposure considered for these conditions.
zones to provide the designer with initial guidance to
address each of these concerns. Where appropriate, dif-
ferent approaches have been recommended in this chap-
ter for different zones. CHAPTER 4-DESIGN ISSUES RELATED
3.6.4 Physical and functional considerations-In addi- TO CONSTRUCTION PRACTICE
tion, there are other physical and functional characteris-
tics that should be considered. Recommendations provide 4.1-Introduction
a minimum level of protection. Anticipated difficulties in There are many aspects of the construction process
repairing or rehabilitating the structure in the future that directly affect long-term durability of parking
should be considered in selecting the protection system. structures. Many of the items in this chapter have been
Concern for the future must be balanced with the eco- covered in previous chapters because they should be con-
nomics of providing more protection initially, as well as sidered in the design/specification process. They are
the annual maintenance costs. repeated here for emphasis.
3.6.4.1 Multiple-use structures-Parking structures
are often an integral part of a building providing space 4.2--Concrete cover
for commercial, office, hotel, residential, or other uses. In 4.2.1 Placement of reinforcement-In addition to nor-
multiple-use structures such as these, the building wilI mal concern for placement of reinforcement to satisfy
likely be occupied as long as it stands. If the parking por- structural requirements, placement of reinforcement to
tion is allowed to deteriorate, rehabilitation may adver- obtain the required concrete cover is important. Top
sely affect building occupants. Consideration should be concrete cover and, in some cases, side concrete cover
given to providing more than minimum protection in are significant durability factors. Because of the im-
such cases. portance of cover, periodic inspections during construc-
3.6.4.2 Occupied space directly beneath parking tion are desirable to verify reinforcement placement.
level-Leaking from a parking level into occupied space There are certain chronic deficiencies in concrete cover
beneath is generally more damaging and annoying than that occur on many jobs and to which the parking struc-
leaking from one parking level to another. The minimum ture inspector should be particularly alert. Tltese include
protection system over occupied space should be a traf- bumper wall inside face cover, cover at changes in floor
fic-bearing membrane. Dependent upon the use of the slope, cover over ends of bars at outside edges of pour
space below and the anticipated life of the facility, a strips and expansion joints, column ties, cross-overs, and
membrane with protective wearing course may also be heavily warped slab areas. Slab bars and slab post-ten-
considered. sioning tendons should be chaired separately from beam
3.6.4.3 Heated space above and beneath parking reinforcing to assure that slab tendons and bars are in
level-when an underground garage in Zone II or III is their correct positions.
heated, caution should be exercised iu deleting the 4.2.2 Thickness of slabs and other concrete elements-
recommendations in Tables 3.2 through 3.4. Freezing and It is important to verify that slab thickness is maintained
thawing could stilI occur at exits and entrances should air to assure proper cover. Screed rails fixed in place to
curtains not function, or throughout if heating systems do maintain the required slab thickness are recommended.
not function properly. Due to melting of snow, ice, and Slabs that are screeded and finished to less than their
deicing salts carried in on the undersides of vehicles, the design thickness can reduce concrete cover, resulting in
potential for corrosion-induced deterioration and leaking loss of durability and perhaps reduced structural capacity.
may be greater. Sloped floors present a challenge to the contractor in
3.6.4.4 Isolated single-lane entrance or exit without maintaining proper concrete thicknesses.
alternate access-When an isolated single-lane entrance
or exit is provided to a parking level without alternate 4.3-Vertical clearances for vehicles
access, consideration should be given to the difficulties Variations in vertical dimensions during construction
that would be encountered in repairing corrosion-induced have created less than desirable vertical clearances for
deterioration once the facility is operating. A greater vehicles or pedestrians. Extra care in this area is
degree of protection than is otherwise recommended warranted.
362.1A-36 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

4.4-Floor elevations for drainage the batch. Varying travel time to the jobsite and varying
Drainage is an important aspect of durability. Drain- time periods before usage at the jobsite may require re-
age is affected during construction by several variables, dosage at the jobsite to maintain the desired slump level.
depending on the structural system: Air content must be monitored carefully after redosage.
4.5.3.3 Silica fume-The use of silica fume may re-
Setting edge forms to proper height quire modifications of the timing and procedures of fin-
Setting slab forms to proper slopes ishing and curing. Trial slabs and consultation with a
Setting screed rails manufacturer’s representative are recommended. Fogging
Casting tolerances may be necessary to prevent shrinkage cracking during
Setting drains some weather conditions.
Special drainage areas 4.5.3.4 Other admixures-Other admixtures also
Finishing tolerances may require special attention during the construction
Casting tolerances of precast members process to assure that they are being used as recom-
Camber mended.
Warping of precast members to achieve desired
slope 4.6-Placement and consolidation
The placement and consolidation on the sloped floors
Parking structures often have sloping or warped floors, of parking structures requires special consideration.
which make construction more difficult than level floors. Placement should normally proceed in the uphill direc-
Drainage slopes warrant extra attention to assure that tion to achieve best results. Some have reported better
specified drainage is achieved. results proceeding in the downhill direction when
working with HRWR mixes and vibrating screeds. If the
4.5-Materials timing of vibration and screeding is not correct for the
Inspection and review of construction procedures mix, the concrete tends to slide downhill and create small
should be undertaken to verify that conformity with the humps at transverse reinforcement. The amplitude of
specifications has been achieved. Some aspects of quality these variations is generally slightly greater than the
control that should have special attention during finishing tolerance but is not likely to significantly affect
construction are noted in the following paragraphs. the use or durability of the deck. Consolidation to elim-
4.5.1 Mixproportions-The mix proportions should in- inate entrapped air should be performed. Forms that are
sure the various constituents combine into a workable too flexible may cause concrete to flow away from the
mix that can be placed without compromising durability point of consolidation or placement.
and strength.
4.5.2 Water-cementitious material ratio--Water content 4.7-Finishing
affects concrete permeability, shrinkage, and cracking. Recommendations for finishing as outlined in ACI
Limitations for adding water to concrete at the jobsite 302.1R should be followed. It is important to consolidate
should be specified. Concrete with slump values greater and close the surface. Finishing should not proceed with
than the specified tolerance limit should be rejected. free water on the surface because it can cause loss of air
High-water-cementitious-ratio concrete shrinks and entrainment and increase the water-cementitious ratio at
cracks more than low-water-cementitious-ratio concrete. the surface. A light-to-medium broom finish or a swirl
Although ASTM C 94 allows on-site addition of water to finish with texture similar to a broom finish is most
the mix, there is no guarantee of uniform mixing. Tables commonly used. Quality finishes can be achieved by
3.1 through 3.4 recommend low water-cementitious brooming the surface immediately after bullfloating,
ratios. The addition of on-site water may compromise the spraying an evaporation retarder, and fogging until the
quality of the concrete and is not recommended. concrete has hardened sufficiently to apply curing covers.
4.5.3 Admixtures--The use of admixtures or additives No further floating or finishing is done after brooming.
to the concrete in the appropriate quantities and com-
binations may be necessary to achieve durable concrete. 4.8-Curing
Admixtures, however, must be used with a clear under- Moist curing is recommended to provide the best
standing of their intended effect and limitations. quality. If a curing compound is used, its compatibility
4.5.3.1 Air entrainment-Field verification of the with a future sealer or membrane must be reviewed. A
total air content should be made for each batch at the seven-day wet cure followed by a membrane-curing com-
point of placement. Concrete with out-of-tolerance air pound is recommended to enhance impermeability and
content should be rejected. minimize shrinkage of cast-in-place concrete. In hot, dry,
4.5.3.2 High-range water-reducing admixtures (super- windy weather, spraying a membrane curing compound
plasticizers)-High-range water-reducing admixtures may on formed areas after form removal should be considered
be added at the plant or at the jobsite after verification to minimize long-term shrinkage problems. Heat curing
of the initial slump. If added at the jobsite, adequate utilized in most precast concrete plants provides a
mixing time is important to assure dispersion throughout satisfactory cure. Silica fume concretes require more
 DESIGN OF PARKING STRUCTURES 262.1R-37

attention to curing than do most other concretes. dividual companies to increase the level of employee
craftsmanship and improve overall quality of the project.
4.9-Reinforcement-Repair of corrosion protection The committee recommends designers and specifiers
Damage to the corrosion protection provided for make use of these programs by specifying compliance in
reinforcement during construction is not an uncommon construction documents.
occurrence. Inspections should be conducted prior to
concreting to identify and repair damaged conditions.
Cut ends and damaged areas of epoxy-coated rein- CHAPTER 5-DESIGN ISSUES RELATED
forcement should be repaired in accordance with esta- TO MAINTENANCE PRACTICE
blished procedures and recommendations.
Post-tensioning sheathing and encapsulation systems 5.1-Introduction
should also be inspected and repaired as necessary prior The building designer should advise the owner of
to concreting to maintain the necessary corrosion maintenance tasks that should be performed during the
protection. life of the structure. Just as owners receive instructions
for operation of a piece of mechanical equipment, they
4.10-Application of sealers should understand maintenance appropriate for the park-
Critical factors for the application of sealers that ing structure. The term maintenance, as used in this
should have special attention during the construction context, includes many routine tasks and observations,
phase include: repairing anything that is not working as it should, and
those tasks that are in the realm of preventive main-
l Surface preparation tenance. These tasks might be separated into house-
0 Coverage rate keeping, preventive maintenance, and repairs.
l Uniformity of coverage The purpose of maintenance is to prevent the need for
l Moisture condition of concrete significant repairs by taking preventive measures and
repairing or replacing malfunctioning elements on a
In new construction, concrete cured with water should timely basis.
not require any special preparation, provided the con-
crete has been kept free of grease, oil, dirt, or other 5.2-Suggested minimum maintenance program
contam-inants. The heart of a maintenance program is regular clean-
ing and inspection of the various elements of the struc-
4.11-Application of membranes ture. The second requirement is preventive maintenance
Critical factors for application of membranes include: and repair of specific elements.
5.3.1 Cleaning-There are two aspects of cleaning that
0 Surface preparation have impact on durability. Fist, it is desirable to assure
0 Coverage rate that drains are kept free of debris so that they function
l Pretreatment of cracks as intended. Second, it is desirable to wash the floors of
0 Curing temperature a parking facility at least once a year. In areas where
deicer salts are used, two floor washings are recom-
4.12-Specialty concretes mended; one in the spring and one in the fall.
Specialty concretes containing high-range water 5.2.2 Inspections-The purpose of regular inspections
reducers or silica fume require special procedures and or observations is to insure that all of the parking struc-
guidelines for transport, placement, finishing, and curing. ture elements are performing properly. In the next sec-
tions, various elements of the structure, or indication of
4.13-Environmental considerations problems, that can be visually observed are discussed. An
Special attention must be given to specifications for inspection log should be maintained by the owner or
hot-and-cold weather concrete placement. Minor changes operator at the facility.
in the concrete mix design may be required to compen- 5.2.2.1 Water leakage-Leaks may occur at isolation
sate for changing weather conditions (see ACI 305R and joints, construction joints, cracks, walls, windows, and
306R). other locations. Any leak is a potential problem, and
should be investigated and corrected. Failure to correct
4.14-Field quality control leaks is likely to result in corrosion damage. Isolation
ACI has certification programs for concrete finishers joints and sealing systems can be expected to need re-
and concrete technicians to verify field workers’ quali- placement at regular intervals. Variables affecting service
fications. The PCI (Prestressed Concrete Institute) and life include materials, workmanship, traffic, joint details
the PTI (Post-Tensioning Institute) have plant certifi- and exposure to sunlight.
cation programs that establish standards for commonly 5.2.2.2 Membrane-Membrane systems are subject
used structural components. In addition, there are many to abrasion wear due to traffic. When surface wear is first
other programs sponsored by trade organizations and in- observed, the membrane may be intact, but appropriate
362.1R-38 ACI COMMlTTEE REPORT

measures should be taken to restore the wearing course. Suggested references for additional information in-
Reapplication of the wearing course may be required in clude the Parking Garage Maintenance Manual prepared
3 to 5 years, with spot repairs required more frequently. by the Parking Consultants Council of the National Park-
Should the membrane fail to bridge a crack, repair pro- ing Association and the book Parking Structures (see ref-
cedures should be implemented as soon as practical. erences).
5.2.2.3 Sealers--Many sealers that perform as a
moisture and chloride screen are not visible, making it
difficult to visually determine whether the sealer is CHAPTER 6-REFERENCES
present and capable of performing its intended function.
Sealers usually require periodic tests to assess their 6.1-Cited references
performance. One of these tests is commonly called a The documents of the various standards-producing or-
“water uptake test.” At present, there is not a standard ganizations referred to in this document are listed with
test method for this procedure and it should be con- their serial designation. Since some of these documents
sidered as a general guide. The water uptake test consists are revised frequently, the user of this report should
of: using a sealant to seal a graduated tube against the check for the most recent revision.
concrete; filling the tube with water; reading the level of
the water initially and after 20 min or an hour to deter- American Association of State Highway and Transportation
mine the amount of water absorbed by the concrete dur- Officials
ing the test period. A test of this type is best performed T 259 Standard Method of Testing for Resistance of
shortly after the sealer has been applied and cured, then Concrete to Chloride Ion Penetration
at 1- to 3-year intervals thereafter. If any water uptake T 277 Rapid Determination of the Chloride Perme-
test shows a significant change, then it may be time for ability of Concrete
a reapplication of a sealer as a preventive maintenance
measure. American Concrete Institute
Another method of checking the performance of a 116R Cement and Concrete Terminology
sealer is to take initial samples of the concrete for 117 Standard Specifications for Tolerances for
determination of chloride content. These samples can be Concrete Construction and Materials
small, with partial depth cores or powder recovered from 201.2R Guide to Durable Concrete
drill bit holes. Samples taken at intervals of 1- to 3-years 209R Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage, and Tempera-
can be compared to the initial sample. When tests indi- ture Effects in Concrete Structures
cate the sealer is not performing its desired function to 211.1 Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for
minimize chloride ingress, a new sealer should be ap- Normal, Heavyweight, and Mass Concrete
plied. Sealers may require reapplication as early as 3 212.3R Chemical Admixtures for Concrete
years, yet some may perform well for more than 10 years. 222R Corrosion of Metals in Concrete
5.2.2.4 Ponding-Observations should note areas of 223 Standard Practice for the Use of Shrinkage-Com-
the structure that allow ponding of water. If ponding pensating Concrete
occurs, it is recommended that steps be taken to elim- 224R Control of Cracking in Concrete Structures
inate the ponding. See Chapter 3. 224.1R Causes, Evaluation, and Repair of Cracks in
5.2.2.5 Sealants-Inspection and prompt repair of Concrete Structures
sealant is important for overall durability of the structure. 225R Guide to the Selection and Use of Hydraulic
Sealant failure may permit water to reach steel elements, Cements
such as at the connections of flanges of precast elements, 234 Guide for the Use of Silica Fume in Concrete*
or at construction joints such as those where prestressing 301 Specifications for Structural Concrete for
tendons or anchors are located. Buildings
5.2.2.6 Other elements-other elements in a parking 302.1R Guide for Concrete Floor and Slab Construction
structure that should be included in regular inspections 305R Hot Weather Concreting
include: 306R Cold Weather Concreting
308 Standard Practice for Curing Concrete
l Connections in precast concrete construction 318 Building Code Requirements for Reinforced
0 Bearing pads and sliding joints Concrete
l Concrete that shows any evidence of deterioration 345R Guide for Concrete Highway Bridge Deck Con-
or corrosion struction
352R Recommendations for Design of Beam-Column
Joints in Monolithic Reinforced Concrete
5.3-Fix it now!! Structures
When any element or area of a parking structure is 504R Guide to Sealing Joints in Concrete Structures
not performing as intended, that element should be
repaired or replaced as soon as is practical. *Awaiting publication.
l
 DESIGN OF PARKING STRUCTURES 362.1R-39

544.3R Guide for Specifying, Mixing, Placing, and Fin- “Design of Spandrel Beams,” Specially Funded Re-
ishing Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete search Project #5, Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute, Chicago, IL, 1986.
American Society for Testing and Materials
A 767 Standard Specification for Zinc-Coated (Gal- Post-Tensioning Institute
vanized) Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement “Specifications for Unbonded Single Strand Ten-
A 775 Specification for Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing Steel dons,” PCI Journal, V. 30, No. 2, Mar.-Apr. 1985.
Bars
A 882 Specification for Epoxy-Coated Seven-Wire Pre- Other Publications
stressing Steel Strand Chrest, Smith & Bhuyan, Parking Structures: Plan-
A884 Specification for Epoxy-Coated Steel Wire, and ning Design, Construction, Maintenance, and Repair,
Welded Wire Fabric Reinforcement Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, New York,
c 31 Standard Method of Making and Curing Con- 1989.
crete Test Specimens in the Field
c 33 Standard Specification for Concrete Aggregates
c 94 Standard Specification for Ready Mixed Con- Referenced publications are available from the following
crete organizations:
c 494 Standard Specification for Chemical Admixtures
for Concrete
C 672 Test for Scaling Resistance of Concrete Surfaces American Association of State Highway and Transpor-
Exposed to Deicing Chemicals tation Officials
c 1202 Standard Test Method for Electrical Indication 444 North Capitol St., NW
of Concrete’s Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Suite 225
Penetration Washington, D.C. 20001
E380 Metric Practice Guide
American Concrete Institute
Building Seismic Safety Council P.O. Box 9094
NEHRP (National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Farmington Hills, MI 48333-9094
Program) for the Development of Seismic
Regulations for New Buildings, 1991. American Society for Testing and Materials
1916 Race Street
National Association of Corrosion Engineers Philadelphia, PA 19103
RP 0187 Design Considerations for Corrosion Control
of Reinforcing Steel in Concrete Structures Building Seismic Safety Council
RP 0390 Maintenance and Rehabilitation Considera- 1201 L Street, N.W., Suite 400
tions for Corrosion Control of Existing Steel Washington, D.C. 20005
Reinforced Concrete Structures
National Association of Corrosion Engineers
National Cooperative Highway Research Program P.O. Box 218340
4 Concrete Bridge Deck Durability Houston, TX 77218
57 Durability of Concrete Bridge Decks
244 Concrete Sealers for Protection of Bridge National Parking Association
Structures 1112 16th Street NW
Suite #300
National Parking Association Washington, D.C.
Parking Garage Maintenance Manual, National
Parking Association, Washington D.C., 1987. Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute
175 West Jackson Blvd.
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute Chicago, IL 60604
Parking Structures: Recommended Practice for Design
and Construction, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Post-Tensioning Institute
Institute, Chicago, IL, 1988. 1717 W. Northern Ave.
Suite No. 218
PCI Connection Manual, 2nd Edition, Precast/Pre- Phoenix, AZ 85021
stressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, 1988.

PCI Design Handbook, 4th Edition, Precast/Pre- The National Cooperative Highway Research Program
stressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, 1992. documents can be obtained from:
362.1R-40 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT

Transportation Research Board 1990, and titled “Durability Criteria Recommendations for
National Academy of Sciences Reinforced Concrete Parking Structures.” They are used
2101 Constitution Avenue, NW herein, including changes by the committee, with
Washington, D.C. permission.
Table 2.1 first appeared in Handbook of Concrete
6.2-Acknowledgement Engineering, edited by Mark Fintel, Van Nostrand
Fig. 3.1 and Tables 3.1 through 3.4 were first Reinhold, 2nd edition, p. 738.
presented by H. Carl Walker in an unpublished paper
presented to the American Concrete Institute Annual
ACI 362.1R-94 was submitted to letter ballot of the committee and approved
FalI Meeting in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on Nov. 15, in accordance with ACI balloting procedures.