9.stability Analysis

9.
Stability Analysis
9. STABILITY ANALYSIS
9.1 The Concept of Stability
A linear time-invariant system is stable if the following two conditions are satisfied:
(i) When the system is excited by a bounded input, the output is bounded (BIBO stable)
(ii) In the absence of the input, the output tends towards zero irrespective of initial
conditions and is said to be asymptotically stable.
Consider a closed-loop transfer function
C(s)
= G (s)
R (s)
Then C(s) = G(s). R(s)
For an impulse input R(s) = 1
C(s) = G(s)
The impulse response of the system
C(t) = L-1 [G(s)] = g(τ) (9.1)
For other then impulse input
C(t) = L-1[G(s).R(s)]
The convolution theorem states that the inverse Laplace transform of the product of two s-
domain function is equal to the convolution of their time domain functions.
α
C(t)= L-1[G(s).R(s)] = ∫ g (τ ) r (t − τ ) sdτ
0
(9.2)
Where g(τ) = L-1 [G(s)] is the impulse response of the system.

Taking the absolute value on both sides, we get
∞
|C(t)| =| ∫ g (τ ) r (t − τ )dτ |
0
Since the absolute value of integral is not greater than the integral of the absolute value of the
integrand
∞
|C(t)| ≤| ∫ g (τ ) r (t − τ )dτ |
0
∞
≤ ∫ g (τ ) r (t − τ ) dτ
0
∞
≤ ∫ g (τ ) A dτ
0
1 (∴For bounded input | r (t – τ) | ≤ A1)
If the output C(t) is bounded there exists a constant A2 such that |c(t)| ≤ A2 <∞. Then the
bounded input bounded output can be written as:
∞
| C(t)| ≤ A1. ∫ g (τ ) dτ
0
≤ A2<∞
1
9. Stability Analysis
Thus the system is said to be BIBO stability if the impulse response g(τ) is absolutely
∞
integrable, i.e., ∫ | g (τ ) | dτ is finite. This means that area under absolute value curve of the
0
impulse response g(τ) evaluated from t = 0 to t = ∞ must be finite and is shown in Fig 9.1.
Figure 9.1 Shows unbounded and bounded output
9.2 Location of Roots on the S-plane for
2
Figure 9.2 The impulse-response for various roots of characteristic equation
Consider the impulse response of the closed-loop transfer function as shown in Eqn. 9.1.
C(t) = L-1 [G(s)] = g(τ)
The closed loop function G(s) can be expressed as a ratio two polynomials in s. The
dominator polynomial of closed loop transfer function is called characteristic equation. The
roots of the characteristic equation are poles of closed-loop transfer function. The impulse
response for various roots of characteristic equation is shown in Fig. 9.2.
9.3 Stability Definitions:
Depending upon the input and system parameters, the different stability definitions are:
1. A system is stable if its output is bounded (finite) for any bounded (finite) input.
2. A system is asymptotically stable if in the absence of the input, the output tends towards
3
zero irrespective of initial conditions.

3. A system is stable if for a bounded disturbing input signal the output vanishes ultimately
as ‘t’ approaches infinity.
4. A system is unstable if for a bounded disturbing input signal the output is of infinite
amplitude or oscillatory.
5. For a bounded input signal, if the output has constant amplitude oscillations then the
system may be stable or unstable under some limited constraints. Such a system is called
limitedly stable.
6. If the system output is stable for all variations of its parameters then the system is called
absolutely stable system.
7. If a system output is stable for a limited range of variations of its parameters, then the
system is called conditionally stable system.
Depending upon the roots of the characteristic equation, the system stability is:
1. If all the roots of characteristic equation has negative real parts, then the system is stable.
2. If any roots of the characteristic equation has a positive real part or if there is a repeated
root on the imaginary axis then the system is unstable.
3. If all the roots of characteristic equation has negative real parts and one or more non-
repeated roots on the imaginary axis, then the system is limitedly or marginally stable.
Since the roots of the characteristic equation depend upon the coefficient of the characteristic
equation, we can make the following conclusion.
1. The necessary condition for stability of the system is that all the coefficients of the
characteristic equation be positive. If any coefficient is zero or negative, we can say the
system is unstable.
2. Even if all the coefficients of the characteristic is positive, the system not necessarily be
stable. There may be roots in the right half of s-plane or may be in the imaginary axis.
The system should be checked for sufficient condition.
Two check the sufficient condition, we have to find the values of all the roots of the
characteristic equation and check whether any roots lie on the right half of s-plane or on the
imaginary axis.
Routh Hurwitz provides methods to check the necessary and sufficient condition of a
characteristic equation without finding the value of the roots.
9..4 Routh’s Stability Criterion

Consider the characteristic equation of a system transfer function
a0sn + a1sn-1 + a2sn-2 + … an-1 s + an = 0 ; where a0 > 0
The Routh stability criterion is based on arranging the coefficients of the characteristic
equation in rows and columns as follows:
sn a0 a2 a4 a6 …
sn-1 a1 a3 a5 a7 …
sn-2 b1 b2 b3 b4 …
4
sn-3 c1 c2 c3 c4 …
. . .
. . .
. . .
s2 e1 e2
s1 f1
s0 g1
The coefficients b1, b3, b3 … are evaluated as follows
a 1a 2 − a 0 a 3
b1 =
a1
a a − a 0a 5
b2 = 1 4
a1
a a − a0
b3 = 1 6
a1
·
·
The equation of the b’s are continued until remaining ones are all zero.
Similarly
b1a 3 − a 1b 2
C1 =
b1
b1a 5 − a 1b 3
C2 =
b1
b1a 7 − a 1b 4
C3 =
b1
·
·
And
c1b 2 − b1c 2
d1 =
c1
c b − b1c 3
d2 = 1 3
c1
5
·
·
The process is continued until the (n+1)th row has been completed. The Routh stability
criterion can be stated as follows:
“The necessary and sufficient condition for stability is that all of the elements in the
first column of the Routh array be positive. If this condition is not met, the system is unstable
and the number of sign changes in the elements of the first column of the Routh array
corresponds to the number of roots of the characteristic equation in the right half of the s-
plane”.
If the order of sign of first column element is +, +, -, + and +, then + to - is considered as one
sign change and – to + as another sign change (Refer example).
As a special case if all the elements in a row are zero, than we cannot proceed further to
form n rows of Routh table. In such situation, form the auxiliary equations from the previous
rows and differentiating the auxiliary equation with respect to s and form the new row
replacing the zero rows with the coefficients of the differentiated auxiliary equation (Refer
example)
Example 9.1
Determine the stability of the system represented by the characteristic
s4 + 8s3 + 18s2 +16s+5 = 0
Solution
The characteristic equation of the system
s4 + 8s3 + 18s2 + 16s +5 = 0
The Routh array table as shown below
1 × 18 − 2 × 1 1 × 5 − 0 × 1
s4 : 1 18 5 Row1 s2: ,
1 1
s3 : 8 16 s2 : 16 5
The elements of s3 row can be divided by 8 and 1 16 × 2 − 5 × 1
s :
16
the Routh array table can be re-written as 1
s : 1.6875=1.7
s4 : 1 18 5 ...Row1 1.7 × 5 − 0 × 16
s0 :
3 1.7
s : 1 2 ...Row2
s0 : 5
s2 : 16 5 ...Row 3
1
s : 1.7 ...Row 4
s0 : 5 ... Row 5
On examining the elements of first column of Routh array, it is observed that all the elements
are positive and there is no sign change. Hence all the four roots are lying on left half of s-
plane and the system is stable.
Example 9.2
6
Determine the condition for stability for the system having the following characteristic
equation.
a0 s3 + a1s2 + a2s+a3 = 0
Solution
The routh array table is formed as follows.
s3 : a0 a2
2
s : a1 a3
a 1a 2 − a 0 a 3
s1 :
a1
s0 : a3
The condition for stability is there showed not be any sign change in the first column of the
Routh array table. If a1a2 > a0a3, then there will not be any sign change in the first column of
the Routh array table. The condition for the system to be stable is a1a2 > a0a3.
Example 9.3
Determine the stability of the following system described by the characteristic equation.
s4 + 2s3 + 3s2 + 4s + 5 = 0
Solution
The characteristic equation is given by
s4 + 2s3 + 3s2 + 4s + 5 = 0
1× 3 − 1× 2 1× 5 − 1× 0
The Routh array is formed as follows: s2 = ,
1 1
s4 1 3 5 ...Row1 =1 5
3
s 2 4 Divide by 2
1× 2 − 1× 5
3 s1 = = −3
s 1 2 ... Row2 1
s2 1 5 ... Row3 0
∆ =
− 3 × 5 − 1× 0
−3
s1 -3 ...Row4 =5
s0 5 ...Row 5
There are two sign changes in the first column of the Routh array table from 1 to -3 and -3 to
1. This means that there are two roots with positive real parts lying on the right half s-plane.
So the system is unstable.
Example 9.4
For the characteristic equation shown below, determine the number of roots lying on the
imaginary axis.
s3 + 2s2 + s + 2 = 0 2 ×1 − 1× 2
Solution s1 =
2
1
s =0
The Routs array table is Replace o by ε
3
s 1 1
0 ε ×2 − 2×0
s =
ε 7
=2
s2 2 2
s1 0=ε
s0 2
If the sign of the co-efficient above row s1 (above the zero (ε) element) is the same as that
below it, it indicates that there are pair of imaginary roots. The system is limitedly or
marginally stable.
Note: If a first-column term in any row is zero, but the remaining terms are not zero or there
is no remaining term, then the zero term is replaced by a very small positive number ε and the
rest of the array is evaluated.
Example 9.5
Determine the stability of the following characteristic equation.
s3 – 3s + 2 = 0
Solution
The characteristic equation is
s3 – 3s + 2 =0
The Routh array table is formed as follows.
s3 1 -3
s2 0=ε 2
2
s1 -3-
ε
s0 2
There are two sign changes from s2 to s1 and from s1 to s0 in the first column as the Routh
array table. The system is unstable.
Example 9.6
Determine the number of roots lying on the right half of s-plan for the following
characteristic equation.
s5 + 2s4 + 24s3 + 48s2 – 25s – 50 = 0
Solution
The array of coefficients is
s5 1 24 -25
3 2 × 24 − 1 × 48 2 × 25 − 1 × 50
4 s =
s 2 48 -50 2 2
s3 = 0 0
s3 0 0
8
The terms in the s3 row all zero (Occurs only in an odd numbered row). The auxiliary
polynomial is then formed from the coefficients of the s4 row. The auxiliary polynomial p(s)
is
p(s) = 2s4 + 48s2 – 50

which indication that there are two pairs of equal magnitude and opposite sign (two real roots
with the same magnitude but opposite signs or two complex conjugate roots on the imaginary
axis). These pairs are obtained by solving the auxiliary polynomial equation p(s) = 0. The
derivative of P(s) with respect to s is
dP ( s )
= 8s 3 + 96 s
ds
The term in the s3 row are replaced by the coefficients

of the derivative of P(s), that is, 8 and 96. The array of 8 × 48 − 2 × 96 8 × −50 − 2 × 0
2
s = ,
coefficients then becomes 8 8
s5 1 24 -25 s 2 = 24 -50
s4 2 48 -50
1 24 × 96 − 8 × −50
3 s =
s 8 96 24
s2 24 -50 s1 = 112.67
s1 112.7 0
0 112.67 × −50 − 24 × 0
0 s =
s -50 112.7
s0=-50
There is one sign change from s1 to s0 in the first column of the Routh array table, therefore
one root lie on the right half of the s-plane.
The auxiliary polynomial is
2s4 + 48s2-50 = 0 put s2 = x
we get 2x2 + 48x – 50 = 0
2
− 48 ± 48 − 4 × 2 × −50
s2 = 1, s2 = -25 x=
4
s = ± 1 and s = ± j5 = -12 ± 13 = 1, -25.

From the above, we can see two roots lying on the imaging axis, one root lie on the right half
of s-plane and one root lie on the left half of s-plane.
Example 9.7
9
A unity negative feedback control system has an open-loop transfer function consisting of
two poles, two zeros and a variable gain K. The zeros are located at -2 and -1; and the poles
at -0.1 and +1. Using Routs stability criterion, determine the ranges of values of k for which
the closed-loop system have one or two or no poles in the right half s-plane.
Solution
K(s + 1)(s + 2)
G(S) =
(s + 0.1)(s − 1)
The characteristic equation of the system is given as

1+G(s) = 0
(s+0.1) (s-1)+K(s+1)(s+2) = 0
(1+k)s2 + (3K-0.9)s+(2K-0.1) = 0
Applying Routh criteria
s2 (1+K) (2K-0.1)
s1 (3K-0.9) 0
s0 (2K-0.1) 0
(i) No poles in right half of s-plane (system stable)
K +1 > 0 or K > -1
3K – 0.9 > 0 or K > 0.3
2K – 0.1 > 0 or K > 0.05
There is no pole in right half of s-plan if K > 0.3
(ii) One pole in right half s-plane (one change of sign in first column terms).
-1 < K < 0.05
(iii) Two pole in right half s-plane (two change in sign in first column forms)
0.05<K<0.3
Example 9.8
The characteristic equation of a system in differential equation form is
&x& − (k + 2) x& + (2k + 5) x = 0
(a) Find the value of k for which the system is (i) stable (ii) limitedly stable (iii) unstable
(b) For the stable case for what values of k is the system (i) under damped and (ii) over
damped.
Solution
&x& − (k + 2) x& + (2k + 5) x = 0
10
Taking to place Transform, the characteristic equation becomes
s 2 − (k + 2) s + (2k + 5) = 0
Applying the Roth criterion.
s2 1 2k+5
s1 -(k+2) 0
s0 (2k+5) 0
(a) (i) For the system to be stable,

-(k+2) > 0 and (2k+5) > 0
or k > -2 and k > -2.5
or -2 > k > -2.5
(ii) For the system to be limitedly stable
k = -2 and k = -2.5
(iii) For the system to be unstable
k < -2 or k > -2.5
(b) The roots of the characteristic equation are expressed as
S1 , S 2 =
1
2
[(k + 2) ± (k + 2) 2 − 4(2k + 5) ]
For critically damped case:
(k+2)2 – 4 (2k+5) = 0
k2 + 4k + 4 – 8k – 20 = 0
k2 – 4k – 16 = 0
4 ± 16 + 64
k= = 2 ± 20 = 6.47,−2.47
2
If k = 6.47 the system is unstable and for critically damping k = -2.47.
(i) under damped case -2 > k > -2.47
(ii) over damped case -2.47 > k > -2.5.
Example 9.9
Determine the stability of the system given by the characteristic equation
s6 + s5 + 3s4 + 3s3 + 3s2 + 2s + 1 = 0
11
Solution
The routh array table is
s6 1 3 3 1
5
s 1 3 2
4
s ε 1 1
s3 3ε − 1 2ε − 1
ε ε
s2 − 2ε 2 + 4ε − 1 1
3ε − 1
s1 4ε 2 − ε
2ε 2 − 4ε + 1
s0 1
on letting ε → 0
s6 : 1 3 3 1
s5 : 1 3 2
s4 : 0 1 1
∆3: -∞ -∞
s2 : 1 1
s1 : 0
s0 : 1
Since there is a rows of all zeroes (s1 row) there is a possibility of roots on imaging axis. The
auxiliary polynominal is s2+1 = 0. The roots s = ± − 1 = ± j1. Since two sign changes from
s4 to s3 and s3 and s2 two roots lying on the right half as s-plane.
In the above system two roots lying on the imaging axis and two roots lying on the right of
s-plane. The system is unstable.
Example 9.10
Consider the characteristic equation s5 + s4 + 2s3 + 2s2 + 3s + 5 = 0. Determine the number of
roots lying on the right half of s-plane.
Solution
The Routh array is
s5 1 2 3
s4 1 2 5
s3 ε -2
12
2ε + 2 1× 2 − 1× 2 1× 3 − 1× 5
2 s3:
s ε 5 1 1
s3 : 0 -2
2
− 4ε − 4 − 5ε
s1 letting 0 → ε
2ε + 2
s3: € -2
s0 5
letting ε → 0. 2 × ε − 1 × −2 ε × 5 − 1× 0
s2:
ε Σ
s5 1 2 3
s4 1 2 5 2ε + 2
s2: 5
s 3
0 -2
ε
s2 ∞ 5 (2ε + 2) (−2) − (ε × 5)
s1 -2 s1:
ε
2ε + 2
s0 5 ε
− 4ε − 4 − 5ε 2
s1:
Examining the terms in the first column of the 2ε + 2
Routh array, it is found that there are two changes in
sign and hence the system is unstable having two
poles in the right half s-plane.
Alternate solution:
Replace s = 1/z, then the equation becomes
1 1 2 2 3
5
+ 4 + 3 + 2 + +5= 0
z z z z z
5 z 5 + 3z 4 + 2 z 3 + 2 z 2 + z + 1 = 0
The routh array table is
z5 5 2 1
z4 3 2 1
3
z -4/3 -2/3
z2 1/2 1
z1 2
z0 1
There are two changes of sign in the first column of the Routh array, which tell us that there
are two roots in the right half of s-plane. Therefore the number of s-roots in the right half s-
plane is also two.
13
Example 9.11
The open learp transfer function of a unity feedback system is given by
k
G(s) =
( s + 2)( s + 4)( s 2 + 6 s + 25)
By applying the Routh – Harwitz criterion, discuss the stability of the closed-loop system as a
function of k. Determine the value of k which will cause sustained oscillations in the closed –
loop system. What is the corresponding frequency.
Solution
The characteristic equation is
1 + G(s) = 0
k
1+ =0
( s + 2)( s + 4)( s 2 + 6 s + 25)
(s2+6s+8) (s2+6s+25) +k = 0
s4+12s3+69s2+198s+(200+k) = 0
The Routh array is
s4 : 1 69 (200+k)
s3 : 12 198
s2 : 52.5 (200+k)
12(200 + k )
s1 : 198-
52.5
s0 : (200+k)
The system will be stable if
200 + k > 0 or k > -200
And
12(200 + k)
198 − >0
52.5
12(200 + k)
< 198
52.5
2400 + 12k < 10395
12k < 7995
k < 666.25
when k = 662.25, row s1 becomes zero, which indicates roots lying in the imaginary axis. In
that case the auxiliary equation is:
52.5s2 + (200+k) = 0
14
when k =666.25
52.5s2 + (200 + 666.25) = 0
52.5s2 = -866.25
− 866.25
s2 = =-16.5
52.5
s = ± j 4.062
The frequency of sustained oscillation is 4.062 rad / sec.
Example 9.12
The characteristic equation of a system is given by s3 + 7s2 + 25s + 39 = 0 Check whether the
roots of the characteristic equation are more negative than -1.
Solution
Let us shift the origin by replacing s = s-1
Then the characteristic equation become
(s-1)3 + 7 (s-1)2 + 25 (s-1) + 39 = 0
(s3 – 3s2 + 3s-1) + 7(s2-2s+1)+25(s-1)+39 = 0
Simplifying
s3 + 4s2 + 14s + 20 = 0
The Routh array table is
s3 : 1 14
2
s : 4 20
s1 : 9
s0 : 20
Since there is no sign change in the first column of the routh array table, all the roots lie on
the last half of s-plane. Moreover since we replaced by s = (s-1), the roots are more negative
than -1.
Example 9.13
ke -S
A unity feedback system has open loop transfer function of G(S) = . Determine
s(s 2 + 5s + 9)
the maximum value of k for stability of closed loop system.
Solution
we know
~ (1 − ST)
e −ST −
The transfer function become
15
Ke −s k(1 − s)
G(S) = = 3
s(s + 5s + 9) s + 5s 2 + 9s
2
The closed loop transfer function

C(s) G(s) k(1 − s)/s 3 + 5s 2 + 9s
= =
R(s) 1 + G(s) k(1 − s)
1+ 3
s + 5s 2 + 9s
k(1 − s)
= 3 2
s + 5s + 9s + k − ks 5 × (9 − k) − k × 1
s1 :
The characteristic equation is 5
45 − 5k − k
s3 + 5s2 + (9-k)s + k = 0 s1 :
5
The Row array table is s1 : 9-1.2k
s3 1 9-k
(9 − 1.2k ) × k
s0 :
s2 5 k (9 - 1.2k)
s 1
9-1.2k s0 : k
s0 k
For the system to be stable in s1 row
9 – 1.2 k > 0
1.2k < 9
9
k< = 7.5
1.2
For the system to be stable in s0 row, k > 0. For stability of the system, 0 < k < 7.5
9.5 Mappings from the s-plane to F(s) plane
The s plane (s = σ + jω) is having a real axis σ and imaginary axis jω. The F(s) plane
similarly is having real axis of F(s) and imaginary axis of F(s). Consider the following
transfer function.
1
F(s) = (1)
(s − 3)
16
Figure 9.3 shows the mapping of ABCDEF in s-plane to A′B′C′D′E′F′ in F(s)-plane.
Now consider the contour ABCDEF enclosing the point p = 3 in the s-plane as shown in
Fig.9.3. Now we transform the path ABCDEF form the s-plane to F(s)-plane. The table 9.1
shows the conformal mapping from s-plane to F(s)-plane with pole (p=3) enclosed.
Table 9.1 Shows the mapping from s-plane to F(s)-plane with pole (p=3) enclosed.
Points in s plane S 1
F(s) =
(s − 3)
A 2+j 1 −1
A' = = (1 + j )
−1+ j 2
B 4+j 1 (1 − j )
B' = =
1+ j 2
C 4+j0 1
C' = = 1 + j0
1 − j0
D 4-j 1 (1 + j )
D' = =
1− j 2
E 2-j
E' =
1
=
(− 1 + j )
−1− j 2
F 2+j0 1
F' = = −1 + j0
− 1 + j0
The path ABCDEF is transferred to F(s)-plane as A′B′C′D′E′F′ and is as shown in Fig.9.3.

“For one pole of the function F(s) shown in equation (1), inside the contour ABCDEF in
the s-plane, when moved in the clockwise direction, the transformation to the F(s)-plane
encircles origin of F(s)-plane in the anti-clockwise direction once”.
Suppose there are two poles insider the closed path ABCDEF in the s-plane. Then the
transformed contour A′B′C′D′E′F′ would encircles the origin of the F(s)-plane twice in the
anti-clockwise direction. In general if there is n-poles in the s-plane inside the contour, then
17
the contour A′B′C′D′E′F′ would encircle the origin of the F(s)-plane n-times in the anti-
clockwise direction.
Now consider the function

F(s) = (s-3)
The contour ABCDEF in the s-plane which is enclosing the zero is shown in Fig 9.4. The
point by point transformation from s-plane to F(s)-plane is calculated as shown in Table 9.2,
and the contour A′B′C′D′E′F′ in the F(s)-plane is also shown in Fig.9.4. It is evident that the
contour in the s-plane transformed to F(s)-plane circles the origin once in the same direction
(both clockwise).
Figure 9.4 Principle of argument with a zero enclosed
Table 9.2 Conformal mapping from s-plane to F(s)-plane with a zero enclosed
Point in the s plane s F(s) = (s-3)
A 2+j A ' = −1 + j
B 4+j B' = 1 + j
C 4 + j0 C′=1
D 4–j D′ = 1 – j
E 2–j E′ = -1 – j
F 2 + j0 F′ = -1
“In general if there are n-zeros of function F(s) in the s-plane enclosed by the contour in
the clockwise direction, then the transformed contour in the F(s)-plane would encircle the
origin of F(s)-plane n-time in the same clockwise direction”.
Now consider the function

1
F(s) =
(s − 3)
As shown in Fig. 9.5, the contour GHIJKLM does not encloses the pole at s=3 in the s-plane
and when transformed to F(s)-plane the contour G′H′I′J′K′L′M′ does not encloses the origin
of F(s)-plane. The point by point transformation from s-plane to F(s)-plane is shown in Table
9.3.
18
Figure 9.5 Principle of argument with a pole not enclosed

Table 9.3 Conformal mapping from s-plane to F(s)-plane with a pole not enclosed
Points in s plane s 1
F(s) =
(s − 3)
1 −1
G (1 + j) G' = = (2 + j)
−2+ j 5
H' =
1
=−
(1 + j)
H (2 + j)
−1+ j 2
1
I (2 + j0) I' = = −1
− 1 − j0
K' =
1
=
(− 1 + j)
K (+2 - j)
−1 − j 2
1 − (2 − j )
L (1 – j) L' = = = −0.4 + j 0.2
−2− j 5
1 −1
M (1 + j0) M' = =
− 2 + j0 2
“In general a pole or a zero not enclosed by a contour in the s-plane, when transformed to
F(s) plane does not encircles the origin of F(s)-plane”
Now consider the transfer function

(s − 2)
F= (2)
(s − 3)
As shown Fig. 9.6, the contour ABCDEF encloses the pole at s =3 and the zero at s=2 in the
clockwise direction in the s-plane and when transformed to F(s) plane, the contour
A′B′C′D′E′F′does not encloses the origin of F(s) plane. The point by point transformation is
shown in Table 9.3.
19
Figure 9.6 Principle of Argument with a Pole and a zero Enclosed

Table 9.3
s−2
Points in s plane s F(s) =
s−3
A 1+j A′ = 0.6 – j0.2
B 4+j B′ = 1.5 – j0.5
C 4 + j0 C′ = 2 + j0
D 4–j D′ = 1.5 – j0.5
E 1–j E′ = 0.6 + j0.2
F 1 + j0 F′ = 0.5 – j0
9.5.1 Concept of encircled and enclosed
Encircled: A point is said to be encircled by a closed path if it is found inside the path. As
shown in Fig. 9.7, the point A is encircled in the clockwise direction and the point B is not
encircled.
Enclosed: Any point or region is said to be enclosed by a closed path, if it is found lie to the
right of the path when the path is traversed in the prescribed direction. The shaded regions in
Fig. 9.8 and Fig. 9.9 are the region enclosed by closed path. The point B is not enclosed with
20
reference to Fig. 9.8. With reference to Fig. 9.9 the point A is not enclosed by closed path but
point B is enclosed.
9.5.2 Summary of encirclement

1. If s-plane closed contour encloses P number of poles in the right half s-plane in the
clockwise direction, then the corresponding contour in F(s)-plane will encircle the
origin of F(s)-plane P times in anticlockwise direction.
2. If s-plane closed contour encloses Z number of zeros in the right half s-plane in the
clockwise direction, then the corresponding contour in F(s)-plane will encircle the
origin of F(s)-plane Z times in the clockwise direction.
3. If the s-plane closed contour encloses P poles and Z zeros in the right half s-plans in
the clockwise direction and if P>Z, then the corresponding contour in F(s)-plane will
encircle the origin of F(s)-plane (P–Z) times in the anticlockwise direction.
4. If the s-plane closed contour encloses P poles and Z zeros in the right half s-plane in
the clockwise direction and if P<Z, then the corresponding contour in F(s)-plane will
encircle the origin of F(s)-plane (Z–P) times in the clockwise direction.
5. If the s-plane closed contour encloses P poles and Z zeros in the right half s-plane and
if P=Z, then the corresponding contour in F(s)-plane will not encircle the origin of
F(s)-plane.
6. If the s-plane closed contour does not enclose any pole or zero then the corresponding
contour in F(s)-plane will not encircle the origin of F(s)-plane.
Table 9.4 shows different s-plane contour and their corresponding F(s) – plane contour. Here
zeros are marked by small circles (0) and poles by (x).
Table 9.4 shows s-plane contour and their corresponding F(s)-plane contour
21
22
9.6 The Principle of argument

The relation between the enclosure of poles and zeros of the function F(s) lying on the right
half s-plane by the contour and the encirclements of the origin of F(s)-plane by the
corresponding contour is called principle of argument.
Mathematically, N = P – Z
where
N = Number of encirclement of the origin of F(s)-plane made by the
contour of F(s)-plane.
P = Number of poles of the function F(s) lying on right half s-plane and
encircled by the s-plane closed contour.
Z = Number of zeros of the function F(s) lying on right half s-plane and
encircled by the s-plane closed contour.
The value of N can be positive, negative or zero. Based on the sign of N the following
conclusions are made assuming that the s-plane contour is in the clockwise direction.
1. If N is positive then the encirclement of the origin of the F(s)-plane will be in the
anticlockwise direction by N times.
2. If N is negative then the encirclement of the origin of the F(s)-plane will be in the
clockwise direction by N times.
3. If N is zero, there will be no encirclement of origin of F(s)-plane.
9.7 Nyquist Stability Criterion

Consider the closed loop transfer function.
C (s) G( s)
= (9.3)
R( s) 1 + G ( s) H (s )
The characteristic equation of the system is given by the 1 + G(s)H(s) = 0

Let F(s) = 1+ G(s)H(s)
The loop transfer function G(s)H(s) can be expressed as
K(s + z1 )(s + z 2 )...(s + z m )

G(s)H(s) = m≤n (9.4)
(s + p1 )(s + p 2 )...(s + p n )
23
K (s + z1 )(s + z 2 )...(s + z m )
F(s) = 1 +
(s + p1 )(s + p 2 )...(s + p n )
(s + p1 )(s + p 2 )...(s + p n ) + k (s + z1 )(s + z 2 ...(s + z n )
=
(s + p1 )(s + p 2 )...(s + p n )
(s + z1 ' )(s + z 2 ' )...(s + z n ' )
F(s) = (9.5)
(s + p1 )(s + p 2 )...(s + p n )
The characteristic equation of the closed loop transfer function given in equation (3), is given
by
(s + z1 ' )(s + z 2 ' )...(s + z n ' ) =0 (9.6)
For the stability of the system the roots of the characteristic equation should not lie on the
right half of s-plane. The roots of characteristic equation are zeros of F(s) and also they are
poles of closed loop transfer function.
Hence, for the stability of closed loop system the zeros of F(s) should not lie on the right half
of s-plane.
The loop transfer function G(s) H(s) can also be expressed as

G(s) H(s) = 1+G(s) H(s) – 1 = F(s) -1 (9.7)
From Eqn. (9.7), it can be concluded that the F(s)-plane contour drawn with respect to origin
is same as the F(s)-plane contour as F(s) – 1 drawn with respect to -1 + j0 as shown in Fig.
9.10.
Figure 9.10 Shows F(s)-plane contour of F(s)-1
Thus the encirclement of the origin as F(s)-plane by the F(s) contour is equivalent to the
enrichment of the point -1 + j0 by the G(s) H(s) contour.
The Nyquist stability criterion states that if the G(s) H(s) contour in the G(s) H(s) plane
corresponding to Nyquist contour in the s-plane encircles the point -1+j0 in the
anticlockwise direction as many times as the number of right half s-plane poles as G(s)
H(s). Then the closed loop system is stable.
The Nyquist stability criterion can be explain as follows:

24
1. When there is no encirclement of -1 + j0 point, there are no poles of G(s) H(s) in the
right half of s-plane. If there are poles in right half s-plane then the system is unstable.
2. The system is stable if the number of anticlockwise encirclement is same as the
number of poles of G(s) H(s) in the right half s-plane. If the number of encirclement is
not equal to the number of poles on the right half s-plane then the system is unstable.
3. If there is clockwise encirclement of -1+j0 point, then the system is always unstable.
Example 9.14
Draw the Nyquist plot for the system whose open loop transfer function is
K
G(S) H(S) =
s ( s + 2)( s + 10)
Determine the range of K for which closed loop-system is stable.
Solution
K K
G(s) H(s) = =
s ( s + 2)( s + 10) s   s 
s × 2 + 1 × 10 + 1
2   10 
0.05 K
=
s (1 + 0.5s )(1 + 0.1s )
The open loop transfer function has a pole at origin. Hence choose the Nyquist contour on s-
plane enclosing the entire right half plane except the origin as shown Fig. 9.11. The Nyquist
contour has four sections C1, C2, C3 and C4. The mapping of each section is performed
separately and the overall Nyquist plot is obtained by combining the individual sections.
Figure 9.11 Shows the Nyquist contour in s-plane

Mapping of section C1
In section C1, ω varies from 0 to +∞. The mapping of section C1 is given by the locus of
G(jω) H(jω) as ω is varied from 0 to ∞. This locus is the polar plot of G(jω) H(jω).
0.05K
G(jω) H(jω) =
jω(1 + j0.5ω)(1 + j0.1ω)
25
0.05K
=
jω(1 + j0.6ω − 0.05ω2 )
0.05K
=
− 0.6ω + jω(1 − 0.05ω2 )
2
when the locus of G(jω) H(jω) crosses real axis the imaginary term will be zero and the
corresponding frequency is the phase crossover frequency, ωpc.
At ω = ωpc ωpc (1-0.05ωpc2) = 0

1- 0.05ωpc2 =0
1
ωpc = =4.472 rad / sec
0.05
At ω = ωpc = 4.472 rad / sec
0.05K − 0.05K
G(jω) H(jω) = 2
= =-0.00417K
− 0.6ω 0.6 × (4.472) 2
The open loop system is type-1 and third order system. Also it is a minimum phase system
with all poles lying on the negative real axis. Hence the polar plot of G(jω) H(jω) starts at -
90° axis at infinity crosses real axis at -0.00417K and ends at origin in second quadrant. The
section C1 and its mapping are shown in Fig. 9.12.
The mapping of section C2 from s-plane to G(s)H(s) plane is obtained by letting
s = Lt Re jθ in G(s)H(s) and varying θ from π/2 to -π/2.
R →∞
Since s → Rejθ and R→ ∞, the G(s)H(s) can be approximated as:
1+0.5s ≈ 0.5s and 1+0.1s ≈ 0.1s
0.05K 0.05K K
G(s) H(s) = = = 3
s (1 + 0.5s )(1 + 0.1s ) s ⋅ 0.5s ⋅ 0.1s s
Let s = Lt Re jθ
R →∞
K K
∴ G(s)H(s) = s3 s = Lt Re
jθ = jθ 3
R →∞ Lt (Re )
R→∞
= 0e-j3θ
π
− j3
when θ = π/2; G(s)H(s) = 0e 2
π
+ j3
θ = -π/2; G(s)H(s) = 0e 2
From the above equation, section C2 in s-plane is mapped as circular arc of zero radius
around origin in G(s)H(s)-plane with angle varying from -3π/2 to +3π/2 as shown in Fig.9.12.
26
K
Figure 9.12 Nyquist plot of G(s) H(s) =
s ( s + 2)( s + 10)
In section C3, ω varies from -∞ to 0. This locus is the inverse polar plot of G(jω) H(jω). The
inverse polar plot is given by the mirror image of polar plot with respect to real axis and is
shown in Fig. 9.12.
The mapping of section C4 from s-plane to G(s)H(s)-plane is obtained by letting s = Lt Re jθ
R →0
and θ varying from -π/2 to π/2. Since s→ Rejθ and R→ 0, the G(s) H(s) can be approximated
as:
1+0.5s ≈ 1 and 1+0.1s ≈ 1
0.05K ~ 0.05K 0.05K

G(s) H(s) = − =
s(1 + 0.5s)(1 + 0.1s) s × 1 × 1 s
G(s) H(s) =
0 . 05 K
s s = Lt Re jθ = 0 . 05
jθ
= ∞ e − jθ
R→0
Lt (Re )
R→0
π
π j
When θ = − ; G(s) H(s) = ∞e 2
2
π
π −j
θ= ; G(s) H(s) = ∞e 2
2
27
From the above equation section C4 in s-plane is mapped as a circular arc of infinite radius
with angle varying from +π/2 to -π/2 as shown in Fig. 9.12.
Complete Nyquist plot

The entire Nyquist plot in G(s)H(s) can be obtained by combining the mapping of individual
sections as shown in fig.10.
Stability Analysis
When -0.00417K = -1, the contour passes through -1+j0 point and corresponding value of K
is the limiting value of K for stability.
Therefore
-0.00417K = -1
1
K= = 240
0.00417
When K is less than 240, the contour crosses real axis at a point between 0 and -1. On
traveling through Nyquist plot along the indicated direction it is found that the point -1+j0 is
not encircled. Also the open loop transfer function has no poles on the right half as s-plane.
Therefore the closed loop system is stable.
When K is greater than 240, the contour crosses real axis at a point between -1 and -∞. On
traveling through Nyquist plot along the indicated direction it is found that the point -1+j0 is
encircled in clockwise direction two times. Therefore the closed loop system is unstable.
The value of K for stability is 0 < K < 240.
Example 9.15
Consider a feedback system whose open-loop transfer function is given by
K
G(s) H(s) =
s (Ts + 1)
Determine the values of K and T for the system to be stable.
Solution
K
G(s) H(s) =
s (Ts + 1)
The open loop transfer function has a pole at origin. Hence choose the Nyquist contour on s-
plane enclosing the entire right half plane except the origin as shown in Fig.9.13a.
28
K
Figure 9.13 Transforming s-plane contour to G(s)H(s) Plane for G(s) =
s (1 + sT )
1. Mapping of semicircular section EFA around the pole at origin is as follows:
The mapping of semicircle around the origin from s-plane to G(s)H(s)-plane is obtained by
letting s = Lt Re jθ in s-plane and θ varies from -π/2 to π/2 . Since s→ Rejθ and R→ 0, the
R →0
G(s) H(s) can be approximated as 1 + sT ~
−1
K ~ K =K
G(s) H(s) = −
s (Ts + 1) s × 1 s
Let s = Lt Re jθ
R →0
K K
∴ G(s) H(s) = s = Lt Re jθ
= jθ
= ∞ e − jθ
s R→0 Lt (Re )
R →0
When θ = -π/2 G(s)H(s) = ∞ e+jπ/2

When θ = π/2 G(s)H(s) = ∞ e-jπ/2
This is as shown in fig.11
2. Mapping of the positive imaginary axis section AB as ω varies from 0 to +∞ is

obtained as follows:
K K
G(jω) H (jω) = = ∠ − 90 − tan −1 ωT
jω ( jωT + 1) ω 1 + ω T
2 2
K
G ( jω) H( jω ) =
ω 1 + ω 2T 2
∠G ( jω ) H ( jω ) = -90 – tan-1ωT
When ω = 0 |G(jω) H(jω)| = ∞ and ∠G ( jω ) H ( jω ) = -90

29
ω=∞ |G(jω) H(jω)| = 0 and ∠G ( jω ) H ( jω ) = 0
The exact shape of G(jω) H(jω) is determined by calculating the magnitude and phase of
G(jω) H(jω) for various values of ω provided the values of K and T is given. Since this is a
type-1, second order system the plot lies on the third quadrant as shown in Fig.9.13b and is
mentioned as AB.
3. Mapping of section BCD

The mapping of section BCD from s-plane to G(s)H(s) plane is obtained by letting
s = Lt Re jθ in G(s) H(s) and varying θ from +π/2 to -π/2. Since s → Re jθ and R→ ∞, the
R →∞
G(s) H(s) can be approximated as 1 + ST ~
− ST
K ~ K
G(s) H(s) = ~ 2
s(Ts + 1) Ts
Now s = Lt Re jθ
R →∞
K K
G (s) H(s) = =
Ts 2 s = RLim Re jθ T. Lim (Re jθ )2
→∞ R →∞
= 0e-j2θ
π
when θ = G(s) H(s) = 0e-jπ
2
π
when θ = − G(s) H(s) = 0ejπ
2
From the above we can say that section BCD in s-plane is mapped as circle of zero radius
around origin in G(s) H(s) plane with angle varying from -π to +π. This is shown in fig.11.
4. Mapping of section DE
In section DE, ω varies from -∝ to 0. The mapping of section DE is the inverse polar plot of
G(jω) H(jω). The inverse polar plot is the mirror image of polar plot with respect to real axis.
This mapping is shown as DE in Fig.9.13b.
Conclusion
The number of poles P of G(s) H(s) in the right half s-plane is zero. Examining fig.11.,
reveals that for all positive values of K and T, the locus G(jω) H(jω) does not encircle (-1+j0)
point. Therefore the system under consideration is always stable.
Example 9.16
Determine the stability of the closed loop unity feedback system using Nyquist stability
criterion for the system whose open loop transfer function
(1 + 4s)
G (s) = 2
s (1 + s)(1 + 2s)
30
Solution
The Nyquist contour in the s plane is shown Fig. 9.14. Two open loop poles (singular points)
are located at the origin of the s-plane with radius ‘r’ where r→0. The transformation from s-
plane to G(s) H(s) plane is as follows.
Figure 9.14 Nyquist contour in s-plane
(1 + 4s)
Figure 9.15 Nyquist plot of G (s) = 2
s (1 + s)(1 + 2s)
1. Mapping of section C1
In section C1, ω varies from 0 to ∞. The locus is the polar plot of G(jω) H(jω). The open loop
transfer function is given by
(1 + 4s)
G(s) H(s) = 2
s (1 + s)(1 + 2s)
31
(1 + j4ω)
G(jω) H(jω) = 2
( jω) (1 + jω)(1 + j2ω)
1 + 16ω2
G ( jω) H(jω ) =
ω2 1 + ω2 . 1 + 4ω2
∠G ( jω ) H ( jω ) =tan-14ω -180° - tan-1ω - tan-12ω
From the above equation

When ω → 0, G(jω) H(jω) → ∞ ∠ − 180
When ω → ∞, G(jω) H(jω) → 0 ∠ − 270
We can say that the polar plot starts at -180° axis at infinity, travels in second quadrant and
crosses real axis to enter third quadrant and ends at origin in third quadrant. The frequency at
which the locus crosses the negative real axis is phase cross over frequency ωpc. The crossing
point of the locus with negative real axis can be calculated as follows.
∠G ( jω ) H ( jω ) = -180°
tan-14ωpc – 180° - tan-1ωpc – tan-12ωpc = -180°
tan-14ωpc = tan-1ωpc + tan-12ωpc
tan[tan −14ωpc ] = tan[tan −1ωpc + tan −12ωpc ]
tan . tan −1 ωpc + tan . tan −1 2ωpc

4ωpc =
1 − tan . tan −1 ωpc . tan tan −1 2ωpc
ωpc + 2ωpc
4ωpc =
1 − 2ω2 pc
3ωpc
1-2ω2pc=
4ωpc
3
-2ω2pc = 4 − 1
− 0.25
ωpc = = 0.354 rad/sec.
−2
1 + 16ω2 1 + 16× 0.3542
G( jω H(jω) = =
2 2
ω 1 + ω . 1 + 4ω 2 (0.354)2 1 + 0.3542 . 1 + 4 × 0.3542
= 10.64
jθ
The mapping of section C2 from s-plane to G(s) H(s) plane is obtained by letting s = Lim Re
R →∞
in G(s)H(s) plane and θ varying from +π/2 to -π/2. Since s→ Rejθ and R→∞, the following
approximations can be made.
32
1 + 4s ~
− 4s, 1 + s ~
− s and 1 + 2s ~
− 2s .
Therefore
(1 + 4s) ~ 4s 2
G (s) H(s) = 2
− 2 = 3
s (1 + s)(1 + 2s) s .s.2s s
2
G(s) H(s) =
s = Lim Re jθ s3 s = Lim Re jθ
R →∞ R →∞
2
= jθ 3
= 0e − j3θ
Lim (Re )
R →∞
π
π −i3
when θ = , G(s)H(s)= 0e 2
2
π
π i3
θ = − ,G(s)H(s)= 0e 2
2
The section C2 in s-plane is mapped as circular of zero radius around origin in G(s)H(s) plane
with angle varying from -3π/2 to 3π/2 as shown in Fig. 9.15.
In section C3, ω varies from -∞ to 0. This locus is the inverse polar plot of section C1. The
inverse polar plot is the mirror image of polar plot with respect to real axis. The inverse polar
plot starts at -180° axis at infinity, when ω=0, travels in third quadrant and crosses real axis at
-10.64 to enter second quadrant and then ends at origin when ω = -∞. This inverse plane plot
is shown in Fig. 9.15.
The mapping of section C4 form s-plane to G(s)H(s)-plane is obtained by setting
jθ
s = Lim Re
R→0
and θ from -π/2 to π/2. Since s→ Rejθ and R→0. Following approximations can
be made.
1 + 4s ~
−1
1+ s −~1
1 + 2s ~
−1
Therefore
(1 + 4s) ~ 1 1
G(s) H(s) = 2
− 2 = 2
s (1 + s)(1 + 2s) s × 1 × 1 s
1 1
G(s) H(s) jθ = jθ =
s = Lim Re
R →0 s2 s = Lim Re
R →0
s = Lim (Re jθ ) 2
R →0
-j2θ
=∞e
π
when θ = − , G(s)H(s)= ∞ e + jπ
2
33
π
when θ = , G(s)H(s)= ∞ e− jπ
2
Section C4 in s-plane is mapped as a circle of infinite radius with angle varying from +π to -π
as shown in Fig. 9.15.
Stability analysis
The entire Nyquist plot is shown in Fig. 9.15 on traveling through Nyquist contour it is
observed that (-1+j0) point is encircled in clockwise direction two time. Therefore two poles
of closed loop system are lying in the right half of s-plane and the system is unstable.
Example 9.17
Test the stability of the unity feedback closed loop system, whose open loop transfer function
is given by
K
G (s) H(s) =
(1 + T1s)(1 + T2s)
where K, T1 and T2 has positive values.
Solution
The open loop transfer function does not have a pole at origin. Hence choose the Nyquist
contour on s-plane enclosing the entire right half plane as shown in Fig. 9.16.

Mapping of Section C1
For the section C1 the frequency varies from 0 to +∞.
K
G (s) H(s) =
(1 + T1s)(1 + T2s)
K
G ( jω) H( jω ) =
(1 + jωT1 )(1 + jωT2 )
K
G ( jω) H( jω) =
2
1 + ω2T1 . 1 + ω2T2 2
∠G ( jω ) H ( jω ) = -tan-1ωT1 – tan-1ωT2
The open loop transfer function is type 0, second order system.
34
when ω =0 G ( jω) H( jω) = K

when ω =∞ G ( jω) H( jω) = 0
For the frequency range where ω varies from 0 to +∞, the locus is polar plot starting from K
crosses negative imaginary axis and ends at the origin when ω is ∞. When the polar plot
crosses the negative imaginary axis the phase angle equation is given by
-90° = -tan-1ωT1 – tan-1ωT2
tan (90°) = tan[tan −1 ωT1 + tan −1 ωT2 ]
ωT1 + ωT2
tan (90°) =
1 − ω 2T1T2
ωT + ωT2 ωT1 + ωT2
1 − ω 2T1T2 = 1 = =0
tan(90°) ∞
1
ω2T1T2 = 1 and ω=
T1T2
The magnitude of the polar plot when crossing negative imaginary axis is given by
K
G ( jω ) H( jω ) =
1 + ω2T12 . 1 + ω2T22
1
Subsided for ω =
T1T2
K K
= =
T2 T2 T T
1+ 1 . 1+ 2
1+ 1 . 1+ 2 . T2 T1
1 2 TT 1 2 TT
K K K T1T2
= = =
T1 + T2 T1 + T2 (T1 + T2 )2 T1 + T2
.
T2 T1 T1T2
K T1T2
The magnitude as polar plot, when it crosses the negative imaginary is and the
T1 + T2
1
frequency is . The polar plot is shown in Fig. 9.17. When the frequency varies from -
T1T2
∞ to 0, the locus in the inverse polar plot, varies is the mirror image of the polar plot with
respect to real axis as shown in Fig. 9.17.
35
Figure 9.17 Nyquist plot of K/1(1+jωT1) (1+jωT2
For the section C2 the mapping from s-plane to G(s)H(s) plane is obtained by letting
jθ
s = Lim Re in G(s)H(s) plane and θ varying from +π/2 to -π/2. Since s→ Rejθ and R→∞.
R →∞
Then 1 + sT1 ~
− sT1 and 1 + sT2 ~
− sT2 .
Therefore
K K
G(s) H(s) = = 2
1 + sT1 . 1 + sT2 s T1 .T2
K
G(s) H(s) =
s = Lim Re jθ 2
s T1T2 s = Lim Re jθ
R →∞ R →∞
K
= jθ 2
= 0e − j 2θ
Lim(Re ) .T1T2
R →∞
π
when θ = + G(s)H(s)= 0 e − jπ
2
π
θ=− G(s)H(s)= 0 e + jπ
2
The sector C2 in s-plane is mapped as circular of zero radius around origin in G(s)H(s) plane
with angle varying from -π to +π.
The mapping of section C3 is the inverse polar plot of section C2 The complete Nyquist plot
is shown in fig. 15. The plot of G(jω) H(jω) does not encircle the point (-1+j0), therefore the
system is stable.
Example 9.18
Find the range of K for stability by constructing the Nyquist plot for a system whose open
loop function is given by
K (1 + s) 2
G(s) H(s) =
s3
Solution
36
The open loop transfer function is given by

K (1 + s) 2
G(s) H(s) =
s3
The open loop transfer function has three poles at the origin. Hence choose the Nyquist
contour on s-plane enclosing the entire right half of s-plane plane except the origin as shown
Fig. 9.18. The Nyquist contour has four sections C1, C2, C3 and C4.
In this section the frequency, ω varies from 0 to +∞, the locus is the polar plot in G(jω)H(jω)
K (1 + jω) 2
G(jω) H(jω) =
( jω)3
K (1 + ω 2 )
G ( jω)H( jω) =
ω3
∠G ( jω ) H ( jω ) = 2tan-1ω - 270°
When
ω = 0 G(jω) H(jω) = ∞ ∠ − 270
ω = ∞ G(jω) H(jω) = 0 ∠ − 90

When the locus of G(jω)H(jω) crosses real axis the imaginary term will zero and the
corresponding frequency is the phase crossover frequency, ωpc.
G ( jω) H( jω ) =
K (1 + jω)2
=
(
K 1 − ω2 + 2jω )
3
( jω) − jω3
K (1 − ω2 ) j2Kω − 2K
= + = + j
K 1 − ω2 ( )
− jω2 − jω3 ω2 ω3
At ω = ωpc K(1-ωpc2) = 0; 1-ωpc2 = 0 ωpc = 1 rad/sc
− 2K − 2K
G(jω) H(jω) = = 2 = −2K
ω2 1
The locus cross the negative real axis at -2K and is shown in Fig. 9.19.
37
Figure 9.19 Nyquist plot of K(1+s)2/s3
jθ
The mapping of section C2 is obtained by letting s = Lim Re and θ varying from +π/2 to -
R →∞
π/2.
Since s→ Rejθ and R→ ∞, we can approximate (1 + Ts ) ~
− Ts
K(1 + s) 2 Ks 2 k
G(s) H(s) = = 3 =
s3 s s
K 2
G(s) H(s) = = = 0e − jθ
s = Lim Re jθ s s = Lim Re jθ Lim Re jθ
R →∞ R →∞ R →∞
π
π −j
when θ = , G(s)H(s)= 0e 2
2
π
π +j
θ = − , G(s)H(s)= 0 e 2
2
We can say that section C2 is mapped as circular arc of zero radius around origin with phase
angle varying from +π/2 to -π/2 as shown in Fig. 9.19.
In section C3, the frequency, ω varies from -∞ to 0. This locus is the inverse polar plot of
G(jω) H(jω). The inverse polar plot is the mirror image of polar plot with respect to real axis
38
The mapping of section is obtained by letting s = lim Re jθ and θ varying from -π/2 to +π/2.
R →0
jθ
Since s→ Re and R→0, we can approximate 1 + sT ~
−1
2
K (1 + s) ~ K × 1 K
G(s) H(s) = − 3 = 3
s3 s s
K
G(s)H(s) jθ = s = Lim Re jθ
s = Lim Re
R →0 s3 R →0
K
= jθ 3
= ∞e − j 3θ
Lim(Re )
R →0
3π
j
π 2
when θ = − , G(s)H(s)= ∞e
2
3π
−j
π 2
θ =+ , G(s)H(s)= ∞ e
2
The entire Nyquist plot in G(s) H(s) plane is shown in Fig. 9.19.
Conclusion
When -2K = -1, the contour passes through (-1+j0) point and the corresponding value of K is
given by
-2K = -1
1
Limiting value of K = = 0 .5
2
Example 9.19
Determine the stability of the closed loop transfer function whose open loop transfer function
is given by
K(s + a)
G(s) H(s) =
s(s - 1)
Solution
s
aK(1 + )
K(s + a) a
G(s) H(s) = =
s(s - 1) s(s − 1)
s
K ' (1 + )
= s where K’ = aK.
s ( s − 1)
The open loop transfer function has one pole at the origin. Hence choose the Nyquist contour
on s-plane enclosing the entire right half plane except the origin as shown in Fig. 9.20.
39
Section C1 is along the positive imaginary axis, where the frequency varies from 0 to +∞.
 s
K' 1 + 
G(s)H(s) = 
a
s(s − 1)
 jω 
K ' 1 + 
G(jω) H(jω) =  a 
jω(- 1 + jω )
2
ω  ω
K 1 +   .∠ tan −1
'
a a
G(jω ) H(jω ) =
ω∠90. 1 + ω 2 .∠180° − tan −1 ω
2
' ω
K 1+  
a
G ( jω) H( jω) =
ω 1 + ω2
ω
∠G ( jω ) H ( jω ) = tan −1 − 90° − 180° + tan −1 ω
a
ω
= tan −1 − 270° + tan −1 ω
a
From the above equation
When ω → 0, |G(jω) H(jω)| → ∞ ∠ − 270
When ω → ∞, ∠G ( jω ) H ( jω ) → 0 ∠ − 90
The mapping of section C1 is the polar graph staring in second quadrant from infinity on
positive imaginary axis, then crosses negative real axis and ends at the origin in the third
quadrant. When the curve crosses the negative real axis the imaginary part is zero.
Multiplying the numerator and the denominated by (-1-jω), which is the complex
conjugate of the pole(-1+jω), the G(jω)H(jω) equation becomes
40
ω
K ' (1 + j )
G ( j ω ) H ( jω ) = a x (− 1 − jω )
jω(- 1 + jω ) (− 1 − jω )
 ω ω2 
K  − 1 − j − jω +
1

 a a 
=
jω (1 + ω 2 )
Multiplying both numerator and denominator by j, the above equation become
 ω ω2 
K '  − j + + ω + j 
a a 
G ( jω) H( jω ) = 
(
− ω ω +12
)
 ω  ω2 
K '  ω +  − j 1 − 
=  a  a 
(
− ω ω2 +1 )
Equating the imaginary part to zero
ω2
1− = 0 ; ω = ± a; a > 0
a
At this value of ω
 ω 
K ' ω + 
G ( jω ) H ( jω ) ω 2 = a =  a 
(Since imaginary part is zero)
(
− ω ω2 +1 )
 1
Kaω1 + 
=  a (K’ = Ka)
− ω(a + 1)
K (a + 1)
= = −K
− (a + 1)
This is shown in Fig. 9.21.
Figure 9.21 Nyquist plot of K(s+a)/s(s-1)

41
The mapping of section C2 is obtained by letting s = lim Re iθ and θ varying from +π/2 to -
R →∞
jθ
π/2. Since s→ Re and R→ ∞, we can approximate (1 + Ts ) ~
− Ts
 s
K ' 1 + 
 a  K' s/a K '
G(s) H(s) = = 2 =
s(s − 1) s a.s
K'
G(s) H(s) s = Lim Re jθ = Re jθ
R →∞ as s = RLim
→∞
K'
= jθ
= 0e − jθ
a Lim(Re )
R →∞
π
π −j
When θ = , G(s)H(s) = 0 e 2
2
π
π +j
θ = − , G(s)H(s) = 0 e 2
2
Section C2 is mapped as circular are of zero radius around origin with phase angle varying
from -π/2 to +π/2 as shown in Fig. 9.21.
In section C3 the frequency, ω varies from -∞ to 0. This locus is the inverse polar plot of
G(jω)H(jω). The inverse polar plot is the mirror image of polar plot with respect to real axis
The mapping of section C4 is obtained by letting s = lim Re jθ and θ varying from -π/2 to
R →0
+π/2.
Since s→ Rejθ and R→ 0, we can approximate −1+sT≈ −1
 s
K ' 1 + 
G(s) H(s) = 
a  K'
=
s(s − 1) -s
K'
G(s) H(s) s = Lim Re jθ = s = Lim Re jθ
R→0 -s R→0
K
= jθ
= −∞ e − jθ = ∞ e − j ( π +θ )
Lim ( − Re )
R→0
π
π −j
when θ = − , G(s)H(s)= ∞ e 2
2
42
π
π +j
θ = , G(s)H(s)= ∞ e 2
2
The section C4 in s-plane is mapped as a circle of infinite radius with phase angle varying
from -π/2 to +π/2. The entire Nyquist plot in G(s) H(s) plane is shown in Fig. 9.21.
Conclusion
For K>1, the Nyquist plot encircles (-1+j0), once in anti clockwise direction i.e., N=1. The
open loop transfer function has P=1.
Then N = P-Z
1 = 1-Z
Z=0
Thus the system is stable.
For K<1, we can say that (-1+j0) will lie beyond –K, the crossing point of the plot. So N = -1
and P = 1
Now N=P–Z
-1 = 1 – Z
Z =2
The closed system is unstable as it has two roots in its characteristic equation in the right half
of s-plane.
Example 9.20
Investigate the stability of the unity feed back system by Nyquil plot, whose open loop
transfer function is given by,
K ( s − 2)
G(s)H(s) =
( s + 1) 2
Solution
The open-loop transfer function does not have a pole at the origin. Hence choose the Nyquist
contour on s-plane enclosing the entire right half of s-plane as shown in Fig. 9.22. The
Nyquist contour has three sections C1, C2 and C3.
1. Mapping as section C1.

In section C1 ω varies from 0 to +∞. The locus is the polar plot G(jω).
43
K ( s − 2) 2 K (−1 + 0.5s )
G(s) H(s) = =
(1 + s) 2 (1 + s ) 2
Put s = j ω
2 K (−1 + j 0.5ω )
G(jω)H(jω) =
(1 + jω ) 2
2k 1 + 0.25ω 2
G ( jω ) H ( jω ) =
(1 + ω 2 )
∠G(jω) H(jω) = 180 – tan-1 0.5ω - 2 tan-1 ω.
when ω = 0 G(jω)H(jω) = 2k ∠180° = 2k [cos 180+jsin 180] = -2k

when ω = ∞ G(jω)H(jω) = 0 ∠-90
The locus starts from -2k at the negative real axis and moves in the clockwise direction ends
at zero at the fourth quadrant. The crossing point of the locus with positive real axis is as
follows.
2k (−1 + j 0.5ω ) k (−2 + jω )
G(jω)H(jω) = 2
=
(1 + jω ) 1 − ω 2 + j 2ω
Multiply both numerator and denominator by the complex conjugate of the denominator.
k (−2 + jω ) (1 − ω 2 − j 2ω )
G(jω) H(jω) = .
(1 − ω 2 + j 2ω ) (1 − ω 2 − j 2ω )
k[(4ω 2 − 2) + jω (5 − ω 2 )
=
(1 − ω 2 ) 2 + (2ω ) 2
Equating the imaginary part to zero:
5 - ω2 = 0 ; ω2 = 5 or ω=± 5
2
At this value of ω = 5, the magnitude is given by
2k 1 + 0.25ω 2 2k 2.25 k
G ( jω ) G ( jω ) ω 2 = 5 = = = .
(1 + ω 2 ) 6 2
ω2 =5
Figure 9.23 Nyquist plot of K(s-2)/(s+1)2
44
The mapping of section C2 is obtained by letting s = lim Re jθ and the angle θ varying from
R →∞
jθ
+ π/2 to -π/2. Since s → Re and R → ∞, we can approximate (s-2) ≈ s and s+1 ≈ s
K ( s − 2) Ks K
G(s) H(s) = = 2 =
( s + 1) 2 s s
Let s = lim Re jθ
R →∞
K K
G(s)H(s) s = Lim Re jθ = s = Lim Re jθ = = 0e − jθ
R →∞ s R →∞ Lim(Re jθ )
R →∞
when θ = π/2 G(s) H(s) = 0 e-jπ/2

when θ = -π/2 G(s) H(s) = 0 e +jπ/2
From the above equation section C2 is mapped as circular are of zero radius around the origin
with angle varying from -π/2 to +π/2.
3. Mapping of section C3.

In section C3, ω varies from -∞ to 0. The locus is the inverse polar plot of G(jω)
H(jω).
The complete Nyquil plot is shown in Fig. 9.23
Conclusion
For -2k < -1
k<½
The Nyquil plot does not on circle -1+j0 point. So the system is stable for k < ½.
Example 9.21
Find the stability of the system whose open-loop transfer function in given by
5
G(s) H(s) =
s (1 − s )
Solution
The open loop transfer function has a pole at origin. Hence choose the Nyquil contour on s-
plane on closing the entire right heat of s-plane except the origin. The contour has four
sections C1, C2, C3 and C4 as shown in Fig. 9.24.
45
5
G(s) H(s) =
s (1 − s )
5 5
G(jω) H(jω) = =
jω (1 − jω ) ω∠90° 1 + ω 2 ∠ − tan −1 ω
5
G ( jω ) H ( jω ) =
ω 1+ ω2
∠G(jω) H(jω) = -90 + tan-1 ω.
when ω = 0 G(jω) H(jω) = ∞ ∠-90

when ω = ∞ G(jω) H(jω) = 0 ∠0.
The exact shape of G(jω)H(jω) locus is found at by varying the frequency ω from 0 to ∞ as
shown below
ω rad/sec 6 0.6 1.0 2.0 10 ∞

|G(jω) H(jω)| ∞ 7.15 3.53 1.12 0.05 0
∠G(jω) H(jω)
-90 -59 -45 -20 -5 0
degree
46
Figure 9.25 Nyquist plot of 5/s(1-s)
Mapping of section C2 in obtained by letting s = lim Re jθ and θ varying from +π/2 to -π/2.
R →∞
jθ
Since s → Re and R →∞ we can approximate 1 – s ≈ – s
5 5 5
G(s) H(s) = ~ =
s (1 − s ) s(− s) − s 2
5 5
G(s) H(s) s = Lim Re jθ = s = Lim Re jθ = = 0e − j ( 2θ +π ) Note: −1 = e jπ
R→∞ − s2 R →∞
( Lim
s →∞ Re )e
jθ 2 jπ
when θ = π/2 G(s) H(s) = 0 e-j2π

when θ = -π/2 G(s) H(s) = 0 e j0
From the above equation section C2 is mapped as circular arc of zero radius around origin and
phase angle varies from -2π to 0.
In section C3, ω varies from -∞ to 0. The locus is the inverse polar plot of G(jω) H(jω). The
inverse polar plot is the mirror image of polar plot with respect to real axis.

The mapping of section C4 in obtained by letting s = lim Re jθ and θ varying from -π/2 to
R →0
+π/2. Since s → Rejθ and R → 0, we can approximate (1-s) ~ 1
5 5
G(s) H(s) = ~
s (1 − s ) s
5 5
G(s) H(s) = s = Lim Re jθ = s = Lim Re jθ = = ∞ e − jθ
R →0 s R →0 lim Re jθ
R →0
47
π
When θ = − G(s)H(s) = ∞ e jπ/2
2
θ = π/2 G(s)H(s) = ∞ e-jπ/2
Conclusion
The complete Nyquist plot is shown in Fig. 9.25. According to Nyquil stability criterion the
Nyquil plot should encircle the -1 + j0 point once in the anti clockwise direction, since there
is one pole on the right half of s-plane. But the Nyquist plot for the given open loop transfer
function does not encircles the point -1 + j0. Therefore the system is unstable.
Example 9.22
Consider an open-loop system with transfer function
s +1
G(s)H(s) = 2
s ( s − 2)
Determine whether the system is stable when the feedback path in clock.
Solution
The open loop transfer function has two poles at the origin. Hence choose the Nyquil contour
in s-plane enclosing the entire right half s-plane except the origin as shown in Fig. 9.26.

In section C1, ω varies from 0 to ∞. The locus is the polar plot of G(jω)H(jω).
s +1 s +1 0.5(1 + s )
G(s) H(s) = 2
= 2 = 2
s ( s − 2) s × 2(−1 + 0.5s ) s (−1 + 0.5s )
0.5 1 + ω 2
G ( jω ) H ( jω ) =
ω 2 1 + 0.25ω 2
48
∠G(jω) H(jω) = tan-1ω - 180 + tan-10.5ω + 180

= tan-1ω + tan-10.5ω
The exact shape of G(jω) H(jω) locus is determined by calculating the magnitude and phase
of G(jω) H(jω) for various values of ω and is as shown below.
ω rad/sec 0 0.1 1 10 +∞
|G(jω) H(jω)| ∞ 50 0.6 0.01 0
∠G(jω) H(jω)
0 9 71 162 -180
degree

The mapping of section C2 is obtained by letting s = lim Re jθ and θ varying for +π/2 to -
R →∞
jθ
π/2. Since s → Re and R → ∞ we can approximate the terms in the open loop transfer
function as follows
1 + s ~ s and -1 + 0.5s ~ 0.5s
Then the transfer function become
0.5(1 + s) 0.5s 1
G(s) H(s) = 2
~ 3
= 2
s (−1 + 0.5s ) 0.5s s
1 1
G(s) H(s) s = Lim Re jθ = s = Lim Re jθ = j 2θ
= 0 e-j2θ
R →∞ s2 R →∞ lim Re
R →∞
when θ = π/2 G(s) H(s) = 0 e-jπ
when θ = -π/2 G(s) H(s) = 0 e+jπ
From the above equations, section C2 in s-plane is mapped as circular arc of zero radius
around origin and phase angle varies for -π to +π.
Figure 9.27 Nyquist plot of s+1/s2(s-2)

49

In section C3, ω varies from -∞ to 0. This locus is the inverse polar plot of G(jω)H(jω). The
inverse polar plot is the mirror image of polar plot with respect to real axis as shown in Fig.
9.27.

The mapping of section C4 in obtains by letting s = lim Re jθ and the θ varying from -π/2 to
R →0
jθ
+π/2. Since s → Re and R → 0. We can approximate the term in the open loop transfer
function G(s) H(s) as follows:
1 + s ~ 1 and -1 + 0.5s ~ -1
Then the transfer function becomes
0.5(1 + s ) 0.5
G(s) H(s) = ~
− s2
2
s (−1 + 0.5s )
0.5
G(s) H(s) = s = Lim Re jθ = s = Lim Re jθ
R →0 − s2 R →0
0.5
2
= ∞ e –j(2θ+π) (Note: -1 = ejπ)
 lim Re jθ  e jπ
 R →0 
When θ = -π/2 G(s) H(s) = ∞ e-j0
When θ = +π/2 G(s) H(s) = ∞ e-j2π
The section C4 is mapped as a circular arc of infinite radius with phase angle varies
from -0 to -2π as shown in fig 25.
Conclusion
In the open loop transfer function of G(s) H(s), one pole lie on the left half of s-plane.
According to Nyquist stability criterion the plot should encircle the -1 + j0 point once in the
anti-clockwise direction for the system to be stable. But in Fig. 9.27, the Nyquil plot encircles
the -1 + j0 point once in the clockwise direction. Hence the system is unstable with two poles
lie on the right half of s-plane.
Example 9.23
By applying the Nyquist stability, determine the stability of the closed-loop system, whose
open-loop transfer function in given by
1
G(s) H(s) =
( s 2 + 4)
50
Solution
1 1
G(s) H(s) = =
s 2 + 4 ( s + j 2)( s − j 2)
From the open-loop transfer, there are two poles lying on the imaginary axis, one at –j2 and
the other at +j2. Hence choose on s-plane the entire right half plane except the points –j2 and
+j2 on the imaginary axis as shown is Fig. 9.28a.
Figure 9.28 Shows s-plane and F(s)-plane contour for G(s)=1/s2+4
1. Mapping of section OA.

In this section OA, ω varies from 0 to 2
1
G(jω)H(jω) = (note: there is no imaginary part)
4 − ω 2 ∠0°
When ω = 0 G(jω) H(jω) = 0.25 ∠0°
ω=2 G(jω) H(jω) = ∞ ∠0°
For section OA the locus starts from 0.25 to ∞ in the positive real axis since the angle is 0°.
This is shown as section 0′ A′ in Fig. 9.28b.
2. Mapping of section AB
The mapping of section AB is obtained by letting s = j2 + rejθ when r → 0 and θ varying from
-π/2 to +π/2.
1
G(s) H(s) =
( s + j 2)( s − j 2)
Put s = j2 + r ejθ
1
G(s) H(s) = jθ
( j2 + r e + j 2)( j 2 + r e jθ − j 2)
51
π
1 − j (θ + )
2
= = ∞ e
( j 4 + r e jθ )r e jθ
When θ = -π/2 G(s) H(s) = ∞ e-i0
When θ = +π/2 G(s) H(s) = ∞ e-jπ
The mapping of section AB is the semi-circle in the clockwise direction and the phase angle
varying from -0 to -π. This is shown as A′ B′ in Fig. 9.28b.
2. Mapping of section BC.

In section BC, the frequency, ω varies from 2 to ∞
1 −1
G(s) H(s) = =
(−ω 2 + 4) (ω 2 − 4)
When ω = 2 G(jω) H(jω) = - ∞
When ω = ∞ G(jω) H(jω) = 0
As ω is varied from 2 to ∞, the plot is from - ∞ to 0 lying on the negative real axis and is
shown as B′ C′ in fig. 26b.
3. Mapping of section CDE.

The mapping of section CDE is obtained by letting s = lim Re jθ and θ varying from +π/2
R →∞
to -π/2.
Since s → Rejθ and R → ∞, we can approximate (s2+4) ~ s2
1 1
G(s) H(s) = 2
~ 2
( s + 4) s
1 1
G(s) H(s) = = = 0 e - j2θ
s = Lim Re jθ
R →∞ s2
s = Lim Re jθ
R →∞ (Lim Re )
R→∞
jθ 2
-jπ
When θ = +π/2 G(s) H(s) = 0 e
When θ = -π/2 G(s) H(s) = 0 e+jπ
From the above equations, section CDE in s-plane is mapped as C’D’E’, which is a circular
arc of zero radius around origin and phase angle varies for -π to +π.
4. Mapping of section EF.

In section EF, the frequency ω varies from -∞ to -2.
1 1 −1
G(jω) H(jω) = 2
= 2
= 2
( s + 4) − ω + 4 (ω − 4)
When ω = -∞ G(jω) H(jω) = 0
When ω = -2 G(jω) H(jω) = -∞
52
This is the mirror image of B′ C′ and is shown as E′ F′ in Fig. 9.28b.
5. Mapping of section FG.

This is the mirror image of section AB and is shown as F′ G′ in Fig. 9.28b.
6. Mapping of section GO.

This section GO is the mirror image of section OA. This is shown as O′ A′ in Fig. 9.28b.
Conclusion
The complete Nyquil plot is shown in Fig. 9.28b. From the Nyquil plot it is obtained that the
plot passes through -1 + j0. Hence the system is oscillatory.
SHORT QUESTIONS
9.1 Define “bounded input bounded output stability”.
The linear time invariant single input single output system is said to be bounded input
bounded output stable if the area under the impulse response curve of the system is
finite. In this case for bounded input, the system output is also bounded.
9.2 How are locations of roots of characteristics equation related to stability?

For the linear system to be stable, all the roots of the characteristic equation should lie
in LHP. The presence of even a single root in RHP would make the system unstable.
Presence of imaginary axis roots indicates that the system is oscillatory.
9.3 Define Routh-Hurwitz criterion.

For the system to be stable, the first column of the Routh-Hurwitz array should not
have any sign change. The number of sign change equals the number of RHP roots of
the characteristic equation.
9.4 State Nyquist stability criterion.

If the open loop system is unstable, then for the closed loop system to be stable, the
Nyquist plot of GH(s) lying in RHP and the number of encirclement should be in the
counter-clockwise direction in the GH(s) plane.
9.5 What do you understand by the singularity of a function?

Points in the s-plane at which the function GH(s) is not analytic are called singular
points. They are also called equilibrium points.
9.6 What are the two special cases in applying Routh-Hurwitz criterion?
The two special cases are that the columns of a complete row becoming zero and the
first column of a row becoming zero.
9.7 What is meant by relative stability?

If the system is found to be stable then it is necessary to know the stability strength or
degree of stability which is called relative stability. Phase margins and gain margins
53
are the margins of relative stability. Higher the phase margin and gain margin, higher
the stability of the system.
9.8 What is meant by stable system?

A system is said to be stable when the transient response does not increase
monotonically or oscillations with increasing amplitude are not present when a small
disturbance is given.
9.9 What is the limitation or drawbacks of the Routh-Hurwitz criterion?

Routh’s stability criterion gives information about absolute stability. It does not give
any information about relative stability. If the system is unstable, it does not suggest
the method of improving the stability.
9.10 What is meant by critically stable system?

A linear system is said to be critically stable if the Nyquist GH(jω) plot just crosses
the (-1,0) point. In the time domain the system is critically stable if the roots lie in the
imaginary axis.
9.11 What is the stability condition in the time domain?

The area under the magnitude value curve of the impulse function g(t) in the time
range 0 ≤ t < ∞ must be finite.
9.12 What is the stability condition in the frequency domain?

A system is bounded input bounded output stable if all the roots of the characteristic
equation lie in the left half of the complex s plane (LHP).
9.13 What is the pre-requisite before a characteristic polynomial is tested for its stability
using Routh’s criterion?
Let the characteristic equation be written in the following form:
F(s) = a0s5 + a1s4 + a2s3 + a2s2 + a4s + a5
The pre-requisite or necessary condition is that all coefficients are positive and non-
zero for the system to be stable.
9.14 What are the advantages and disadvantages of using Routh’s stability criterion?
The application of Routh’s stability criterion is straight forward. The information that
we get is the absolute stability of the system. If the system is stable, Routh’s criterion
does not tell how stable the system is. It also does not give any information on how to
improve the system stability.
9.15 Under what conditions is it possible to find out the exact locations of the roots of a
polynomial using Routh’s test?
Finding the locations of imaginary axis roots is possible if one complete row contains
0, 0, 0... in the Routh-Hurwitz array.
9.16 When a complete row in Routh’s array becomes zero, what is the procedure to
complete the Routh’s array?
54
Take the auxiliary equation, differentiate it with respect to s and consider these
coefficients for the next row formation.
9.17 When the first column of Routh’s array becomes zero, what are the procedures
available to complete the Routh’s array?
1. Put s =1/z and for F(z) polynomial apply Routh’s test.
2. Replace 0 by ε and complete the array. Finally put ε = 0 and count the sign
changes in the first column.
9.18 How would you find the LHP and imaginary axis roots of a given characteristic
polynomial using Routh’s stability criterion?
By usual test RHP roots are known. By putting s = -x and applying Routh’s test for
F(x) polynomial, LHP roots are known by counting the number of sign changes.
Total number of roots – RHP roots – LHP roots = Imaginary axis roots.
9.19 How would you find the number of roots of the characteristic polynomial lying to the
right of a vertical straight lines passing through a point other than the origin?
By putting s = (λ - a) and conducting Routh’s test for F(λ) polynomial, the number of
sign changes gives the number of roots lying to the right of (-a,0) point.
9.20 Express mathematically the Nyquist stability criterion?

Nyquist stability criterion is expressed mathematically in the following form: Nr =
(Zr - Pr), where Nr is counted positive for clockwise rotation and negative for
anticlockwise rotation.
9.21 Explain the various symbols used to describe Nyquist stability criterion?
Zr = Nr + Pr
Nr = Number of encirclements of the (-1,0) point made by GH(s) plot when
transformed from s plane to GH(s) plane.
Pr = Number of poles of GH(s) lying in the right hand side of the s-plane.
Zr = Number of zeros of F(s) = 1+ GH(s) lying in the right hand side of s-
plane. Zr should be zero for closed loop system stability.
9.22 What are the advantages of Nyquist stability criterion over that of Routh’s criterion?
The Nyquist stability criterion has the following features. It provides the same amount
of information about the absolute stability of the system as Routh’s criterion. In
addition to system’s absolute stability, the Nyquist stability criterion gives
information about the relative stability of the system. It also gives information about
improving the stability of the system. The Nyquist locus also gives information
concerning the frequency response of the system.
9.23 State Nyquist stability criterion for a closed loop system when the open loop
system is stable.
“If the open loop system is stable, then for the closed loop system also to be stable the
Nyquist plot of GH(s) should not at all encircle (-1,0) point of GH(s) plane”.
9.24 What is meant by a Nyquist path?

55
Nyquist path or contour is plotted in the imaginary axis and the entire right half of the
s-plane.
9.25 What do you understand by Nyquist plot?

The conformal mapping of the closed s-plane contour into the GH(s) plane is
called Nyquist plot.
9.26 What is the advantage of drawing the Nyquist plot in the GH(s) plane rather
than F(s) = 1+ GH(s) plane?
since the plot of GH (jω) is much easier than the plot of 1+GH (jω) when s = jω, and
counting of encirclement around (-1,0) point in the GH(s) plane, drawing the Nyquist
plot in the GH(s) plane has its advantage.
9.27 What do you understand by conformal mapping?

Transformation of F(s) or GH(s) from s plane to F(s) or GH(s) plane is called
conformal mapping.
9.28 What is an oscillatory system as per Nyquist stability criterion?

If the Nyquist plot passes through (-1,0) point then the system is said to be oscillatory.
9.29 What would happen to a physical system that becomes unstable?

The variables in the system become unbounded as time increase when the system is
unstable. This, in turn results in the collapse of the system itself.
9.30 Where do system poles have to be to ensure that the system is not unstable?
To ensure that the system is not unstable all the poles should be in LHP.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
9.1 The characteristic equation of a system is given by s4+4s3+15s2+30s+20=0. Determine the
stability of the system.
9.2 A system has G(s)H(s) = K/s(s+2)(s+4)(s+8), where K is positive. Determine the range of
K for the system to stable.
9.3 The out C(t) of a system is related to input by [s4+2s3+2s2+(K+3)s+K]C(s) = K(s+1)R(s)
Where K is positive. Find whether the system is stable with K = 6. Also determine the
range of K for the system to be stable.
9.4 Determine the stability of the system whose characteristic equation is given by:
s6+2s5+8s4+12s3+20s2+16s+16 = 0
9.5 Examine the stability of a control system by Routh’s criterion whose characteristic
equation is given by s5+s4+2s3+2s2+3s+15 = 0
9.5 A feedback control system has open loop transfer function G(s)H(s)=100/s(s+5). Draw
the Nyquist diagram and determine the stability.
9.6 Draw the complete Nyquist plot for a system with G(s)H(s)=K/s(s+1)(s+5) and discuss
the stability.
9.7 Detemine the stability of the system G(s)H(s)=4(s+1)/(s+2) by Nyquist diagram.
56
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9.

Where g(τ) = L-1 [G(s)] is the impulse response of the system.

Figure 9.1 Shows unbounded and bounded output

9.2 Location of Roots on the S-plane for

Figure 9.2 The impulse-response for various roots of characteristic equation

C(t) = L-1 [G(s)] = g(τ)

9.3 Stability Definitions:

zero irrespective of initial conditions.

9..4 Routh’s Stability Criterion

a0sn + a1sn-1 + a2sn-2 + … an-1 s + an = 0 ; where a0 > 0

The coefficients b1, b3, b3 … are evaluated as follows

p(s) = 2s4 + 48s2 – 50

The term in the s3 row are replaced by the coefficients

s = ± 1 and s = ± j5 = -12 ± 13 = 1, -25.

The characteristic equation of the system is given as

&x& − (k + 2) x& + (2k + 5) x = 0

Taking to place Transform, the characteristic equation becomes

Applying the Roth criterion.

(a) (i) For the system to be stable,

The routh array table is

The closed loop transfer function

Figure 9.3 shows the mapping of ABCDEF in s-plane to A′B′C′D′E′F′ in F(s)-plane.

The path ABCDEF is transferred to F(s)-plane as A′B′C′D′E′F′ and is as shown in Fig.9.3.

Now consider the function

Figure 9.4 Principle of argument with a zero enclosed

Now consider the function

Figure 9.5 Principle of argument with a pole not enclosed

Now consider the transfer function

Figure 9.6 Principle of Argument with a Pole and a zero Enclosed

9.5.2 Summary of encirclement

9.6 The Principle of argument

9.7 Nyquist Stability Criterion

The characteristic equation of the system is given by the 1 + G(s)H(s) = 0

The loop transfer function G(s)H(s) can be expressed as

K(s + z1 )(s + z 2 )...(s + z m )

The loop transfer function G(s) H(s) can also be expressed as

Figure 9.10 Shows F(s)-plane contour of F(s)-1

The Nyquist stability criterion can be explain as follows:

Figure 9.11 Shows the Nyquist contour in s-plane

At ω = ωpc ωpc (1-0.05ωpc2) = 0

0.05K ~ 0.05K 0.05K

Complete Nyquist plot

When θ = -π/2 G(s)H(s) = ∞ e+jπ/2

2. Mapping of the positive imaginary axis section AB as ω varies from 0 to +∞ is

When ω = 0 |G(jω) H(jω)| = ∞ and ∠G ( jω ) H ( jω ) = -90

ω=∞ |G(jω) H(jω)| = 0 and ∠G ( jω ) H ( jω ) = 0

3. Mapping of section BCD

Figure 9.14 Nyquist contour in s-plane

From the above equation

tan[tan −14ωpc ] = tan[tan −1ωpc + tan −12ωpc ]

tan . tan −1 ωpc + tan . tan −1 2ωpc

Figure 9.16 Nyquist contour in s-plane

The open loop transfer function is type 0, second order system.

when ω =0 G ( jω) H( jω) = K

Figure 9.17 Nyquist plot of K/1(1+jωT1) (1+jωT2

The open loop transfer function is given by

Figure 9.18 Nyquist contour in s-plane

Figure 9.19 Nyquist plot of K(1+s)2/s3