Chapter I

1.Introduction

1.1BRAKES

A brake is a device by means of which artificial frictional resistance is applied to a moving

machine member, in order to retard or stop the motion of a machine. In the
process of performing this function, the brake absorbs either kinetic energy of the moving
member or potential energy given up by objects being lowered by hoists, elevators etc.

The energy absorbed by brakes is dissipated in the form of heat. This heat is dissipated in the
surrounding air (or water which is circulated through the passages in the brake drum) so that
excessive heating of the brake lining does not takeplace. The design or capacity of a brake
depends upon the following factors
1. The unit pressure between the braking surfaces,
2. The coefficient of friction between the braking surfaces.
3. The peripheral velocity of the brake drum.
4. The projected area of the friction surfaces, and
5. The ability of the brake to dissipate heat equivalent to the energy being absorbed.

Functions of brake:
1. To stop or slow down the vehicle in the shortest possible distance in emergencies.
2. To control the vehicle to be retained when descending a hill.

The major functional difference between a clutch and a brake is that a clutch is used to keep
the driving and driven member moving together, whereas brakes are used to stop a moving
member or to control its speed.
1.2CLASSIFICATION OF BRAKES

 On the Basis of Method of Actuation

(a) Foot brake (also called service brake) operated by foot pedal.

(b) Hand brake – it is also called parking brake operated by hand.

 On the Basis of Mode of Operation

(a) Mechanical brakes

(b) Hydraulic brakes

(c) Air brakes

(d) Vacuum brakes

(e) Electric brakes.

 On the Basis of Action on Front or Rear Wheels

(a) Front-wheel brakes

(b) Rear-wheel brakes.

 On the Basis of Method of Application of Braking Contact

(a) Internally – expanding brakes

(b) Externally – contracting brakes.

 On the Basis of Method of applying the braking force

(a) Single acting brakes
(b) Double acting brakes

 On the Basis of power transmission

(a) Direct acting brakes
(b) Geared brakes
What is a Braking System?
Braking system is a means of converting the vehicles momentum (called kinetic energy) into
the heat by creating friction in the wheel brakes. The Heat is then dissipated into the air and,
it is this ability to absorb and dissipate heat that prevents brake fade under severe conditions.

Common Braking System Types

The most common types of brakes found in automobiles today are typically described as
hydraulic, frictional, pumping, electromagnetic, and servo. Of course, there are several
additional components that are involved with make braking smooth and more effective
depending on road conditions and different circumstances.

Some common types of braking systems include:

 Electromagnetic Brakes
Electromagnetic brakes use an electric motor that is included in the automobile which help
the vehicle come to a stop.  These types of brakes are in most hybrid vehicles and use an
electric motor to charge the batteries and regenerative brakes.  On occasion, some busses will
use a secondary retarder brake which uses an internal short circuit and a generator.

 Frictional Brakes
Frictional brakes are a type of service brake found in many automobiles. They are typically
found in two forms; pads and shoes.  As the name implies, these brakes use friction to stop
the automobile from moving. They typically include a rotating device with a stationary pad
and a rotating weather surface. On most band brakes the shoe will constrict and rub against
the outside of the rotating drum, alternatively on a drum brake, a rotating drum with shoes
will expand and rub against the inside of the drum.
 Pumping Brakes
Pumping brakes are used when a pump is included in part of the vehicle.  These types of
brakes use an internal combustion piston motor to shut off the fuel supply, in turn causing
internal pumping losses to the engine, which causes braking.

 Hydraulic Brakes
Hydraulic brakes are composed of a master cylinder that is fed by a reservoir of hydraulic
braking fluid. This is connected by an assortment of metal pipes and rubber fittings which are
attached to the cylinders of the wheels.  The wheels contain two opposite pistons which are
located on the band or drum brakes which pressure to push the pistons apart forcing the brake
pads into the cylinders, thus causing the wheel to stop moving.

 Servo Brakes
Servo brakes are found on most cars and are intended to augment the amount of pressure the
driver applies to the brake pedal.  These brakes use a vacuum in the inlet manifold to generate
extra pressure needed to create braking.  Additionally, these braking systems are only
effective while the engine is still running.

In some vehicles we may find that there are more than one of these braking systems included.
These systems can be used in unison to create a more reliable and stronger braking system. 
Unfortunately, on occasion, these braking systems may fail resulting in automobile accidents
and injuries.
Parking and Emergency Braking Systems:
Parking and emergency braking systems use levers and cables where a person must use
mechanical force or a button in newer vehicles, to stop the vehicle in the case of emergency
or parking on a hill.  These braking systems both bypass normal braking systems in the event
that the regular braking system malfunctions.

These systems begin when the brake is applied, which pulls a cable that passes to the
intermediate lever which causes that force to increase and pass to the equalizer.  This
equalizer splits into two cables, dividing the force and sending it to both rear wheels to slow
and stop the automobile.

In many automobiles, these braking systems will bypass other braking systems by running
directly to the brake shoes. This is beneficial in the case that your typical braking system
fails.

HYDRAULIC BRAKES

The hydraulic brake is an arrangement of braking mechanism which uses brake fluid,
typically containing ethylene glycol, to transfer pressure from controlling mechanism top the
braking mechanism. In hydraulic system, fluids do not compress or produce any measurable
friction. Also, fluid pressure does not diminish when transferred within a closed system. That
means that if there is no leak in a system, the pressure at the wheels will be the same as the
pressure from the master cylinder.
In this braking system, the pedal force is transmitted to the brake shoe by means of a confined
liquid through a system of force transmission. The force is applied to the pedal which is
transmitted to all the brake shoes.

This system is based on Pascal’s law which states that “pressure exerted anywhere in a
confined incompressible fluid is transmitted equally in all directions throughout the fluid.”

This principle is stated mathematically as:

P=ρgh
where P  is the hydrostatic pressure (given in pascals in the SI system), or the
difference in pressure at two points within a fluid column, due to the weight of the
fluid.

ρ is the fluid density (in kilograms per cubic meter in the SI system).

g is acceleration due to gravity.

h is the height of fluid above the point of measurement, or the difference in
elevation between the two points within the fluid column (in metres in SI).

CONSTRUCTION OF HYDRAULIC BRAKES

The most common arrangement of hydraulic brakes consists of the following:

1. Brake pedal
2. A pushrod
3. A master cylinder assembly
4. Brake caliper assembly usually consisting of one or two hollow aluminum or
chrome-plated steel pistons (called caliper piston), a set of thermally
conductive brake pads and a rotor (also called a brake disc).
At one time, passenger vehicles commonly employed drum brakes on all four
wheels. Later, disc brakes were used for the front and drum brakes for the rear.
However disc brakes have shown better heat dissipation and greater resistance
to 'fading' and are therefore generally safer than drum brakes. So four-wheel
disc brakes have become increasingly popular, replacing drums on all but the
most basic vehicles.
Many two-wheel vehicle designs, however, continue to employ a drum brake
for the rear wheel.
In hydraulic braking mechanism, there is a subsequent release of the brake
pedal/lever which allows springs to return the caliper pistons back into
position and relieves the hydraulic pressure on the pistons, allowing the brake
piston in the caliper assembly to slide back into its housing and the brake pads
to release the rotor.
The hydraulic braking system is designed as a closed system: unless there is a
leak in the system, none of the brake fluid enters or leaves it, nor does the fluid
get consumed through use.
SYSTEM OPERATION
When brake pedal in pressed, the force is transmitted to the brake shoes
through a liquid (link). The pedal force is multiplied and transmitted to all
brake shoes by a force transmission system. Figure 6.1 shows the system of
hydraulic brake of a four wheeler automobile.

It consists of a master cylinder, four wheel cylinders and pipes carrying a

brake fluid from master cylinder to wheel cylinder. The master cylinder is
connected to all the four-wheel cylinders by tubing or piping. All cylinders
and tubes are fitted with a fluid which acts as a link to transmit pedal force
from master cylinder to wheel cylinders.

The fluid filled in the hydraulic brake system is known as brake fluid. It is a
mixture of glycerine and alcohol or caster oil and some additives. Master
cylinder consists of a piston which is connected to peal through connecting
rod. The wheel cylinder consists of two pistons between which fluid is filled.
Each wheel brake consists of a cylinder brake drum. This drum is mounted on
the inner side of wheel. The drum revolves with the wheel. Two brake shoes
which are mounted inside the drum remain stationary. Heat and wear resistant
brake linings are fitted on the surface of the brake shoes.
MASTER CYLINDER

The master cylinder is the heart of the hydraulic brake system. It consists of
two main chambers- the fluid reservoir which contains the fluid to supply to
the brake system and the compression chamber in which the piston operates.

The reservoir supplies fluid to the brake system through two ports. The larger
port is called the filler or intake port and is connected to the hollow portion of
the piston between the primary and secondary cups which acts as piston seals.
The smaller port is called the relief, bypass or compensating port which
connects the reservoir directly with the cylinder and lines when the piston is in
the released position. The reservoir is vented to the atmosphere so that the
atmospheric pressure causes the flow through the filler port. The vent is placed
in the filler cap. The boot covers the pushrod and the end of the cylinder to
keep it free from foreign matter.
When the brake pedal is depressed, the master cylinder piston moves forward to force the
liquid under pressure into the system. The relief port is sealed out of the system. The liquid
pressure is conducted to the wheel cylinder, where it forces the wheel cylinder piston
outwards. These pistons force the brake shoes out against the brake drums.

When brake pedal is released, the return spring quickly forces the master cylinder piston back
against the piston stops. Because the fluid in the lines returns rather slowly, a vacuum tends
to form in the cylinder in front of the piston. This causes the primary cup to collapse to allow
the liquid to flow from the reservoir through the filler port past the piston to fill the vacuum.
When the pedal is in “off” position, the liquid may flow from the reservoir through the relief
port in the master cylinder, supply lines and wheel cylinders to make up for any fluid that
may be lost or to compensate for shrinkage cooling of the liquid. In this way, a complete
column of liquid is always maintained in between the master cylinder piston and wheel
cylinder pistons.

1.6. PNEUMATIC BRAKING SYSTEM: