POWER QUALITY DISTURBANCES

POWER QUALITY DISTURBANCES

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter discusses the cause effect of several important types of power quality

problems. According to IEEE standard 1159 [90], power quality refers to a wide variety

of electromagnetic phenomena that characterize the voltage and current at a given time

and at a given location in the power system.

3.2 POWER SYSTEM DISTURBANCES - AN OVERVIEW

Power quality problems started since the inception of power systems [81]. In

1930’s, the main power quality problem was the light flicker due to mass- production

machinery. In 1950’s power quality problems came from air conditioners. In 1990’s, the

main problems exist in sensitive electronics, computers, power electronics and

microelectronics [83]. In a way, power electronics industry prospers on mismatch of

utility and customer standards. In most cases, power quality problems are caused by

improper wiring and grounding [82]. Power system disturbances are also caused by

natural disruptions (such as lightning strokes), large non linear loads (such as arc

furnace), large rotating loads (such as large motors) and electronic equipment.

Sometimes, some power quality problems are generated by temperature, humidity, radio

frequency interference, equipment EMI, corona, operator errors and software bugs. The

most frequent power quality problems include temporary and sustained voltage sags,

interruptions and harmonics [29]. The less frequent ones include high impedance faults,

low and high frequency oscillatory transients, voltage swells, switching transients,

lightning induced overvoltages, motor starting voltage sags and incipient faults.

32
3.3 POWER QUALITY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Standards Coordinating

Committee 22 (IEEE SCC 22) [92] comprising of Industrial Applications Society, Power

Engineering Society and the IEEE in association with liasoned International

Electrotechnical Commission(EEC) , International Conference on Large High Voltage

Electric Systems organized by CIGRE has framed the standards to coordinate power

quality [89]. The IEC classification of electromagnetic phenomena groups is listed in

table 3.1

Table 3.1 : Principle Phenomena Causing

Electromagnetic Disturbances
_________________ as Classified by the IEC__________
Conducted low frequency phenomena
• Harmonics, Interharmonics
• Signal systems (power line carrier)
• Voltage fluctuations
• Voltage dips and interruptions
• Voltage imbalance
• Power frequency variations
• Induced low frequency voltages
• Dc in ac networks
Radiated Low frequency phenomena
• Magnetic fields
• Electric fields
Conducted high frequency phenomena
• Induced continuous wave voltages or currents
• Unidirectional transients
• Oscillatory transients
Radiated high frequency phenomena
• Magnetic fields
• Electric fields
• Electromagnetic fields
• Continuous waves
• Transients
Electro static discharge phenomena (ESD)
Nuclear electromagnetic pulse(NEMP)_______________

33
 Table 3.2 shows the categorization of electromagnetic phenomena used for the

power quality community. The information regarding typical spectral content, duration

and magnitude for each category of electromagnetic phenomena [62] and also the

probable causes of occurrence of power system disturbances are listed in table 3.2. The

major power quality terms and definitions are listed in appendix A.

Table 3.2 Categorization of Electromagnetic Phenomena

TYPICAL TYPICAL
TYPICAL POSSIBLE
S.No. CATEGORIES SPECTRAL VOLTAGE
DURATION CAUSES
CONTENT MAGNITUDE

1 Transients

Impulsive
1.1 Transients Lightning

1.1.1 Nanosecond 5 ns rise <50 ns

1.1.2 Microsecond 1 psrise 50 ns - 1 ms
1.1.3 Millisecond 0.1 ms rise >1 ms
Oscillatory
1.2 Transients

Ferroresonance,
Very Low <300 Hz Transformer
1.2.1
Frequency Energisation

Low Frequency 0-4 pu Capacitor Bank

1.2.2 0.3 - 5KHz 0.3 - 50 ms
Energisation
Back to Back
Medium 20 ps 0-8 pu
1.2.3 5-500 KHz Capacitor
Frequency
Energisation
Switching Events
High
1.2.4 0.5-5 MHz 5 ps 0-4 pu RLC Snubber
Frequency
Circuits

34
 Short
2 Duration
Variations
2.1 Instantaneous
Power System
0.5-30 Faults
<0.1 pu
2.1.1 Interruption cycles Equipment Failures
<1 min Control
Malfunctions
Power System
Faults(slg),
Switching on
Heavy loads
Utility or Source
disturbances
Load Interaction
0.5 - 30 with Wiring
0.1-0.9 pu
2.1.2 Sag cycles (especially during
2 ms-1 min equipment Startup)
Load interaction
with voltage source
Impedance
Loose wiring
UPS or Motor-
Generator
Instability
Power System
Faults(slg),
Switching on
0.5 - 30 1.1-1.8 pu
2.1.3 Swell Heavy loads
cycles
Switching of a
large Capacitor
Banks
2.2 Momentary
30 cycles -
2.2.1 Interruption <0.1 pu
3s
30 cycles -
2.2.2 Sag 0.1-0.9pu
3s
30 cycles - 1.1-1.4 pu
2.2.3 Swell
3s
2.3 Temporary
2.3.1 Interruption 3 s - 1 min <0.1 pu
2.3.2 Sag 3 s - 1 min 0.1-0.9 pu
2.3.3 Swell 3 s - 1 min 1.1-1.2 pu

35
 Long
3 Duration
Variations
Short Term
Outages can be
caused by utility
breaker tripping to
clear a fault and
then reclosing
automatically. Long
Sustained term outages
3.1 Interruptions >1 min 0 pu typically result
from accidents
involving power
lines, utility
transformers, utility
power and
alternative power
source failures.

Load activation
Variations in the
reactive
compensation of
the system
(switching off a
capacitor bank),
utility brownouts,
Undervoltages
3.2 >1 min 0.8-0.9 pu incorrectly selected
transformer taps,
misadjusted voltage
regulators,
unintentional line
overloading on the
same transmission
line

Switching off of
loads, Variations in
the reactive
compensation of
the system
3.3 Overvoltages >1 min 1.1 -1.2 pu
(switching on a
capacitor bank) and
improperly adjusted
internal voltage
regulators.

36
 Voltage
4 Steady state 0.5 - 2%
imbalance
Magnitude Single phasing
4.1
Imbalance conditions, load
imbalance,
Phase excessive losses in
4.2
Imbalance the feeder circuit
conductors
Waveform
5
distortion
Geomagnetic
Disturbances,
Switching of a
synchronous
5.1 DC Offset Steady state 0 0.1 %
-
machine and
presence of
Switched Mode
Power Supplies.
Nonlinear devices
and loads on the
O-lOO"1 power systems such
0-20 % as computers ,
5.2 Harmonics harm Steady state
variable speed
drives, UPS,
electronic phone
systems.
Static Frequency
Converters, cyclo
0-2%
5.3 Interharmonics Steady state converters,
induction motors
and arcing devices.
Normal operation
of power electronic
devices at the
5.4 Notching 0-6 KHz Steady state instants of current
commutation from
one phase to
another.
Power electronic
devices, control
circuits, arcing
equipments, loads
5.5 Noise broadband Steady state 0-1%
with solid state
rectifiers and
switching power
supplies.

37
 Any load that has
significant current
Voltage variations,
6 <25 Hz Intermittent 0.1-7%
fluctuations especially in the
reactive component
such as arc furnaces
Faults on the bulk
power transmission
system, a large
Power
block of loads
7 freauencv <10s
being disconnected
variations
or a large source of
generation going
off-line.
Phase angle
controlled loads
(eg. SCR
Controlled Loads),
Repetitive
8 Variable Speed
Events
Drives, Large UPS
Systems, Light
Dimmers, Arc
Welders

For steady state phenomena, the attributes used are Amplitude, Frequency,

Spectrum, Modulation, Source impedance, Notch depth, Notch area and for the non

steady state phenomena, other attributes required are Rate of rise, Amplitude, Duration,

Spectrum, Frequency, Rate of occurrence, Energy potential, Source impedance. The

properties specified in table 3.2 along with attributes clearly describe power systems

disturbance.

3.4 SIMULATION OF POWER SYSTEM DISTURBANCE

SIGNALS
The power quality events are simulated using MATLAB programs and also the

simulink models were generated to simulate the disturbances like fault simulation,

switching characteristics, starting of large motors, converters and inverters etc.

38
3.4.1 Transients

The transients is an undesirable but momentary in nature. Another synonymous

term is a surge as the transient resulting from a lightning stroke for which a surge arrester

is used for protection. The transients are of two types: impulsive and oscillatory.

3.4.1.1 Impulsive Transients

An impulsive transients is a sudden, non-power frequency change in the steady

state condition of voltage, current or both, that is unidirectional in polarity. Impulsive

transients are normally characterized by their rise and decay times, which can also be

revealed by their spectral content. Common cause of impulsive transients is lightning. A

simulation of an impulsive transient is shown in figure 3.1 a -b.

Impulsive transient-medium
am plitude in pu

0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
time in ms

Fig. 3.1a Impulsive Transients Signal

39
 Impulsive transient-long

0 0.01 a02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
time in sec

Fig. 3.1 b Impulsive Transients Simulated Signal

3.4.1.2 Oscillatory Transients

An oscillatory transient is a sudden non power frequency change in the steady

state condition of voltage, current or both, that includes both positive and negative

polarity values. As the instantaneous changes are rapid, the spectral content (predominant

frequency), duration and magnitude are considered for the analysis.

This category of phenomena is frequently encountered on utility subtransmission

and distribution systems and is caused by many types of events. In distribution systems,

the oscillatory transients are due to transformer energisation and ferroresonance caused

due to the transformer inrush currents (2nd and 3rd harmonics).

40
 The most frequent is capacitor bank energisation, which typically results in an

oscillatory voltage transient with a primary frequency between 300 and 900 Hz. The peak

magnitude can approach between 1.3-1.5 p.u. with duration between 0.5 and 3 cycles

depending on the system damping. Transients caused by capacitor switching are shown in

fig. 3.2 a-d. The low frequency range is usually defined as 500 Hz to 2 kHz, and the high

frequency range is usually defined as greater than 2 kHz. The frequency of a transient is

determined mostly by the capacitance and inductance of system components. Capacitor

banks are commonly used in power systems for power factor correction. Major

consequences of capacitor switching events include insulation breakdown or spark over,

semiconductor device damage, short circuits and loss of data or stability [87].

capacitor switching
1.5
otn
am plitude in pu

0.5
-

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450

time in ms

Fig. 3.2 a - Capacitor Switching Event

41
 Oscillatory transient-short duration(300 Hz)
amplitude in pu

0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
time in s

Fig. 3.2 b Short Duration Oscillatory Transients

Fig. 3.2 c Short Duration Oscillatory Transients

42
 Fig. 3.2 d Short Circuit Waveform Assuming the Short Circuit is Applied at the
Instant when the Rotor Direct Axis is along the Magnetic Axis of 0° phase angle

3.4.2 Short Duration Voltage Variations

This category covers the IEC category of voltage dips and short interruptions.

Depending on the duration of the voltage variations, the variations can be designated as

instantaneous, momentary or temporary. Short duration voltage variations are caused by

fault conditions, the energisation of large loads which require high starting currents, or

intermittent loose connections in power wiring. Depending on the fault locations and the

system conditions, the fault can cause either temporary voltage drops(sags), or voltage

rise(swell) or a complete loss of voltage (interruptions). The fault condition can be close

to or remote from the point of interest. In either case, the impact on the voltage during the

43
actual fault condition is of short duration variation until protective devices operate to

clear the fault. The simulations are shown in fig. 3.3 a-c

Fig. 3.3 a - Phase to Ground Fault With Single Pole Reclosing

44
 500

Vci
__ l 0
volt

-500

Ij
Bus voltage
Fig. 3.3 c System Transients with Temporary Overvoltage

From the fig. 3.3 c it is observed that initially the bus experiences a high overvoltage due

to the system ringing. The system ringing is the result of resonance between the bus

capacitance and the line inductance. This part of the response decays according to the

system damping determined by the line resistance. As the system approaches steady

state, the bus experiences a sustained overvoltage that is due to excessive reactive power

production by the bus capacitor. This temporary overvoltage increases the requirements

for the arrester energy.

3.4.2.1 Interruption

An interruption occur when the supply voltage or load current decreases

to less than 0.1 pu for a period of time not exceeding 1 minute. Interruptions can be the

result of power system faults, equipment failures and control malfunctions. The

interruptions are measured by their duration since the voltage magnitude is always less

than 10% of nominal. The duration of an interruption due to a fault on the utility system

is determined by the operating time of utility protective devices [45]. The table 3.3 and

45
fig 3.4 shows the diagrammatic chart representations of the site survey. The table 3.3 lists

the number of interruptions that occurred at customer points at Peelamedu Substation.

Table 3.3 Number of Interruptions At Customer Point - A survey

Year Customer
point
interruption
1992 1.05
1993 1.18
1994 0.7
1995 0.98
1996 0.9
1997 1.2
1998 1.17
1999 0.6
2000 0.9

Fig. 3.4 Diagrammatic Representation of the Interruptions that occur

Instantaneous reclosing generally will limit the interruption caused by a non

permanent fault to less than 30 cycles. Delayed reclosing of the protective device may

cause a momentary or temporary interruption and is shown in fig.3.5 - fig. 3.8.

46
Fig. 3.5 Momentary Interruptions - long duration

47
 momentary interruptions
amplitude in pu

Fig. 3.7 Momentary Interruptions - Short Duration

Fig.3.8 Breaker Recovery Voltage

 The duration of an interruption due to equipment malfunctions or loose

connections can be irregular. Some interruptions may be preceded by a voltage sag when

these interruptions are due to faults on the source system. The voltage sag occurs between

the time a fault initiates and the protective device operates and is shown in fig. 3.9.

momentary interruptions

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

time in ms

Fig. 3.9 The Voltage Sag at the Initiation of a Fault and the Protective Device Operates

49
3.42.2 Sag (dips)

A sag is a decrease to between 0.1 and 0.9 pu in rms voltage or current at the

power frequency for durations from 0.5 cycles to 30 cycles. Voltage sags are usually

associated with system faults but can also be caused by energisation of heavy loads or

starting of large motors [54]. Momentary sags (2 to 5 seconds) are usually due to cleared

faults, while sustained sags lasting over 1 minute are usually due to permanent faults or

switching on heavy loads.

Sags may interrupt automated manufacturing processes, which leads to many

hours of downtime and loses millions of dollars for wasting materials on the fabrication.

Table 3.4 gives a few important voltage sag diagnostic examples [12].

Table 3.4 Voltage Sag Diagnostic examples

Symptom Possible Source

Periodic sags with high resistive currents Laser Printer, Copier, Fax

LL Voltage dropped to LG voltage LG Fault

If lasted less than 2 cycles Fuse operated

Quick voltage drop followed by a slow increase Motor Startup

Decrease in load current with a minor voltage sag Electronic load

The common solutions for sags include repairing wiring, replacing faulty

breakers, adding larger wiring, installing voltage regulator or power conditioner for small

sags, adding UPS, ferroresonant transformers, etc., Figures 3.10-3.12 shows the different

simulations which generate sag signals.

50
 Sag-short duration

Fig. 3.10 A simulated Sag Signal

Sag-short duration

Fig. 3.11 A Simulated Short Duration Sag Signal

51
 momentary interruptions along with sag
9
CO

0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
time in m

Fig. 3.12 Momentary Interruptions along with Sag Occurrence

3.4.2.3 Swell

A swell is defined as an increase to between 1.1 and 1.8 pu in rms voltage or

current at the power frequency for durations from 0.5 cycles to 1 minute. As with sags,

swells are associated with system fault conditions. When a SLG fault occurs, voltage

swell is induced in the unfaulted phases. Swells are also caused by switching off a large

load or energizing a large capacitor bank. Swells are characterized by their magnitude

and duration. The severity of a voltage swell during a fault condition is a function of the

fault location, system impedance and grounding. On an ungrounded system, with an

infinite zero sequence impedance, the line to ground voltages on the ungrounded phases

52
will be 1.73 pu during a SLG fault condition and is shown in fig. 3.13. Close to the

substation on a grounded system, there will be little or no voltage rise on the unfaulted

phase because the substation transformer is usually connected delta-wye, providing a low

impedance zero - sequence path for the fault current. Fig. 3.14 shows a short duration

swell simulated signal.

Swell-short duration

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

time in m

Fig. 3.13 A Simulated Short Duration Swell Signal

53
 Swell-short duration

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

time in m

Fig. 3.14 A Simulated Swell Signal During the Fault Condition

3.4.3 Long Duration Voltage Variations

Long Duration Voltage Variations either overvoltages or undervoltages take in

root mean square deviations at power frequencies for longer than 1 minute. The voltage

variations are caused by load variations on the system and system switching operations.

3.4.3.1 Overvoltage

An overvoltage is an increase in the rms ac voltage greater than 110% at the

power frequency for a duration longer than 1 minute. Overvoltages are usually the result

of load switching (e.g., switching off a large load, or energizing a capacitor bank). If the

54
system is either too weak for the desired voltage regulation or voltage controls are

inadequate, the system leads to overvoltages. Incorrect tap settings on transformers can

also result in system overvoltages. Fig. 3.15 - 3.16 shows the overvoltage caused due to

inductive current chopper action.

Fig 3.15 Overvoltages due to Inductive Current Chopping

lAmpttude

Fig. 3.16 Inductive Current Chopping by an Ideal Switch

55
3.4.3.2 Undervoltages

An undervoltage is a decrease in the rms ac voltage to less than 90% at the power

frequency for a duration longer than 1 minute. Undervoltages are the result of the events

that cause overvoltages. A load switching on or a capacitor bank switching off can cause

an undervoltage until voltage regulation equipment on the system can bring the voltage

back to within tolerances. Overloaded circuits can also result in undervoltages. The term

brownout is often used to describe sustained periods of undervoltage initiated as a

specific utility dispatch strategy to reduce power demand [38],

3.4.3.3 Sustained Interruptions

When the supply voltage is zero for a period of time in excess of 1 minute, the

long duration voltage variation is considered as sustained interruptions. Voltage

interruptions more than 1 minute are often permanent and require human intervention to

repair the system for restoration.

3.4.4 Voltage Imbalance

Voltage imbalance is defined as the maximum deviation from the average of the

three phase voltages or currents, divided by the average of the three phase voltages or

currents, expressed in percentage. Imbalance is defined using the symmetrical

components. The ratios between the symmetrical components are used to specify the

percent of unbalance.

The primary source of voltage imbalance less than two percent is single phase

loads on a three phase circuit. Voltage imbalance can also be the result of blown fuses in

56
one phase of a three phase capacitor bank [88]. Severe voltage imbalance (greater than

5% ) can result from single phasing conditions. Figs.3.17-3.20 shows the unbalance

conditions simulated under different instances.

mpMude

Fig. 3.18 Voltage Imbalance Caused due to Single Phase Fault

57
 Amplitude in pu

Fig. 3.19 Voltage Imbalance due to the Presence of Harmonics

Fig. 3.20 Phase Shifted Signal

58
3.4.5 Waveform Distortion

Waveform Distortion is defined as a steady state deviation from an ideal sine

wave of power frequency principally characterized by the spectral content of the

deviation. The primary types of waveform distortion are

• dc offset
• Harmonics
• Interharmonics
• Notching
• Noise

3.4.5.1 DC offset

The presence of a dc voltage or current in an ac power system is termed dc offset.

This can occur as the result of a geomagnetic disturbance or due to the effect of half wave

rectification. Incandescent light bulb life extenders, for example, may consist of diodes

that reduce the rms voltage supplied to the light bulb by half wave rectification. Direct

current in alternating current networks can have a harmful effect by biasing transformer

cores so that they saturate in normal operation. This causes additional heating and loss of

transformer life. Direct current may also cause the electrolytic erosion of grounding

electrodes and other connectors. Fig. 3.21 shows the transient phenomenon of the

synchronous machine with and without dc offset.

59
 current waveform with no dc offset and with maximum dc offset

Fig. 3. 21 Current Waveform with no dc Offset and with Maximum dc Offset

3.45.2 Harmonics

Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies that are integral

multiples of the frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate. Harmonic

distortion levels are described by the complete harmonic spectrum with magnitudes and

phase angles of each individual harmonic component. Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)

is a measure of the effective value of harmonic distortion [3]. Fig. 3.22 - Fig. 3.25 shows

sample waveforms of these events recorded from real systems. The simulink models are

shown in appendix B. It represents the waveform affected by harmonics. Harmonics

distortion is the most frequently encountered power quality problem. Because of the

60
 increasing popularity of electronic and other non-linear loads, such as adjustable-speed

drives, arc furnaces, and induction furnaces, perfect sinusoid waveforms often become

distorted by both even and odd harmonics. Transformer core saturation is another cause

of harmonic distortion. Major consequences of harmonics include equipment

overheating, excessive currents and voltage, and tripping of protective relays [67].

Fig. 3.22 Harmonics waveform

Load Current in Amoeres

i i v Ti m* i i

Fig. 3.23 Harmonics with inverter load

61
 bus voltage
Amplitude in p u

Fig. 3.25 Harmonics Generated Due to Energisation of a Three Phase Saturable

Transformer

62
3.4.5.3 Interharmonics

Interharmonics are voltages or currents having frequencies that are not integral

multiples of the frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate. They can

appear as discrete frequencies or as a wide band spectrum. Interharmonics can be found

in networks of all voltages classes [79]. The main sources of interharmonic waveform

distortion are static frequency converters, cycloconverters, induction motors and arcing

devices. Power line carrier signals can also be considered as interharmonics. Fig. 3.26

shows a signal that involves interharmonics. Fig. 3.27 shows a harmonic signal measured

from a drive that contains both interharmonics and subharmonic contents. The details are

given in appendix B.

harmonics
amplitude in pu

' 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.02S 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
time in ms

Fig. 3.26 Harmonics along with Interharmonic contents

63
Fig. 3.27 Harmonic Signal Measured from a Drive that Contains both Interharmonics and
Subharmonics Contents

3.4.5.4 Notching

Notching is a periodic voltage disturbance caused by the normal operation of

power electronics devices when current is commutated from one phase to another. Since

notching occurs continuously, it can be characterized through the harmonic spectrum of

the affected voltage. Fig. 3.28 shows a simulated notch signal.

64
 Notching
oin
amplitude in pu
o
9
m

' 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
time in msec

Fig. 3.28 Notching Signal

3.4.5.S Noise

Noise is defined as the unwanted electrical signals with broadband spectral

content lower than 200 KHz superimposed upon the power system voltage or current in

phase conductors, or found on neutral conductors or signal lines. Noise in power systems

is caused by power electronic devices, control circuits, arcing equipments, loads with

solid state rectifiers, switching power supplies.

65
3.4.6 Voltage Fluctuations

Voltage Fluctuations are systematic variations of the voltage envelope or a series

of random voltage changes, the magnitude of which does not normally exceed the voltage

ranges of 0.9 - 1.1 pu. Fig. 3.29 and Fig. 3.30 shows a measured high and low frequency

flicker waveform.

Fig. 3.29 High Frequency Flicker Waveform

66
 low frequency flicker
Ol
o
amplitude in pu

O
tfl
6

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

time in sec

Fig. 3.30 Low Frequency Flicker Waveform

3.4.7 Power Frequency Variations

Power frequency variations are defined as the deviation of the power system

fundamental frequency from its specified nominal value. The Power frequency variations

are directly related to the rotational speed of the generators supplying the system. There

arc slight variations in frequency as the dynamic balance between load and generation

changes. The size of the frequency shift and its duration depends on the load

characteristics and the response of the generation control systems to load changes.

Frequency variations that go outside of accepted limits for normal steady state operation

of the power system can be caused by faults on the bulk power transmission system, a

large block of load being disconnected, or a large source of generation going offline.

67
3.4.8 Repetitive Events

Phase angle controlled loads (eg. SCR Controlled Loads), Variable Speed Drives,

Large UPS Systems, Light Dimmers, Arc Welders causes repetitive events. Fig. 3.31

shows a signal that is repetitive in nature. The events may be periodic or aperiodic or

sporadic occurrence.

Fig. 3.31 Repetitive Events

3.5 MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF POWER QUALITY EVENTS

The mathematical model developed to simulate the power systems disturbance

waveforms are listed in Table 3.5 along with its controlling parameters.

68
Table 3.5 Mathematical Models Used To Simulate The Power Quality Events
S.NO. EVENT CONTROLLING EQUATIONS
PARAMETERS
1 Pure Sine F = 50 Hz V(t) = sin(cot)
V= 230 V
2 Sudden Sag 0.1 <a <0.9 V(t)=A[ 1 -a(u(t2)-u(ti))] sin(cot)
t<t2-ti<9t
3 Sudden Swell 0.1 <a <0.9 V(t)=A[ 1 +a(u(t2)-u(ti))] sin(tot)
t<t2-ti<9t
4 Harmonics 0.1<a3<0.9 V(t)=A[ ai sin((ot) + a3 sin(3tot) +
0.1<a5<0.9 as sin(5tot) + a7 sin(7o)t)]
0.1<a7<0.9
Ia,2=l
5 Flicker 0.1 <a <0.2 V(t)=A[ 1 +asin(p(ot)] sin(tot)
0.1 <3 <0.5
6 Oscillatory 0.1 <a <0.9 V(t)=A[sin(0)t)+a sin(0)n (t-
Transients 0.5t<t2-ti <3t ti)) (u(t2)-u(ti)) ]
0.1 <x <0.2
7 Notch Vb=230 V, fb=50Hz, V(t)=V2Vb sin(2 7t fb t) + Vn
Vn= Notch Signal
8 Outage 0.9<a<l V(t)=A[ 1 -a(u(t2)-u(ti))]
t<t2-ti<9t
9 Sag with 0.1<a<0.9 V(t)=A[ 1 -a(u(t2)-u(ti))]
harmonics t<t2-ti<9t (sin(cot)+ a3 sin(3a)t) + as sin(5cot)
0.05<a3<0.15 +...]
0.05<as<0.15
10 Swell with 0.1 <a <0.8 V^ACl+aCufel-udO)]
harmonics t<t2-ti<9t (sinftot) + a3 sin(3tot) + as sin(5a>t)
0.05 <a3 <0.15 +...]
0.05<as<0.15

3.6 CONCLUSION

The different power system disturbances have been simulated using MATLAB

mathematical models in a m-file, simulink models, power sight manager [97], mathcad

tools. The disturbances simulated are pure and also with an addition of noise upto the

level of 3db SNR.

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