Control Engineering -15ME73 2018

MODULE 5

SYSTEM COMPENSATION AND STATE VARIABLE

CHARACTERISTICS OF LINEAR SYSTEMS

LESSON STRUCTURE:
5.1. Introduction:
5.2. System Compensation
5.3. Basic Characteristics of Lead, Lag and Lag-Lead Compensation:
5.4. Lag Compensator
5.5. Lead Compensator
5.6. Lag-Lead Compensator
5.7. Introduction to state concepts:
5.8. Matrix representation of state equations
5.9. State controllability
5.9.1. Kalman test for state controllability
5.9.2. Gilbert's test for state controllability

OBJECTIVES:
 In order to obtain the desired performance of the system, we use compensating networks.
Compensating networks are applied to the system in the form of feed forward path gain
adjustment.
 To demonstrate to compensate a unstable system to make it stable.
 To demonstrate State controllability.

5.1. Introduction:

Automatic control systems have played a vital role in the advancement of science and
engineering. In addition to its extreme importance in sophisticated systems in Space vehicles,
missile- guidance, aircraft navigating systems, etc., automatic control system as become an
important and integral part of manufacturing and industrial processes. Control of process
parameters like pressure, temperature, flow, viscosity, speed, humidity, etc., in process
engineering and tooling, handling and assembling mechanical parts in manufacturing industries
among others in engineering field where automatic control systems are inevitable part of the
system.

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A control system is designed and constructed to perform specific functional task. The
concept of control system design starts by defining the output variable( Speed, Pressure,
Temperature Etc.,) and then determining the required specification ( Stability, Accuracy, and
speed of response). In the design process the designs must first select the control Media and then
the control elements to meet the designed ends.
In actual practice several alternative can be analyzed and a final judgment can be made an
overall performances and economy.

Systems have been categorized as manual and automatic systems. Based on the type of
control needed most systems are categorized as - Manual & Automatic. In applications where
systems are to be operated with limited or no supervision, then systems are made automatic and
where system needs supervision the system is designed as manual. In the present-day context
most of the systems are designed as automatic systems for which one of the important
considerations was economics. However, the necessity for the system to be made as an automatic
system is to make sure that the system performs with no scope for error which otherwise is prone
to a lot of errors especially in the operations. Other classification of a system is based on the
input and output relationships. Accordingly, in an Open Loop Control System the output is
independent of the input and in a closed loop control system the output is dependant on the input.
The term input refers to reference variable and the output is referred to as Controlled variable.
Most of the systems are designed as closed loop systems where a feedback path with an element
with a transfer function would help in bridging the relationship between the input and the output.
A system can be represented by the block diagram and from a s imple to a complicated
system, reduction techniques can be used to obtain the overall transfer function of the system.
Overall system Transfer function can also be obtained by another technique using signal flow
analysis where the transfer function of the system is obtained from Mason‟s gain formula. Once
the system is designed, the response of the system may be obtained based on the type of input.
This is studied in two categories of response namely response of the systemic time domain and
frequency domain. The system thus conceived and designed needs to be analyzed based on the
same domains. At this stage the systems are studied from the point of view of its operational
features like Stability, Accuracy and Speed of Response. Development of various systems have
been continuous and the history of the same go back to the old WATT‟S

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Speed Governor, which was considered as an effective means of speed regulation. Other control
system examples are robot arm, Missile Launching and Guidance System, Automatic Aircr aft
Landing System, Satellite based digital tracking systems,etc to name a few. In the design of the
control systems, three important requirements are considered namely STABILITY,
ACCURACY and SPEED OF RESPONSE.
Stable Systems are those where response to input must reach and maintain some useful
value with in a reasonable period of time. The designed systems should both be Unstable
Systems as unstable control systems produce persistent or even violent oscillations of the output
and output will be driven to some extreme limiting value.
Systems are also designed to meet certain levels of Accuracy. This is a relative term with limits
based upon a particular application. A time measurement system may be from a simple watch to
a complicated system used in the sports arena. But the levels of accuracy are different in both
cases. One used in sports arena must have very high levels of sophistication and must be reliable
showing no signs of variations. However, this feature of the system is purely based on the system
requirement. For a conceived, designed and developed system, the higher the levels of Accuracy
expected, higher is the Cost.
The third important requirement comes by way of SPEED OF RESPONSE. System must
complete its response to some input within an acceptable period of time. System has no value if
the time required to respond fully to some input is far greater than the time interval between
inputs
5.2. System Compensation
Compensation is the minor adjustment of a system in order to satisfy the given
specifications. Specification refers to the objective of a system to perform and obtain the
expected output after the system is provided with a proper input. Some of the needs o f the
system compensation are as specified.

5.3. Basic Characteristics Of Lead, Lag And Lag-Lead Compensation:

R(S) C(S)
COMPENSATOR PLAN T

FEEDBACK ELELMENT

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Lead compensation essentially yields an appropriate improvement in transient resonse and a

small imrovement in steady state accuracy. Lag compensation on the other hand, yields an
appreciable improvement in steady state accuracy ast the expense of increasing theh transient
responsetime. Lag- lead compensation combines the characterisitcs of both lead compensation
and lag compensation. The use of a lag- lead compensator raises the order of the system by two
(unless cancellation occurs between the zeroes of the lag- lead network and the poles of the
uncompensated open- loop transfer function), which means that the system becomes more
complex and it is more difficult to control the transient response behavior. The particular
situation determines the type of the compensation to be used.

5.4. Lag Compensator

The Lag Compensator is an electrical network which produces a sinusoidal output having the
phase lag when a sinusoidal input is applied. The lag compensator circuit in the ‘s’ domain is
shown in the following figure.

Here, the capacitor is in series with the resistor R2 and the output is measured across this
combination.

The transfer function of this lag compensator is –

From the above equation, α is always greater than one. We know that, the phase of the output
sinusoidal signal is equal to the sum of the phase angles of input sinusoidal signal and the

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transfer function. So, in order to produce the phase lag at the output of this compensator, the
phase angle of the transfer function should be negative. This will happen when α>1.

5.5. Lead Compensator

The lead compensator is an electrical network which produces a sinusoidal output having phase
lead when a sinusoidal input is applied. The lead compensator circuit in the ‘s’ domain is shown
in the following figure.

Here, the capacitor is parallel to the resistor R 1and the output is measured across resistor
$R_2. The transfer function of this lead compensator is –

We know that, the phase of the output sinusoidal signal is equal to the sum of the phase
angles of input sinusoidal signal and the transfer function. nSo, in order to produce the phase
lead at the output of this compensator, the phase angle of the transfer function should be positive.
This will happen when 0<β<1. Therefore, zero will be nearer to origin in pole-zero
configuration of the lead compensator.

5.6. Lag-Lead Compensator

Lag-Lead compensator is an electrical network which produces phase lag at one frequency
region and phase lead at other frequency region. It is a combination of both the lag and the lead
compensators. The lag-lead compensator circuit in the ‘s’ domain is shown in the following
figure.

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This circuit looks like both the compensators are cascaded. So, the transfer function of this
circuit will be the product of transfer functions of the lead and the lag compensators.

5.7. Introduction to state concepts:

As we know from previous chapters evaluation of control system can be broadly classified as
Classical method and Modern methods. For Simple Input Output (SIO) systems classical method
can be easily adopted and can be analysed by developing mathematical models. But for Multiple
Input Multiple Output (MIMO) systems classical methods was quite difficult to analyse and it
was time consuming since classical method analysis one loop at a time. Hence Modern method
came into existence where the system under consideration can be analysed in time domain
format. Modern methods which involves direct time domain analysis and also provides a basis
for system optimization is known as state variable approach. State variable models are basically
time domain models which involve the analysis and study of linear and nonliner, time invariant
or time varying multi input multi output control system.

Some of the advantages of state variables analysis are

a. It can be applied to non linear system

b. It can be applied to time invariant system

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c. It can be applied to multiple input multiple output system

d. It gives the idea about the internal state of the system.

5.8. Matrix representation of state equations

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5.9. State controllability:

In control system analysis, we must be clear with the two conditions for deciding output of a
system does the solution of the control system exists at not. They are

1. Is it possible to transfer the system under consideration from any initial state to desired state
by the application of suitable control force with the specified time?

2. Is it possible to determine the initial stats of the system if the output vector is known for a
finite length of time.

The answer for these questions can be justified by using state controllability and observability.
Hence, controllability can be defined as,

The system is said to be completely controllable if it is possible to transfer the system state from
any initial state x(t0) to any other desired state x(tf) in a specified finite time interval (t0 ≤ t ≤ tp)
by unconstrained control vector U(T).

Otherwise the system is not completely state controllable.

Consider a multiple input linear time invariant system represented by its state equations as

x(t) = AX(t)+ BU(t)

where, A is (n x n) order state matrix

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B is (n x m) order input matrix

U(t) is (mx1) input vector

X(t) is (n x 1) state vector

The state controllability tests can be performed by two methods, they are

1. Kalman's test for controllability : This method is applicable for any matrix A either matrix
A is canonical form or otherwise.

2. Gilberth's test for controllability : This method is based on converting the matrix A into the
diagonal canonical form and later it is used to determine the state controllability of the system.

5.9.1. Kalman test for state controllability

If the nth order multiple input linear time invariant system represented by state equation as

X = AX(t) + BU(t)

where A is (n x n) order matrix then controllability matrix (Qc) of the size n (n x m) can be given
as

QC = [B AB A2B A3B ..... An-1 B]

The system is said to be controllable if the rank of the controllability matrix (Qc) is 'n' then the
determined of order (n x n) of any sub matrix of Qc has non zero value. Also if the rank of the
controllability matrix (Qc) is less than (n), then the system is not completely state controllable.

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5.9.2. Gilbert's test for state controllability

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OUTCOMES:
At the end of the module, the students are able to:
 obtain the desired performance of the system, we use compensating networks.
Compensating networks are applied to the system in the form of feed forward path gain
adjustment.
 Differentiate different types of compensators.
 Concepts of state controllability.

SELF-TEST QUESTIONS:
1. Define compensators. What is the need of compensators in a system.
2. Explain with a sketch Lag compensator.
3. Explain with a sketch Lead compensator.
4. Explain with a sketch Lag-Lead compensator.
5. Explain basic components of Lag - Lead compensator.
6. Obtain State model for the equation 𝐲⃛ + 𝟑𝐲̈ + 𝟐𝐲̇ + 𝐲 = 𝐫(𝐭).
7. Obtain State model for the equation ⃛𝐲 + 𝟔𝐲̈ + 𝟏𝟐𝐲̇ + 𝟖𝐲 = 𝟑𝐔(𝐭).

8. Find the controllability of linear dynamic time invariant system by Kalman’s

controllability test.
−𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
𝑿̇ = [ ]X + [ ] 𝑼.
𝟏 −𝟐 𝟎
9. Find the controllability of linear dynamic time invariant system by Gilberth
controllability test.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑿̇ = [ ]X + [ ] 𝑼
𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎

FURTHER READING:
1. Control engineering, Swarnakiran S, Sunstar publisher, 2018.
2. Feedback Control System, Schaum’s series. 2001.

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