Overview

¨  Memory definitions

¨  Random Access Memory (RAM)

¨  Static RAM (SRAM) integrated circuits

¤  Cells and slices
¤  Cell arrays and coincident selection

¨  Arrays of SRAM integrated circuits

¨  Dynamic RAM (DRAM) integrated circuits

¨  DRAM Types

Memory Definitions
¨  Memory ─ A collection of storage cells together with the
necessary circuits to transfer information to and from them.
¨  Memory Organization ─ the basic architectural structure
of a memory in terms of how data is accessed.
¨  Random Access Memory (RAM) ─ a memory organized
such that data can be transferred to or from any cell (or
collection of cells) in a time that is not dependent upon the
particular cell selected.
¨  Memory Address ─ A vector of bits that identifies a
particular memory element (or collection of elements).
Memory Definitions (Continued)
¨  Typical data elements are:
¤  bit ─ a single binary digit
¤  byte ─ a collection of eight bits accessed together
¤  word ─ a collection of binary bits whose size is a
typical unit of access for the memory. It is typically a
power of two multiple of bytes (e.g., 1 byte, 2 bytes, 4
bytes, 8 bytes, etc.)
¨  Memory Data ─ a bit or a collection of bits to be
stored into or accessed from memory cells.
¨  Memory Operations ─ operations on memory
data supported by the memory unit. Typically,
read and write operations over some data element
(bit, byte, word, etc.).
Memory Organization
¨  Organized as an indexed array of words. Value of the index
for each word is the memory address.
¨  Often organized to fit the needs of a particular computer
architecture. Some historically significant computer
architectures and their associated memory organization:
¤  Digital Equipment Corporation PDP-8 – used a 12-bit address to
address 4096 12-bit words.
¤  IBM 360 – used a 24-bit address to address 16,777,216 8-bit bytes,
or 4,194,304 32-bit words.
¤  Intel 8080 – (8-bit predecessor to the 8086 and the current Intel
processors) used a 16-bit address to address 65,536 8-bit bytes.
Memory Block Diagram
¨  A basic memory system is shown here:
¨  k address lines are decoded to address 2k words of
memory.
¨  Each word is n bits.
¨  Read and Write are single control lines defining the
simplest of memory operations.
 Memory Organization Example
¨  Example memory
contents:
¤  A memory with 3
address bits & 8 data
bits has:
¤  k = 3 and n = 8 so 23
= 8 addresses labeled
0 to 7.
¤  23 = 8 words of 8-bit
data
Basic Memory Operations
¨  Memory operations require the following:
¤  Data ─ data written to, or read from, memory as required
by the operation.
¤  Address ─ specifies the memory location to operate on.
The address lines carry this information into the memory.
Typically: n bits specify locations of 2n words.
¤  An operation ─ Information sent to the memory and
interpreted as control information which specifies the type
of operation to be performed. Typical operations are
READ and WRITE. Others are READ followed by WRITE
and a variety of operations associated with delivering
blocks of data. Operation signals may also specify timing
info.
 Control Inputs to a Memory Chip
¨  Read Memory ─ an operation that reads a data value stored in
memory:
¤  Place a valid address on the address lines.
¤  Wait for the read data to become stable.
¨  Write Memory ─ an operation that writes a data value to
memory:
¤  Place a valid address on the address lines and valid data on the data
lines.
¤  Toggle the memory write control line
¨  Chip Select ─ to enable the particular RAM chip or chips
containing the word to select.
Memory Operation
¨  The operation of memory unit is controlled bt an external
device, such as a CPU.
¨  The access time of a memory read operation is the maximum
time from the application fo the adress to the appeareance of
the data at the Data Output.
¨  The write cycle time is the maximum time from the application
of the address to the completion of all internal memory
operationss at the intervals of the cycle time.
¨  As an example: a CPU operates 50 MHz, giving a period of
20 ns for one clock pulse. The CPU communicates with a
memory with an access time of 65 ns and write cycle time of
75 ns.
 Memory Operation
C
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Memory Cycle Timing
8 Waveforms. Four
11 pulses T1, T2,T3, and
T4 with a cycle of 20
ns.
Chapter 8
RAM Integrated Circuits
12

¨  Types of random access memory

¤  Static – information stored in latches
¤  Dynamic – information stored as electrical charges on
capacitors
n  Charge “leaks” off
n  Periodic refresh of charge required

¨  Dependence on Power Supply

¤  Volatile – loses stored information when power turned off
¤  Non-volatile – retains information when power turned off
Chapter 8
Static RAM Cell
13

¨  The internal structure of a RAM chip of m words

with n bits per word cobsists og an array of mn
binary storage cells and associated circuitry.
¨  The RAM cell is the basic binary storage
elenmets used in the RAM chip.
¨  Storage Cell
¤  SR Latch
¤  Select input for
control
¤  Dual Rail Data
Inputs B and B’
¤  Dual Rail Data
Outputs C and C’
 Static RAM Bit Slice
C
¨  Represents all ncircuitry that is
ha
required for 2 1-bit words
pt ¤  Multiple RAM cells
er ¤  Control Lines:
8 n  Word select i
– one for each word
14 n  Read/Write.
n  Bit Select
¤  Data Lines:
n  Data in
n  Data out
Chapter 8
2n-Word × 1-Bit RAM IC
15

¨  To build a RAM IC

from a RAM slice,
we need:
¤  Decoder : decodes
the n address lines to
2n word select lines
¤  A 3-state buffer on the data output
permits RAM ICs to
be combined into a
RAM with c × 2n words
 Cell Arrays and Coincident Selection
Chapter 8
16

¨  Memory arrays can be very large =>

¤  Large decoders
¤  Large fanouts for the bit lines
¤  The decoder size and fanouts can be reduced by
approximately n by using a coincident selection in
a 2-dimensional array
¤  Uses two decoders, one for words and one for bits
¤  Word select becomes Row select
¤  Bit select becomes Column select

¨  See next slide for example

¤  A3 and A2 used for Row select
¤  A1 and A0 for Column select
 Cell Arrays and Coincident Selection (continued)
Chapter 8
17

¨  Diagram of 16x1

RAM Using a 4 x 4
RAM Cell Array
¤  For example, for the
address 1001, the
first two address bits
are decoded to
select row 10 , the
sonce two address
bits are decoded to
selcet column 01 of
the array.
 Cell Arrays and Coincident Selection (continued)
Chapter 8
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¨  Diagram of 8x2

RAM Using a 4 x 4
RAM Cell Array
¤  For example, for the
address 3 (011), the
first two address bits
are decoded to
select row 1, the final
bit,1, access column
1, which consists of
bit slices 2 and 3.
Array of SRAM ICs
¨  If the memory unit need for an application is larger than the
capacity of one chip, it is necessary to combine a number of
chips in an array to form the required size of a memory.
¤  An increase in the number of words requires that we increase the
address length.
¤  An increase in the number of bits per word requires that we increase
the number of data input and output lines.
¨  Using the CS lines, we can make larger memories from smaller
ones by trying all address, data, and R/W lines in parallel, and
using the decoded higher order address bits to control CS.
 Making Larger Memories
¨  Constructing a 256K x 8
RAM with four 64K x 8
RAM chips.
¨  256K-word memory
requires an 18-bit
address. The least 16
least significant bits are
applied to the address of
all four chips. The tow
most significant bits are
applied to a 2x4
decoder.
Chapter 8
Making Wider Memories
21

¨  To construct wider memories from narrow ones, we tie the

address and control lines in parallel and keep the data lines
separate.
¨  For example, two 64Kx8 chips can form a 64Kx16 memory.
Chapter 8
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
22

¨  Because of its ability to provide high storage capacity at low

cost, DRAM dominates the high capacity memory applications.
¨  Basic Principle: Storage of information on capacitors.
¨  DRAM Cell consits of a capacitor C and a transistor T.
¤  The capacitor is used to store electrical charge.
Sufficient charge à Logic 1, Insufficint charge à Logic 0
¤  Use of transistor as “switch” to:
n  Store charge
n  Charge or discharge
Chapter 8
Dynamic RAM - Bit Slice
23

¨  C is driven by 3-state Word

select
0
S elect

drivers B
D Q
C

¨  Sense amplifier is used C D R A M  cell

model
Word
select
0

to change the small Word

D R A M  cell

select
voltage change on C into S elect
1
D R A M  cell

H or L 2  1

D Q

¨  In the electronics, B, C, C D R A M  cell

2  1
D R A M  cell
model
and the sense amplifier R ead/W rite

output are connected to

logic

D ata  i n

make destructive read

S ense
amplifier D ata  o ut
D ata  i n R ead/ B it
W rite select

into non-destructive read (b)  S ymbol

W rite  l ogic
R ead  l ogic D ata  o ut
R ead/
B it
W rite select

(a)  L ogic  d iagram

Dynamic RAM

Block Diagram of a DRAM Including Refresh Logic

 DRAM Types
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