Journal of Science: Advanced Materials and Devices

Journal of Science: Advanced Materials and Devices 1 (2016) 1e17
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Science: Advanced Materials and Devices

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jsamd
Review article
Three-dimensional printing of biological matters

Ahmed Munaz a, Raja K. Vadivelu b, James St. John b, Matthew Barton c, Harshad Kamble a,
Nam-Trung Nguyen a, *
a
Queensland Micro- and Nanotechnology Centre, Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD, 4111, Australia
b
Eskitis Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD, 4111, Australia
c
Centre for Musculoskeletal Research, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD, 4111, Australia
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Three-dimensional (3D) printing of human tissues and organ has been an exciting research topic in the
Received 3 April 2016 past three decades. However, existing technological and biological challenges still require a significant
Accepted 6 April 2016 amount of research. The present review highlights these challenges and discusses their potential solu-
Available online 19 April 2016
tions such as mapping and converting a human organ onto a 3D virtual design, synchronizing the virtual
design with the printing hardware. Moreover, the paper discusses in details recent advances in formu-
Keywords:
lating bio-inks and challenges in tissue construction with or without scaffold. Next, the paper reviews
3D bio-printing
fusion processes effecting vascular cells and tissues. Finally, the paper deliberates the feasibility of organ
3D positioning system
Bio-ink
printing with state-of-the-art technologies.
Hydrogel © 2016 The Authors. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Vietnam National University, Hanoi.
3D scaffolds This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Organ construction
1. Introduction biological implants, through layer-by-layer patterning with ultra-

violet (UV) exposure of photoresist films [4].
The invention of the printing press changed the course of hu- A 3D printer can also dispense biological materials making bio-
man history. The disruptive technology of printing text and images printing possible. Generally, bio-printing can be achieved with
impacted society globally, acting as media for education, religion, layer-by-layer positioning of biomaterials as well as living cells. The
politics, language, and culture [1]. Since then, a number of in- precise spatial control of the functional materials allows for the
novations further enhanced the printing technologies. For example, fabrication of 3D tissue structures such as skin, cartilage, tendon,
the introduction of dot matrix printers revolutionized the con- cardiac muscle, and bone. The process starts with the selection of
sumer market, where a computer linked to a printer as its pe- the corresponding cells for the tissue [5]. Next, a viable bio-ink
ripheral device allowed desktop publishing and on-demand material is prepared from a suitable cell carrier and media.
printing, reducing cost and time. The advent of the Internet intro- Finally, the cells are printed for subsequent culture into the
duced further an advancement, which allows documents to be required dimensions. The several approaches of 3D bio-printing are
available anywhere and printed just by the click of the mouse. biomimicry, autonomous self-assembly and mini-tissue building
Personalised printing made education, scientific research and arts blocks [6]. In contrast to conventional 3D printing, 3D bio-printing
more accessible to the broad population. Table 1 lists the major is more complex in terms of the selection of materials, cell types,
milestones in the history of printing technology. Although Charles growth/differentiation factors, and sensitivity of the living cells
Hull first introduced in the late 1980 three-dimensional (3D) construction.
printing through the so-called stereo lithography technology, its A typical 3D bio-printing process consists of the pre-processing,
significance only started to materialise at the turn of the 21st processing and post-processing stages. Pre-processing consists of
century [2,3]. This versatile printing technology allows the fabri- the formation of an organ blueprint from a clinical bio-imaging
cation of a wide range of 3D objects, from electric components to system (i.e. MRI) and the conversion of this information into a
direct instruction software of the standard template library (STL)
for the printing hardware, which includes but is not limited to a
* Corresponding author. series of integrated tools such as automated robotic tools, 3D
E-mail address: nam-trung.nguyen@griffith.edu.au (N.-T. Nguyen). positioning systems with printing head, ink reservoir, nozzle
Peer review under responsibility of Vietnam National University, Hanoi.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsamd.2016.04.001
2468-2179/© 2016 The Authors. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of Vietnam National University, Hanoi. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
2 A. Munaz et al. / Journal of Science: Advanced Materials and Devices 1 (2016) 1e17
Table 1
Major milestones of the history of printing technology.
Milestone Year (CE) Details
Book printing 200 Woodblock printing used in China.

1040 Letters rearranged for each page in movable typing.
1440 Printing press introduced by Johannes Gutenberg.
1884 Introduction of hot metal type setting.
1907 George C. Beidler invented the Photostat machine.
Desktop printing 1968 Dot matrix printing invented by Digital Equipment Corporation.
1970 Inkjet printing produced by Epson, Hewlett-Packard, Cannon.
1979 Laser printer developed by HP for desktop.
3D printing 1984 3D printing invented by Charles Hull called stereo-lithography.
1991 Word's first fused deposition modelling (FDM) invented by stratasys that uses plastic and an extruder to make 3D model.
1992 Selective laser sintering machine (SLS) invented by DTM using power with laser to print the 3D model.
2000 3D ink jet printer and multi-colour printer produced. Following year, desktop 3D printer introduced.
2009 Commercial 3D printer available to market.
systems, video cameras, fiberoptic light sources, temperature con- (Dallas, United states) are some of the commercially available Bio-
trollers, piezo electric humidifiers, and integrated controlling CAD packages. The Bio-CAD software visualizes 3D anatomic
software. structures, differentiates heterogeneous tissue types, measures and
The processing stage is the actual printing session of the bio-ink differentiates vascular and nerve tissues and generates the desired
using the bio-printers. The processing stage includes bio-ink computational tissue model [13]. A specialized software such as
preparation, clinical cell sorters (e.g. Celution, Cytori therapeu- Rhinoceros 4.0 (real time simulation integrated with MATLAB/
tics), cell propagation bioreactors (e.g. Aastrom Bioscience), and cell Simulink) can modify this bio-CAD design in extremely detailed
differentiators to construct the desired biological structures. slices with contour boundary paths that then can be synchronized
The post-processing stage comprises the necessary procedures with the 3D positioning system [13e16]. The software consists of a
to transform the printed construct into a functional tissue engi- console and a master. The console analyses the 3D model, renders it
neered organ, suitable for surgical implantations. The post- onto a series of commands to be sent to the positioning stage. The
processing stage may also include perfusion bioreactors, cell master controls the positioning coordinates of the print head.
encapsulators and a set of bio-monitoring systems [7]. Each of these Surface mapping observes the printing status of each layer and
auxiliary machines has their own important roles for scaling up decides the time to begin the construction of the next layer. The
bio-printing. For example, cell encapsulators and bioreactors are waiting time may vary from material to material, depending on its
essential to restrict undesirable fusion processes after the con- concentration and its thickness. For instance, Song et al. utilized a
struction. Mironov et al. proposed a bio-reactor that is believed to prototype system consisting of stepper motors for each X, Y, and Z
maintain fragile tissue construct with sufficient time for post pro- axis movement and another axis for dispensing materials with a
cessing of tissue fusion, maturation and remodelling [8]. syringe. The positioning system had a precision of approximately
0.05 mm along the X and Y axis and of 0.125 mm in the Z axis. The
2. Technological considerations optimum speed for depositing the material is typically between 1
and 10 mm/s. The software transferred the CAD model to a layered
The main technological challenges of 3D bio-printing are (i) the process path in Extensible Markup Language (XML) that directly
3D positioning process, (ii) the formulation of a bio-ink and (iii) the controls the positioning system [17].
dispensing system. One of the most common problems of additive printing is the
accumulation of errors that is associated with the printing height.
This problem poses a big challenge to the construction of a large
2.1. Three-dimensional positioning number of layers [18]. The accumulative errors eventually lead to
an unsuccessful attempt for the 3D construct. However, for better
Precise positioning of the print head plays a crucial role for the
additive layer-by-layer construction of a 3D object. The positioning
system is sometimes referred to as the bio-assembly tool (BAT) that
utilizes computer aided design/manufacturing (CAD/CAM) soft-
ware to precisely deposit various 3D heterogeneous cells [9]. BAT
generally consists of multiple printing heads that can travel in a XY
plane and adding through the Z axis for the printed layer [10]. A
number of sensors are necessary to detect the thickness of each
printed layer, and to adjust the print head for the next layer. Control
software allows for the synchronization of these printing heads in
the 3D space. The software may also consist of a number of text files
or scripts for organizing the movement of the BAT and controlling
the speed, air pressure as well as temperature. The 3D platform
should be able to stop at various points during the printing process
to change the bio-ink if necessary. Fig. 1 illustrates a typical 3D
positioning system incorporating a print head and a printing bed.
For mapping a human organ, an X-ray, magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) or computed tomography (CT) scan can be converted
to a bio-computer aided design (Bio-CAD) [11,12]. Surgical naviga- Fig. 1. Schematic of a 3D positioning system incorporating a print head and printing
tion software such as Stryker (Kalamazoo, United States), MedCAD bed system.
A. Munaz et al. / Journal of Science: Advanced Materials and Devices 1 (2016) 1e17 3
observation and mitigating these errors, each print head could have Crosslinking with NaOH allows chitosan to rapidly form a gel ma-
individual controllable video cameras attached. Furthermore, trix [29]. Collagen is a natural protein found in the body, as one of
fiberoptic light sources will illuminate and cure the constructed the materials in cartilage and bone tissues [29,31]. Fibrin is a pro-
layer. A controlled heaters and piezoelectric humidifiers can pre- tein produced in human body after the injury. Scaffolds with fibrin
vent the polymerization in each head. Biomaterials such as collagen can help to repair bone cavities, neurons, heart valves in the human
and pluronic-F127 can be easily constructed for a finite number of body [31,32]. Gelatin is a protein that helps to strengthen bones,
layers but will eventually lose shape due to swelling or dissolution joints, fingernails and hair qualities [33]. Poly(ethylene glycol)
[19,20]. Specialized techniques incorporating other bio-degradable (PEG) hydrogels provide excellent biocompatibility, because this
materials may solve this problem. material can attach to most proteins, cells and antibodies [29]. Most
Surface mapping feedback (SMF) is an algorithm-based geo- common PEG hydrogels used for scaffold materials are poly-
metric feedback software that can find errors between the printed ethylene (glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA), poly (ethylene glycol) meth-
layers. The software compares the measurement of the constructed acrylate/dimethacrylate (PEGDMA), poly (D, L)elactic acid-co-
cell with the virtual CAD model. Accounting for the errors detected glycolic acid. These hydrogels exhibit different transitional tem-
by a displacement sensor, the deposited parameter can then be perature. Poloxamer is a copolymer soluble in aqueous, polar and
adjusted for in subsequent layers [21]. non-polar organic solvents [29]. The most common poloxamer for
The BAT reported by Smith et al. has a resolution of around 5 mm, 3D printing is pluronic F127. This material is liquid at 4e5 C and
a linear speed between 10 mm/s to 50 mm/s and a deposition rate becomes a gel at room temperature (>16 C). Poly(2-hydroxyethyl
between 12 nl/s to 1 ml/s [10]. Smith's group developed a script to methacrylate)-pHEMA is a transparent polymer forming hydrogel
construct a five-layer artery branch of a pig heart using bovine in water. Oxygen to diffuse through the layer, makes them a good
aortic endothelial cells (BAECs) suspended in type 1 collagen. selection for bio-scaffolds [34].
Cohen et al. improved upon a custom built robotic platform for Due to the ability to rapidly form a gel, the above hydrogels are
solid-free fabrication of alginate hydrogel and calcium sulphate to suitable candidates for scaffold supports in later cell cultures. Fig. 2
construct pre-seeded living implants of arbitrary geometries [19]. shows the schematic presentations of the bio-ink for hard and soft
The robotic platform has XeY axes with a maximum transverse bio materials. The next two sub-sections will discuss their
speed of 50 mm/s. The Z-stage served as a building surface with a formulations.
positioning precision of 25 mm. Keating et al. used a 6 axis robotic
arm (KUKA KR5 sixx R850) that limits the deposition of support
material by building a rotating platform for printing complex 2.2.1. Bio-ink for hard materials
structures [22]. The first 3 axes are used to position the robotic arm Bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs), calcium phosphate (CaP),
and the last 3 axes move the platform. The robotic arm used KUKA tri-calcium phosphate (TCP), poly(lactic acid) (PLA), poly-glycolic
robot language and Python scripts to control the movement of the acid (PGA), poly-caprolactone (PCL) have been used to formulate
axes. bio-ink for hard materials [35,38e42]. BMSCs is a source of sur-
rounding tissues with capability to migrate extensively in bone,
2.2. Bio-ink cartilage and fat. This material also results in muscle degeneration.
CaP has chemical similarity, biocompatibility and mechanical
Bio-ink developments are one of the most challenging issues in strength of bone, offering a huge potential for its construction, and
the 3D bio-printing process. Generally, the ink must fulfil the bio- repair. Over 70% of the bone is formed with CaP minerals. Another
logical, physical and mechanical requirements of the printing unique property of CaP is the ability to absorb different chemical
process. Firstly, from a biological aspect, the ink should be species onto their surfaces [43]. Different compositions of CaP
biocompatible whilst allowing cell adhesion and proliferation. provide beneficiaries for the formulation of the bone grafts and its
Physically, the ink requires a viscosity low enough to dispense from surroundings. TCP is one of the major components of bone mineral.
the print head. Finally, the paramount mechanical requirement is to The crystalline polymorphs of alpha/beta TCP provides improved
provide sufficient strength and stiffness to maintain structural compressive strength and better osteo conductivity. Hydroxyapa-
integrity of the ink after printing. Bio-inks are composed of living tite (HA) is another form of CaP that efficiently purifies and sepa-
cells (typically 10,000e30,000 cells per a 10e20 mL droplet) sus- rates proteins, enzymes, nucleic acids, growth factors and other
pended in a medium or pre-gel solution by polymer cross linkers macromolecules surrounding the bones [44]. Tetra calcium phos-
(such as thrombin, CaCl2, gelatin, fibrinogen, NaCl) that are acti- phate (TTCP) formed at temperature above 1300 C is used for self-
vated by photo or thermal processes. For instance, poly (L-lactic setting CaP bone cements [45]. Biphasic calcium phosphate (BCP) is
acid) and poly (D, L- Lactic acid) can be dissolved in dioxane, with a mixture of HA, Ca and beta-TCP. This material is used in ortho-
bone morphogenic protein grounded into particles and suspended paedic and dental applications for forming micro porous structures
in deionized water which can be used for making bone scaffold with higher compressive strength, and better osteo conductivity
material [23]. [46]. PLA, PGA and PCL are the most common synthetic biode-
Bio-inks without living cells are generally used to form scaffold gradable polymers for bone fixations and cartilage repairs because
support for later cell culture and growth. Typical scaffold materials of their excellent biocompatibilities, biodegradability's and me-
include hydrogels such as agarose, alginate, chitosan, fibrin, gelatin, chanical strength [47]. These synthetic polymers accelerate the
poly(ethylene glycol)-PEG hydrogels, poloxamers and poly(2- bone repair process without any sign of inflammation or foreign
hydroxyethyl methacrylate)-pHEMA [24e28]. Besides forming the body reactions [48].
scaffold, these materials also help to culture functionalize cells. For Bio-ink used for hard biomaterials were utilized predominately
example, agarose is a natural polymer that forms a gel at room to construct strong connective tissue (i.e. bone). However, before
temperature. Low melting point at 37 revert the gel into a solution forming a bio-ink, essential parameters such as powder packing
allowing it to be washed away [29,30]. Alginate is a linear copol- density, flow ability, wettability, drop volume needs to be opti-
ymer found in the walls of brown algae. Crosslinking with CaCl2 at mized [40]. Moreover, the printed bio-material should serve as
high concentration and low temperature, alginate can rabidly form ample support for the embedded cells, e.g. stiff enough to allow
a gel with high viscosity [29]. Chitosan is another linear poly- fiber arrangement whilst sustaining the force for handling and
saccharide obtained from shrimp and crustacean shells. implantation.
Fig. 2. Bio-inks for hard and soft materials (rearranged and redrawn from [35e37]).
Zhou et al. prepared a bio-ink material for hard tissue con- epithelial cells, ADSC, ovary cells, hepatocytes cells have all been
structions (natural bone) with CaP (hydroxyapatite, HA and beta integrated into soft bio-materials [24,55e60]. Cui et al. developed a
tricalcium phosphate, b-TCP) blended in calcium sulphate (CaSO4) bio-ink for repairing defects in bone-cartilage plugs by combining
at different ratios [35]. Bergmann et al. fabricated a bone scaffolds human articular chondrocytes and PEG/DMA with a photo-initiator
by utilizing b-TCP as a bone cement mixing with bio-active glasses [61]. The printed construct produced excellent viabilities of almost
(45S5 Henchglass) [49]. Different combination of orthophosphoric 89.2%. Li et al. developed a bio-ink materials for constructing
acid (H3PO4), pyrophosphoric acid (H7P2O7), isopropanol solution vascular channels using a combination of gelatin/alginate/chitosan/
mixed with the processed powder, formed the predesigned scaffold fibrinogen hydrogels as the supporting materials and rat primary
structures. Inzana et al. implanted a 3D printed bone graft for tissue hepatocytes (ADSCs) cells cross linked with thrombin, CaCl2,
engineering applications in a mouse model [50], and subsequently Na5P3O10 and glutardialdehyde [62]. A combination of these
proposed a number of steps to achieve a composite material of a- hydrogels and cross linkers can enhance the integrity of the
TCP and HA from CaP powder solutions. Their acidic binder solu- vascular channels for more than two weeks. Human livers can be
tions were prepared by dissolving collagen into phosphoric acid repaired or fabricated by seeding this ADSCs that performed liver
and the two solutions produces dicalcium phosphate dehydrate like metabolic functions.
(DCPD) that was printed through a thermal ink jet printer. Each of the cells used in bio-ink need a different preparation
Incorporating collagen in to CaP improved the overall bone process, so that they can retain their natural extracellular envi-
strength, the osteo conductive and the osteo inductive character- ronment. For example, for forming a bio-ink with adipose tissue,
istics, as well as the cellular attachments, viabilities, and prolifer- decellularization is first needed. To decellularize the adipose tissue
ation of the cells. To observe the cell viability on the scaffolds, C3H/ and achieve a high concentrated solution for printing, a number of
10T1/2 cells were seeded onto the printed constructs, which steps were initiated to completely remove the cell's nuclei from the
showed excellent biocompatibility and growth up to 72 h [50]. Kao tissue for extrusion through the printing nozzles [63]. Decellular-
et al. formulated a number of bio-ink materials as functionalized 3D ized extracellular matrix (dECM) was one of the best options for
printed scaffolds from poly(lactic acid) (PLA) [51]. However, the bio-ink material, as these cells can naturally obtain the microen-
hydrophobic nature of PLA resulted in less cell recognition. So vironment similar to their parent tissues. However, the challenge of
subsequently, polydopamine (PDA) surface coating was required to formulating the bio-ink is to minimize the cellular material while
improve cell adhesion, proliferation and differentiation. Human keeping ECM loss and damage to a minimum. Pati et al. successful
adipose-derived stem cells (hADSCs) seeded on various fabricated decellularized adipose (adECM), cartilage (cdECM) and cardiac
PDA coated PLA scaffolds displayed improved cell adhesion and muscle (hdECM) tissues utilizing physical, chemical and enzymatic
extracellular matrix (ECM) secretion. In conjunction with collagen, processes with 3D open porous structures. The decellularization
Shim et al. encapsulated recombinant human bone morphogenetic efficiency was quantified through DNA analysis, showing a 98%
protein-2 (rhBMP-2) cells within collagen and gelatin solutions and reduction of cellular contents [37]. Furthermore, the authors suc-
dispensed them into a hollow cylindrical type PCL/PLGA scaffolds cessfully printed these soft material structures up to a thickness of
[52]. The combination of PCL/PLGA/collagen/rhBMP-2 showed a 10 layers. Song et al. used a hyaluronic acid-HA (an extra cellular
better bone healing capability over PCL/PLGA/gelatin/rhBMP-2 in a matrix protein) based hydrogel as the bio-ink. To form the gel, HA
rabbit model. The 20-mm bone defects partially regenerated was cross linked with poly(ethylene glycol) which can be used at a
through newly formed bone tissue, fused with the rabbits native later date as the base material for bio-printing [17]. De Maria et al.
tissue after eight weeks post injury. Moreover, sufficient incorpo- trialled human skin fibroblast at concentrations of 100,000 cells/ml
ration of oxygen and nutrients are imperative for hard tissue such in the bio-ink, that is supported by Eagle's minimum essential
as bone, in order to functionalize the printed structures and to medium (EMEM). In this case, 360 drops or 50 ml (about 5000 cells)
facilitate vascularization into the host tissue [53,54]. were dispensed in a predesigned well, and the well was filled with
450 ml EMEM to avoid the impact of the droplets with the rigid
substrate [64].
2.2.2. Bio-ink for soft materials
Hydrogel materials pose excellent bio compatibility, bio-
Collagen, fibrin and decellularized adipose tissue (DAT) were
degradability and tuneable mechanical properties, albeit their
used as ECM for soft materials bio-ink. Human mesenchymal stem
high water content. Hydrogel materials are reported as an encap-
cells (hMSCs), SMCs, HeLa, hepatocarcinoma (HepG2), fibroblasts,
sulator for viable cells, as they can keep cells alive without affecting
ovary cells, keratinocytes, neural cells, BMSCs, chondrocytes,
cellecell interaction and to support the cell constructions. For diameter of 90e120 mm. The OEC spheroids showed extensive
example, Duan et al. implemented a 3D bio-printing system to cellecell interactions indicating robust growth and healthy
fabricate an aortic valve conduits [65]. Aortic root sinus smooth behaviour over time. The floating marble on appropriate culturing
muscle cells (SMC) and aortic valve leaflet interstitial cells (VIC) medium provided sufficient nutrients for the cell spheroids to
were separately encapsulated in an alginate/gelatin hydrogel so- survive. The group is expecting to utilize these OEC spheroids as a
lution. These encapsulated cells were still viable within the 3D printable bio-ink material to analyse spinal cord injury system
hydrogel encapsulator over a seven day culture (81.4 ± 3.4% for SMC in in-vivo applications. It is possible to formulate enormous amount
and 83.2 ± 4% for VIC). Lozano et al. constructed a 3D brain like of spheroids within a short period of time.
structures with bio-ink materials consisting of primary cortical Furthermore, cells must be encapsulated in a non-adhesive and
neurons encapsulated by gellan gum arginine-glycine-aspartate lubricated hydrogel such as hyaluronan to prevent preliminary
(RGD-GG) which is a modified bio-polymer hydrogel [66]. To sta- tissue fusion inside the cellular suspension reservoir. Tan et al.
bilize the pH of the bio-ink, NaOH was added afterwards. The study formed tissue spheroids by mixing ECs and SMCs (1:1 ratio) seeded
of Lozano et al. suggested that the gellan gum (GG) is a good into non-adhesive agarose hydrogel moulds [76]. Approximately
encapsulation material for neuronal cells with low cost, high gelling 840 uniformed cell spheroids with an average uniform diameter of
efficiency, and improved bio-compatibility [67]. Moreover, GG 300 mm were prepared and printed. The cells can further be
modified with RGD increases cell adhesion and proliferation. Chung encapsulated within other hydrogel material such as alginate,
et al. utilized three different concentrations of sodium alginate collagen and cross linked with Ca2þ solutions to restrict their ag-
solutions in phosphate buffered saline (PBS) separately blended gregation and sedimentation. However, these encapsulating ap-
with gelatin solutions [68]. The solution was ionically cross-linked proaches are not suitable for all cell types, as some cell types
with CaCl2 and equilibrated in dulbecco's modified eagle medium require a specific arrangement according to their phenotypic
(DMEM)/fetal bovine serum (FBS) culture medium. Primary functions [24]. For instance, Ferris et al. tested a consistent printing
myoblast (BL6) cells were cultured with appropriate media (Hams output of cells without allowing for settling and aggregation, over
F10, FBS, penicilin) and combined with the solution as an encap- an extended time periods [77]. Ferris et al. formed a micro gel with
sulator. The prepared hydrogel-based bio-ink showed excellent cell biopolymer gellam gum combined with DMEM, and/or poloxamer
culture viability support and cell proliferative facilitation for pri- 188 surfactant in different concentrations. C2C12, PC12 and L929
mary muscle growth. Lee et al. fabricated a hybrid scaffold material cells were separately maintained in DMEM, FBS and mixed with the
consisting of an acrylate trimethylene carbonate (TMC)/trimethy- microgel solution to form the bio-ink. The printed construct on
lolpropane (TMP) and alginate hydrogel solutions to encapsulate collagen hydrogel makes the cells hydrated and viable without
chondrocyte cells. The seeded cells and the scaffolds structures settling and aggregated for a long time period. Table 2 presents the
remained stable up to four weeks upon implanting into a mouse bio-ink materials with appropriate media/cross linkers conducted
model [69,70]. by various groups.
Miniature tissue spheroids can be incorporated into a bio-ink, It is important to find out the nature of the extruded bio-inks.
allowing uniform geometry that is necessary for cellecell in- For example, if the bio-ink is acidic in nature, it must first be
teractions [71,72]. Tissue spheroids are sphere shaped groups of adjusted to the physiological pH before encapsulation with cells,
cells formed by spontaneous assembly within cellular suspensions. whilst maintaining the desired temperature [37]. Rutz et al. pro-
Uniform sized tissue spheroids are essential for bio-printing large posed a versatile method with various hydrogels that can tune the
tissues and organs. As tissue spheroids are formed by aggregation mechanical, physical, chemical and biological properties of the bio-
of cells, they possess maximum possible cell density within each ink [78]. Investigations were conducted to validate these formula-
spheroid. The average diameter of the tissue spheroids ranges from tions for cell viabilities after printing with live/dead assays in PEGX-
100 to 300 mm [73]. Spheroids intrinsic capacity of being fused over gelatin and PEGX-fibrinogen.
time, makes them an ideal candidate for forming bio-ink materials
[74].
Norotte et al. used Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells, human 2.3. Modification of the print head
umbilical vein smooth muscle cells (HUVSMCs), human skin fi-
broblasts (HSFs) cells cultured in various ratios to form a desired Depending on the deposition technique of the print head and
cell spheroids as a bio-ink materials to construct vascular tubes the bio-ink, bio-printers are categorized in three types: (i) ink jet,
[73]. The spheroids fused within 5e7 days resulting the final (ii) laser jet and (iii) extrusion.
structure. However, a large quantity of spheroids for constructing An ink-jet printer consists of an ink chamber with a number of
longer structure is time consuming and a long fusion time could nozzles. A short current pulse passes through an integrated heating
lead to a non-uniform hollow structures. Almost 4000 spheroids of element creating a bubble forcing the ink out of the nozzles [84]. A
300 mm were needed to construct a simple 10 cm long and 1.5 mm piezoelectric actuator can also be used for this purpose. A voltage
diameter tube. Therefore, to form a large structure, rapid deposition pulse induces a charge on the piezoelectric material and ejects
process and fast fusion of spheroids are necessary. This research droplets out of the nozzle [85]. The ink-jet technique offers ad-
group also developed a bio-ink with similar cells (multicellular vantages such as low cost and minimal contamination of the cells
cylinder as a bio-ink) dispensing continuously to form a cylindrical due to the non-contact deposition technique. However, heat, me-
shapes. The multicellular cylinders fused faster than the spheroids chanical stress and vibration could adversely affect the cell viability,
structure, and needed only 2 eto 4 days to form the final shapes. clog the nozzle and make it harder to construct a multi-layer 3D
However, the outer diameter of 900 mm (dispended with 300e500- structure [86].
mm diameter micropipette) limits the cell viabilities. A smaller Laser jet is the next deposition technique that utilizes the en-
micropipette could construct a narrower tube resulting in more ergy of a laser pulse to create the actuation bubble ejecting the cells
viable cells. onto a substrate [55]. This technology can work with a high-
Recently Raja et al. exploited the floating liquid marble platform viscosity bio-inks such as hydrogel consisting of alginate and
to generate spheroids of olfactory ensheathing cells (OEC) [75]. collagen and provides a high degree of precision. However, the
5000 cells per 10 mL of marble generated numerous uniformed relatively long printing time and the heat generated from the laser
spheroids (around 30 spheroids per marble) with an average lead to a higher rate of damaged cells [87].
Table 2
Bio-ink materials with appropriate media/cross linkers.
Printed Printing Bio-ink formation Media Implants Ref.

objects technique
Scaffold Encapsulator Cells/Protein Cross linker
Hard Thermal CaP:CaSO4, HA:CaSO4 e e Water based binders e In-vitro [35]

tissues and, b-TCP:CaSO4
e b-TCP, bio-active glass e e H3PO4, H7P2O7 e In-vitro [49]
(45S5 Hench glass)
Thermal CaP solutions with a- e C3H/10T1/2 Collagen, Acidic binder e In-vitro/ [50]
TCP and HA (phosphoric acid) In-vivo
e PLA coated with PDA e hADSCs e DMEM, FBS, penicillin, In-vitro [51]
streptomycin
Extrusion PCL,PLGA Collagen, gelatin hTMSCs, rhBMP- e DMEM, FBS In-vitro/ [52]
2 In-vivo
Thermal Chondrogenic PEGDMA Human articular Photo initiator DMEM, Human serum, In-vitro [61]
progenitor plugs (bio- chondrocytes penicillin, streptomycin,
paper) glutamine
Laser Titanium powder e Human Silica sol e In-vitro [79]
osteogenic
sarcoma (MG63)
Soft Extrusion e Agarose rods CHO, HUVSMCs, e DMEM, FBS, antibiotics In-vitro [73]
tissues HSFs, PASMCs (penicillin, streptomycin,
gentamicin), Geneticin,
Hams F12, glutamine,
gelatin
Extrusion Gelatin, alginate, Gelatin, alginate, Hepatocytes, Thrombin, CaCl2, Na5P3O10 DMEM, FBS, penicillin, In-vitro [62]
chitosan, fibrinogen chitosan, fibrinogen ADSCs and glutaraldehyde streptomycin, aprotinin,
Extrusion PCL DAT hASCs e DMEM, FBS, penicillin, In-vivo [63]
streptomycin
Extrusion PCL adECM, cdECM, hASCs, hTMSCs e DMEM, aMEM, FBS, In-vitro [37]
hdECM antibiotics (penicillin,
streptomycin)
Extrusion e RGD-GG Primary cortical DMEM or CaCl2 Collagenase, FBS, In-vitro [66]
neural cells neurobasal media,
glutamine, penicillin/
streptomycin
Extrusion e Sodium alginate, Primary myoblast CaCl2 DMEM, FBS, penicillin, In-vitro [68]
gelatin (BL6) streptomycin, Hams F10,
glutamine
Ink jet e Sodium alginate ECs and SMCs CaCl2, gelatin EGM-2 (Endothelial In-vitro [76]
growth medium)
Piezo-Ink-jet Collagen bio-paper Gellam gum C2C12, PC12 and Poloxamer 188 (P188) and/ DMEM, FBS, HS (horse In-vitro [77]
L929 or fluorinate serum)
Extrusion e Gelatin, fibrinogen, HDFs, HUVECs PEGX-gelatin, PEGX- PBS (phosphate-buffered In-vitro [78]
4 arm PEG amine fibrinogen, EDC {N-(3- saline) or DMEM, FBS,
Dimethylaminopropyl)-N- antibiotics (penicillin,
ethylcarbodiimide}, NHS streptomycin)
(N-Hydroxysuccinimide),
thrombin
Thermal Sodium alginate- e hAFSCs, dSMCs, CaCl2 MEM, DMEM, EBM-2, In-vitro/ [80]
collagen composite bECs clonetics, FBS, glutamine, In-vivo
penicillin/streptomycin,
Extrusion Gelatin Hydrogel solutions HepG2 1-{4-(2-Hydroxyethoxy)- DMEM, FBS, penicillin In-vitro [81]
methacrylamide (Bovine type B phenyl}-2methyl-1- and streptomycin
gelatin) propane-1-one, and 2,20 -
Azobis{2-methyl-N-(2-
hydroxyethyl)
propionamide}
e e e HAFs and e DMEM, penicillin/ In-vitro [82]
HUVECs streptomycin, EGM-2
Extrusion PCL, alginate solution Sodium alginate Chondrocytes, CaCl2, NaCl solutions DMEM/FBS/penicillin and In-vitro [83]
osteoblast streptomycin.
Extrusion technique is another deposition technology that uti- limitations. A suitable technology and the corresponding print head
lizes a pneumatic dispensing system for delivering the cells. This must be considered based on the cell characteristic, resolution,
technology suits a wide range of bio-ink viscosities and allows desired accuracy, number of deposition layers, structure of the
continuous deposition, fast printing time and better structural constructed tissue, printable size and overall printing time before
integrity [87]. Even though extrusion process is considered to be experimentation ensues.
the most adopted technique to date, the technology also faces A print head generally consists of a dispenser control unit, a
several limitations such as limited material selection due to rapid number of sensors, a set of reservoirs, biocompatible nozzles, and
cell encapsulation and increased shear stress resulting in more cell supplementary components such as filter, hose tubes, camera and
injuries [86]. curing light. The print head needs to be biocompatible allowing for
Fig. 3 illustrates the above-mentioned printing technologies. non-toxic delivery of bio-ink without exposing the cells to elevated
Each of the printing technologies has their own advantages and temperatures and pressures. Conventional print heads have fixed
Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of (A) thermal ink-jet printers, (B) piezo-electric ink-jet printers, (C) extrusion printers, and (D) Laser printers.
structural parameters and operational characteristics. Only a small diameter of 200 mme1600 mm. Reservoir material could be made of
number of selective materials can be dispensed from these print aluminium, stainless steel, polyethylene or polypropylene coated
heads. For the purpose of bio-printing, the head needs to be by bio compatible solutions [94]. Each reservoir can carry specific
modified allowing multi-nozzle capabilities to dispense different scaffold or cell materials. These reservoirs could have a number of
polymers, hydrogels or the combination of both, simultaneously sensors to synchronise the nozzles of the print head.
[8]. To date, researchers have always customized and modified the Selecting a right nozzle for printing biological cells is another
print head according to their specific needs [88,89]. Thus, the print- crucial design consideration for a print head. Conventional nozzles/
head operation may vary from continuous flow to extrusion modes needle could be converted into biocompatible nozzles by coating
to drop on demand (DOD) modes [64]. Print head clogging, reduced bio-compatible silicone to increase the hydrophobicity of the inner
cell viability, and DNA damage of cells are a few among many and outer surfaces. The coating prevents ink adhesion within the
challenges in designing and modifying a print head. nozzle/needle [64]. Nozzle size also affects the printing speed. Song
De Maria et al. modified a piezo-electric ink jet print head. The et al. showed that printing speed linearly increases with reduced
flow was controlled by an electronic board equipped with a micro- needle diameters [17]. However, a small needle diameter would
controller (ATmega328P) [64]. Ang et al. utilized a print head con- result in a smaller printed pattern. So the right reservoir and nozzle
sisting of a robotic dispensing system and a pneumatic dispenser to has to be selected depending on the characteristics of the cells and
deliver chitosan at a variety of viscosities [90]. Moreover, the au- the constructed tissues. The nozzle can be controlled to dispense
thors used Teflon lined nozzle to prevent adhesion and accumula- bio-ink droplets of different sizes.
tion of cells around the nozzle tip. Pati et al. utilized six printing Billiet et al. conducted an experiment with the nozzle shapes
heads and six holders to dispense cells and hydrogels simulta- (conical and cylindrical) on HepG2 cells. The results showed higher
neously. Each of the print heads operated at a different tempera- cell viabilities using conical shaped nozzle compared to cylindrical
tures depending on the properties of the materials [63]. Norotte shape nozzles under low inlet pressures [81]. Moreover, cells
et al. used two print heads to simultaneously deposit scaffolds in printed with a bigger nozzle diameter maintained a higher cell
the form of gels and multicellular mixture [73]. Coatney et al. used survival rates of around 97% then smaller diameters. Yan and his
three print heads to construct blood vessels and cardiac tissues. groups varied the process parameters such as applied pressure and
Coatney et al. utilized the first two print heads to dispense cardiac nozzle size affecting the cell viabilities [95]. They conducted a
and endothelial cells. The third print head dispenses collagen to computational fluid dynamic (CFD) analysis based on shear stress
ensure support for the cell structure during the printing [91]. and exposure time in term of cell damage. Experiments were car-
Dispensing bio-ink through a modified print head has to ried out on cells (Rat adrenal medulla endothelial cells-RAMEC)
consider the shear rate the cell will endure during the extrusion. mixed with alginate solutions deposited on calcium chloride so-
The average shear rate is the ratio between the speed of a droplet lutions with different pressure and nozzles sizes. The experimental
(ms1) and its radius (m). Previous reports suggested that the data shows that cell damage increases with high pressure whereas
allowable shear rate for cell survival should be below 5 105 s1 larger nozzle diameter minimizes it. Moreover, exposure time also
[92]. Therefore, the expected shear rate has to be determined has an impact on cell viabilities. A combination of higher pressure,
before the printing process, and correlated with the viscosity of the and longer exposure time could lead to a higher cell damage.
cells. A high shear force will damage the cells and thus reducing Jones et al. examined the effects of nozzle length on cell via-
their viability in the printed construction [37]. For instance, in sy- bilities. The result suggested that the short nozzle length (8.9 mm)
ringe based bio-printing, dispensed cells will endure higher shear provides higher cell viabilities of almost 84% compared with the
force with small nozzle diameters. The movements of the print long nozzle length (24.4 mm) with a cell viabilities of 71% [96]. As
head could expose the constructed cells to either compressive or long nozzle increases the dispensing time of cells subjected to face
tensile forces. Chang et al. examined the effect of pressures and shear forces throughout the nozzles, viability of the cells dramati-
varying nozzle sizes on viability, recovery, and functional behaviour cally reduces.
of HepG2 liver cells encapsulated by alginate [93]. The report
suggested that cell viability is proportional to nozzle diameter, and 2.4. Computer aided design and manufacturing (CAD/CAM)
inversely proportional to the applied pressure.
Commercially available one or two reservoir systems have been As mentioned in the earlier section, the information of the sliced
reported incorporating a nozzle system with an average inner layered design with individual cell types and sizes passes to the
control of the nozzle position [97]. The software (called synchro- with high viscosity. For inks with medium viscosity, a screw pump
nizer or advance programming interface (API) synchronizer), the design can be selected to dispense cells with high viability. For ink
motion control unit, and the reservoirs connected to the print head with low viscosity, a solenoid nozzle is preferable [23]. Saedan et al.
work in a real time. The software passes signals requesting material developed two types of nozzle systems: piezoelectric nozzle for
information from the sensor in the reservoirs. The designated materials with low viscosity and low flow rates, and the solenoid
sensor then sends back the present status of the material of an nozzle for materials with relatively high viscosity [15]. Khalil et al.
individual reservoir [15]. Subsequently, the controller sends a set of constructed a multiple nozzle system for up to 40 layers of hydrogel
commands to the individual reservoir to dispense the bio-ink scaffold made of sodium alginate of various viscosities [98]. Each of
droplets considering the specific cell types, cell sizes and viscos- these nozzles has a different deposition technique. For example, a
ities. After dispensing the droplets containing the cells, feedback current pulse activates solenoid nozzles. An applied voltage actu-
information returns to the control unit. This unit has a ates a piezoelectric nozzle made of a glass capillary. Pneumatic
microcontroller-based motion control software that directs the syringe nozzles operate with a pressure pulse. A spray nozzle also
print head to a specific coordinate according to the pattern and operates with a pressure pulse. These nozzles are also capable of
changes the reservoir and supplementary component if different printing cells, growth factors and other scaffold materials.
materials are needed [15]. Fig. 4 illustrates the representative To speed up the printing process, it is possible to use more than
working steps of a hypothetic human organ transferring into a one automated arm with multiple print heads. Ozbolat et al.
printed model. Depending on the needs, more print heads associ- developed two independent and identical 3-axes bio-printers
ated with a set of reservoirs, nozzle systems, and sensors can be called multi-armed bio-printer (MABP), capable of printing multi-
appended. ple bio-inks simultaneously [99]. This deposition system operated
For printing, heads containing multiple nozzle systems and a set with stepper motors and linear actuators. The dispensing nozzle is
of microcontroller units synchronize the multiple nozzles with the connected with a pneumatic fluid dispenser. The deposition rate of
positioning system. The control software might be integrated with the bio-ink is controlled during the deposition process. Modified
the 3D positioning software or could work independently. How- ink jet printers with piezoelectric pumps have been reported for
ever, the software must know the position and the type of material assembling cells onto a 3D shape. The modified printers use indi-
to be deposited. In this regard, both the dispensing software and vidual cell spheroids to form the 3D scaffolds [88,89]. The modified
the 3D positioning software need to be synchronized. Users should ink jet printer works similar to the BAT system. They utilize a sy-
be able to configure each nozzle depending on their need. For ringe and a needle tip capable of sterilizing separately. The print
example, Yan et al. designed a multi-nozzle deposition system head can be modified to allow multiple nozzles to work at the same
based on extrusion printing for fabricating scaffolds of bone tissue extrusion time to form cell patterns.
structures [23]. Each of the nozzles played a different role for the
construction and the maintenance of the cells. The first nozzle 3. Recent applications of 3D bio-printing
(screw pump) deposited a composite of poly (L-latic acid), tri cal-
cium phosphate (TCP) to form bone tissue scaffolds. The second The human body consists of more than 200 different and so-
nozzle (solenoid) dispensed de-ionized water as a supportive ma- phisticated cell types with their own biological, chemical, and
terial, and the third nozzle (ultra-sonic homogenizer) sprayed bone physical properties [100]. The main aim of bio-printing is achieving
morphogenic protein (BMP) particles with de-ionized water to re- printed functional cell and tissue systems towards organ printing.
cruit stem cells from the surroundings. To achieve this aim, researchers need to investigate the viability
The selection of the print head and the nozzle type depends on and longevity of cells during and after the printing process. This
the property of the bio-ink. For example, extrusion type print head section will elaborate recent attempts of printing cells, tissues and
and nozzle with high dispensing pressure are suitable for bio-inks organs.
Fig. 4. Representative working steps of a human organ transferring into a printed model.
3.1. Simple construct of cells (PCL) strands crosslinked by CaCl2 solution to create a viable hybrid
construct [107]. Combination of alginate-PLC structures shows a
The shape of the printed cell structures plays a significant role better mechanical property then alginate alone, PCL alone struc-
for its viability, legibility, and longevity. For example, dome shaped tures. C20A4 cells (cultured in DMEM, supplemented with FBS,
structures show better stress distribution over cubic structures penicillin, and streptomycin) were embedded in sterilized alginate
[63]. The design should provide sufficient transportation of nutri- solution as a bio-ink material and deposited on the hybrid struc-
tion and oxygen within the tissue to keep the cell alive. Diffusion of tures. The printed cell shows a high cell viability of almost 80% just
nutrition, oxygen and protein has limited depth dependency of after the printing.
about a few hundred microns. To keep the cells and tissues alive, Decellularized adipose tissue (DAT) and injectable DAT based
the printed structures should have ample vascular space. For this micro carriers allow for the formation of adipo-inductive substrate
purpose, porosity between cells and cell layers is required to for human adipose derived stem cells (ASCs). This adipo-inductive
facilitate cell viability and proliferation. substrate can act as scaffolds for adipose generation [108]. Stable
It is also important to select the right scaffold to prevent the cell non-cross linked porous foam utilizing human DAT has been re-
structures from collapsing and to support remodelling and repair. A ported as scaffolds for tissue engineering mimicking biochemical
scaffold is a three dimensional porous substrate, where cells are and biomechanical properties of the native cell [109]. The paper
cultured to form living tissues. Generally, low-viscosity bio-inks are suggested advantages of the DAT foam based scaffold over the DAT
dispensed onto a more viscous bio-substrate to produce the scaf- scaffold with higher angiogenic capacity, better cell migration and
fold. During the in-vitro experiments, desired cells are placed into suitable degradation. Work has been conducted on direct cartilage
the biomaterial scaffolds to provide structural and logistic tem- repair using a 3D printed biomaterial scaffold. For instance, Cui
plates for tissue formation. Later the whole construction is cultured et al. modified a thermal inkjet printer and utilized a combination
in a bioreactor to promote continued cell growth prior to being of poly(ethylene glycol) dimethacrylate (PEGDMA) and human
implanted into the host body to further mature and integrate. chondrocytes to repair osteochondral plugs for cartilage [61].
However, as the constructed cells release their own ECM, the Significantly improved printing resolution was reported with cell
scaffold biomaterial should fully degrade to form tissue like viabilities of 89.2 ± 3.6% for simultaneous photo polymerization.
structures that can subsequently integrate within the surrounding Hydrogels such as alginate, collagen, chitosan, fabrin and syn-
host tissue upon implantation [101,102]. thetic polymer such as pluronics, polyethylene glycol [86] has been
Conventional scaffold manufacturing techniques are fiber used as a 3D scaffolds for cell culturing, monitoring cellecell
bonding, solvent casting, particulate leaching, membrane lamina- interaction, and cell control for both soft and hard tissue re-
tion, and melt bonding [23]. To date, polycaprolactone (PCL) [103], generations [110]. Their presence increases the cell seeding effi-
modified PCL with calcium phosphate [104], glycerol with soy ciency. Griffith et al. introduced two DNA-based hydrogels for
protein [105], PLC with alginate [83], collagen and gelatin [106] forming a bio-degradable bio-ink, one consisting of polypeptide-
have been reported as potential candidates for scaffold materials. DNA and another of double stranded DNA (dsDNA). The inks
The major issues for forming a scaffold are balanced apoptosis, cell were extruded from a modified 3D printer [111]. Due to the bio-
proliferation, cell attachment, cell density, cell differentiation and degradability of the DNA bio-ink system, the rapid formation of a
migration, as well as mechanical, biological and chemical trans- 3D constructs for temporary scaffolding in biomedical applications
duction to guide the constructed cells [8,73]. Moreover, depending was achieved.
on the characteristics of the cells, the properties of the scaffolds Lee et al. developed a 3D printing method to construct a larger
should vary including scaffolds porosity, elasticity, stiffness, and fluidic vascular channel (lumen size of around 1 mm) allowing an
anatomical shapes. For instance, a polycaprolactone (PCL) frame- adjacent capillary network through a natural maturation process
work as a base has been reported for tissues printing. Pati et al. [112]. Collagen hydrogel was used as a main scaffold material and
utilizes scaffold based PCL material to support Decellularized Adi- gelatin as a sacrificial material to create the channels. Fibrinogen,
pose Tissue (DAT) encapsulated with human adipose tissue-derived thrombin, human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs),
mesenchymal stem cells (hASCs) as a bio-ink material to form ad- normal human lung fibroblasts (NHLFs) with a combination of
ipose tissue construct [63]. The viability was evaluated in mice growth factors and culture medium were mixed and deposited
showing positive tissue infiltration, remodelling and formation in between the two vascular channels. HUVECs were seeded into the
both top and middle layers between 1 and 14 days. channel to create the cell lining. Flowing media through the
Shim et al. used PCL and two alginate solutions as a supporting channel shows robust interconnected vascular lumen up to few
framework to construct a 3D porous structures with chondrocytes weeks. Hydrogel bio-paper (fibrin, matrigel, fibrinogen, poly-
and osteoblast cells utilizing a printer with six dispensing heads ethylene glycol tetra-acrylates) could also be used as a temporary
[83]. The cells were encapsulated in sodium alginate, diluted with supports for the deposited bio-ink material for large tissue and
DMEM and cross-linked by CaCl2, NaCl solutions. The dispensed organ constructions [28]. Aria et al. uses a bio-paper with
cells remained viable for at least seven days with a rate of hydrogel consisting of CaCl2, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and hya-
95.6 ± 1.8%. The PCL framework provides enhanced mechanical luronan for supporting the alginate based bio-ink material [113].
stability whereas the encapsulated alginate solution allows suitable Boland et al. utilizes a thermos-sensitive gel (N-iso-
environment for the cellular arrangements and prevent damage propylacryamide-co-2-(N,N-dimethylamino)-ethyl acrylate)
from the printing pressures. above 32 C to serve as a bio-paper for 3D construction of cells
Xu et al. prepared multiple cell types such as human amniotic [89]. This bio-paper could easily be removed after the fusion of
fluid-derived stem cells (hAFSCs), canine smooth muscle cells the printed cell spheroids.
(dSMCs), bovine aortic endothelial cells (bECS) separately mixed The stiffness of the framework is sometimes greater than the
with calcium chloride (CaCl2) cross linkers to print with a thermal printed tissues and causes problems for future adjustment with the
inkjet printer [80]. The multiple cell types were delivered onto an native cells [63]. The mechanical properties of a scaffold should also
alginate-collagen composite scaffold. The 3D pie shaped construc- match with the native cells, and thus do not create any complica-
tions survived and matured as functional tissues in mice over seven tions. Scaffold degradation, mechanical mismatch with native cells
days with a cell viability of almost 90%. Schurman et al. utilized causing immunogenicity, toxicity, and host inflammatory response
sodium alginate solution dispensed between polycaprolactone are the issues of using scaffold as printed tissue supports [73].
Moreover, the residual polymer from the scaffolds may disrupt the 3.2. Tissue printing
normal activities of the constructed cells.
Many research groups also focused on fabrication techniques for One key construction process of cell structure is tissue fusion
scaffold-free engineered tissues. In order to maintain a certain [116]. Tissue fusion is a process where multiple tissues merge
shape, integrity and composition, the printed cell construct must together due to this surface tension forces and cell intergrowth.
have a rapid tissue maturation process in the absence of solid Tissue fusion relies on self-organizing properties of cells that in
scaffolds. Some of the common advantages of this approach is the turn promote cell proliferation, cellecell and cell-ECM interactions.
absence of scaffold degradation, better intercellular communica- Moreover, cell polarity is an important factor for the fusion process
tion due to similar host environment and more functional capa- allowing mutual adhesiveness of different cells to merge together.
bility with host cells, high cell density, rapid tissue formation [114]. Merging similar cell types is called homotypic cell fusion. Osteo-
Scaffold-free vascular reconstruction in-vitro for smooth muscle clast e bone cells that maintain, repair and remodel bones e is an
cells and fibroblasts have been reported for layer-by-layer printing example of homotypic cell fusions [117]. Merging different cell
on agarose rods [73]. Tan et al. proposed and developed an alginate types is called heterotypic cell fusion. Bone marrow derived den-
based fabrication process [76]. The group fabricated a ring shaped dritic cells (BMDCs) fused with neuron/glial cells of brain, or with
structures with micro droplets of alginate solution (tissue spher- myocyte cells of the heart are an example of this heterotypic cell
oids consists of ECs and SMCs encapsulated by the alginate) fusion [118].
deposited onto an alginate hydrogel substrate. The analysis showed The printed cell structure may shrink or become shorter after a
a sufficient amount of collagen-1 secretion from the construction certain time due to the fusion phenomena. This shrinking of mul-
promoting cellecell adhesion, formation and maturations. Fig. 5 tiple cells could deform the whole printed structures. Sufficient
illustrates the different combination of scaffold-based and scaffold supports (scaffold based approaches) around the fused
scaffold-free approaches for constructing 3D bio-structures. Both cells or deposited hydrogel substrate (scaffold free approaches) can
approaches need to maintain sufficient waiting time to stabilize prevent the undesired deformation. The fusion process also helps to
each layer before constructing another new layer. Otherwise, the shape the structures while unwanted fusion stages are avoided. For
whole structures may deform or collapse. example, Thompson et al. chopped embryonic avian heart tubes
The scaffold-free approach also faces a number of challenges. For into myocardial rings, and then made them fuse and morph over-
instance, the fabrication process needs a large amount of spheroids night onto a synchronized heart tube for supporting a tubular
that consume much time affecting the subsequent fusion process. frameworks [119]. This process is due to the biological capacity
Further problems are vascularization of thick tissue construct, and allowing closely positioned soft tissue fragments to fuse over time
precise positioning of various multiple cell types [8]. The reports [120]. Fig. 6 presents the formation of heterogeneous cell spheroids
suggested thermoreversible, photosensitive moulding gels, stimuli from individual cells. Cell spheroids can be used as a potential bio-
sensitive polymers for scaffold free solutions that reduce the ink material to construct multi-layer artery system. The printing
complexity to separate the gels, while a complicated vascular process fuses and forms the final shapes. For a large volume of
structure needs to be printed [73,115]. As both scaffold-based (in- tissue and organ printing, a fast fusion process might be needed.
direct printing) and scaffold-free (direct printing) approaches have Fast fusion can be achieved by reducing the distance between the
their own advantages and limitations, a hybrid method incorpo- cells (high resolution) through shaking in a way that the printed
rating both approaches may solve the above challenges. constructs do not deform [121,122].
Fig. 5. Tissue constructions with pores (A) continuous deposition of scaffolds materials without cells; (B) with only cells; (C) Combination of cells and scaffold materials; and (D)
drop on demand deposition of scaffolds materials without cells; (E) with only cells, (F) combination of cells and scaffold materials.
Vascular systems are one of the major tasks in bio-printing. The viable vascular tree. However, the compaction and the retraction
vascular system is a network of perfusable channel capable of properties of tissues are different. A systematic research accounting
delivering oxygen, nutrients and removing waste solutions to the predicted construct after the printing is necessary.
confirm the viability and functionality of the printed construct. A Researchers considered all of these issues for vascular vessel
vascular system consists of a complex networks of blood vessels printing. For example, Kucukgul et al. constructed an anatomically
with various lengths and diameters. The diameter ranges from correct macro vascular aorta from a real human aorta model [129].
20 mm to 2.5 cm from very fine capillaries to the aorta of the body To avoid compaction and retraction of the model, a computer-aided
[123]. However, the inner part of the whole vascular system is algorithm was developed. The aorta was constructed utilizing pri-
unique and is lined with a monolayer of flat endothelial cells (ECs). mary mouse embryonic fibroblast cells supported by a thermos-
Without a vascular system, adequate perfusion of growth factors responsive hydrogel named Novogel. The accuracy of the con-
(such as proteins or hormones), oxygen and nutrition is not feasible structed cellular structures was around 91e95% with 97% for the
leading to both normal and premature cell death [120]. Another support materials. Hockaday et al. fabricated an anatomically ac-
essential prerequisite for constructing vascular cells are to have curate, heterogeneous aortic valve of inner diameters ranging from
both defined inlet and outlet branches to pass on these growth 12 to 22 mm [130]. Porcine aortic valve interstitial cells (PAVIC)
factors, oxygen and nutrition. were seeded with the PEG-DA hydrogel to formulate the con-
Before printing a functional human organ such as lung or kid- structions. Alginate-gelatin solution was used to support the con-
ney, a blue print of the vascular system has to be designed. For structed geometry of the overhanging ostia and leaflets. The
printing the complex networks, developmental mechanism of the printed geometric accuracy (swelling affects) was quantified for
vascular system has to be understood in details. For example, vas- each layers with the micro-CT scan and compared with the corre-
culogenesis (forming new micro vessels from non-endothelial sponding CAD STL files. The comparison indicates higher geometric
cells) [124,125], angiogenesis (forming new micro vessels from precision of almost 93% that reduced somewhat as inner diameter
endothelial cells) [125], and arteriogenesis (remodelling small of the valve decreases. The constructed valve swells outwards due
vessels into larger one) [126,127] are essential prerequisites to to the surface tensions indicating for printing of tinner wall to
create the intra-organ hierarchical vascular branched of different match the target shapes. The printed aortic valve maintained near
diameters. Recent papers suggested that the printed vascular 100% of cell viably over 21 days.
segment undergoes on a retraction stages which results almost a Kelm et al. reported a scaffold-free concept to create blood
two folds reduction in its printed dimensions [128]. Therefore, the vessels of small diameter utilizing the self-assembly of human
designed blue print should be as twice of its final sizes to achieve a artery-derived fibroblasts (HAFs) and human umbilical vein
Fig. 6. Step by step construction of an artery wall for multi-cellular artery systems.
endothelial cells (HUVECs) under pulsatile flows. This approach proliferations. This fluid reduces the surface tension, increases the
required around 4000e5000 micro tissues to fabricate a vessel of 5- contact angel of each droplets (from 55 of air to almost 70 into the
mm length, 3-mm diameter and 1-mm thickness of the wall [82]. fluid). Fabrication of complex and large volume of vascular tree
Lee et al. developed a methodology to form a functional in-vitro without a supporting scaffold is achievable with this approach.
vascular channel (up to 5 mm distance and 5 million cells/mL Moreover, the fluorocarbon allows sufficient oxygen and carbon
density) within thick collagen hydrogel scaffolds [131]. The dioxide diffusion that keeps the cell alive for a long printing time.
biomaterial includes HUVECs of different densities in 5% CO2 and The printed cells were viable up to 21 days from deposition.
endothelial cell growth medium-2 (EGM-2). Gelatin was used as a However, once printing is done, the fluid needs to be replaced with
sacrificial material to create the fluidic channels. The process yields cell culture medium. This process could deform the complex
a high cell viability of almost 90% in only two weeks. Nishiyama printed structures. Moreover, printing speed and resolution need a
et al. formed an alginate-based tubular structures into CaCl2 solu- major improvement.
tion allowing an adjustable thickness from 30 to 40 mm and an
inner diameter from 30 to 200 mm respectively by varying the micro 3.3. Organ printing
gel solution [132]. Xu et al. used an inkjet bio-printer to construct a
vertical vascular tube using hemi-branching points. They success- One of the biggest issues of human organ transplantation is the
fully formed a 5-mm long freestanding tube consisting of 210 layers limited number of donors compared to the number of patients.
of Ca-alginate droplets [133]. However, alginate is not a good se- Sometimes, infection and rejection of the organ causes suffering
lection for constructing a vascular network as it does not help cells and often death [140]. The ultimate aim of bio-printing technology
to grow and bond. Moreover, biodegradability of this material has is the rapid design and fabrication of operational human tissues and
not yet been confirmed by in-vivo applications. Therefore, more organs to replace those damaged, injured or lost. Moreover, the
research is needed for including alginate with other materials organ of a living body needs a network of vessels and capillaries to
allowing native ECM like behaviours [134]. provide sufficient oxygen, cytokines, nutrients, as well as to remove
Norotte et al. reported a scaffold-free approach using agarose the toxic waste from them.
rods to construct a multi-layer vascular tube using human uterine For this purpose, all constructed cells need to be interconnected
smooth muscle cells (HUSMC) and human skin fibroblast (HSF) and placed close to the capillary network to receive enough oxygen
cells. These printed tubes are similar to vessels in microvasculature and nutrients. For example, kidney vascular tree consists of 10e12
with diameters ranging from 0.9 to 2.5 mm. The fused construc- branches incorporating around 10,000 of segments. If the re-
tions are sufficiently stable to handle and to transfer into a specif- searchers can successfully design and fabricate functional, long and
ically designed bio-reactor for further maturation and for viable blood vessels, organ printing of for example lung or kidney
implantation [73]. Li et al. constructed a vertical hollow channel will become close to the reality. As tissue engineering is still in its
without scaffold support using various combinations of alginate/ early stage, fabricating a whole operational organ needs to solve a
gelatin/chitosan/fibrinogen hydrogel as a printed materials [62]. number of current challenges such as printing speed, resolution,
A double-layer sturdy tube could also be made with HUVSMCs biocompatibility, cell viability, cytotoxicity, and gentle fusion.
and human dermal fibroblast (HDFs) capable of transferring Tissues utilize organizational capacity and chemical signals from
directly onto a bio-reactor for further maturation [135]. Miller et al. cells to build a specific structure leading to the organ formation by
introduced rapid casting of a vascular channel based on carbohy- copying the natural morphogenesis. For example, ECs will form
drates with a mixture of glucose, sucrose, dextran forming self- tubular like structures on their own due to the genetically pre-
supporting lattices. The diameter of the vascular channel ranges destined form, if a suitable external environment is provided.
between 150 and 750 mm, coated and encapsulated by poly(lactid- Supplying sufficient media incorporating nutrients, oxygen, and
co-glycolid) (PLGA) and living cells of fibrin/agarose/matrigel/ proteins can create suitable environment. A bioreactor can provide
poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), respectively [136]. Engelhardt et al. this environment, the structural and functional maturation of the
conducted a free-form construction of a tubular system with di- printed organ/tissues [141]. Iwsaki et al. developed a pulsatile
ameters ranging from 10 mm to 100 mm with synthetic polymer- bioreactor that regulates pressures, flow circulations, heart rates,
protein microstructures. Due to the hydrophobic nature of the concentration of carbon di-oxide and pH of an engineered in-vitro
material in an aqueous environment, the vascular network retains blood vessels. The group fabricated a three-layer robust and elastic
its shape and mechanical properties allowing a higher elasticity artery system from polyglycolic acid (PGA) seeded with smooth
[137]. muscle cells (SMCs), PCL seeded with SMCs, and PGA seeded with
Sometimes, the printed cells cannot survive even with ample fibroblasts. The whole construct was wrapped around a silicon
supply of proteins, oxygen and nutrition. A new technique needed tubing [142]. After removing the supportive tube, the lumen was
to be developed to increase the life span of the printed cells. For seeded with ECs and was mounted with the bioreactors. The result
example, Wu et al. utilized laser assisted printing technology to shows a similar appearance, strength and elasticity of a native ar-
construct human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) on a tery. As the fabrication process was conventional, the results can be
branch/stem structure. The printed structures fused and connected acknowledged to formulate a more complex 3D printed vascular
with each other within one day, but could not survive longer [138]. systems and functional organs with similar pulsative bioreactors.
Introducing an extra layer of human umbilical vein smooth muscles 3D bio-printing has been utilized in urologic applications
cells (HUVSMCs) on HUVECs dramatically increases the longevity of particularly for bladder replacements [143,144]. The process in-
the constructed blood vessels. It is likely that the HUVEC and volves the collection of tissues from the bladder and cells prolif-
HUVSMC have the symbiotic relationship allowing proliferative eration outside the body. The fabricated bladder scaffold was then
state and higher viabilities. The constructed branch remains intact covered with the harvested cells that can be later implanted. Atala
after 9 days of deposition. Campos et al. fabricated high-aspect- et al. successfully fabricated a whole human bladder of three
ratio hollow tubes using a syringe-based deposition of agarose distinctive layers with modified ink-jet bio-printing technologies
hydrogel encapsulating human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) [145,146]. The bladder scaffolds were fabricated from collagen or a
and human MG-63 cells [139]. The construction was submerged in composite of collagen and polyglycolic acid (PGA) [147,148]. The
a hydrophobic high-density fluid named perfluorotributylamine smooth muscle cells (SMCs) collected from individual patients were
(C12F27N) promoting mechanical supports and higher cell seeded on the exterior surface of the biodegradable bladder shaped
scaffolds. After settling of the exterior parts, inner surface were practical. An example of these two phenomena are the histogenesis
seeded by coating the urothelial cells. Finally the whole construc- and organogenesis of cells leading to a cellecell, and cell-ECM in-
tion were wrapped with omental during the implantations for teractions, which help to form the final shapes of the tissues [135].
enhance vascularization of flaps and grafts. The printed bladder Ultimately, appropriate and feasible approaches considering the
was transplanted on different patients with end-stage bladder self-assembly and self-organizing ability of human tissue spheroids
disease requiring cystoplasty. The engineered bladder showed long could make organ printing possible [150].
term functionality with no major complications. Moreover, report Rezende et al. suggested the fabrication of a non-adhesive
suggested silk fibroin as a promising bio-material over collagen- mould placed 1250 wells containing 5000 tissue spheroids of
PGA scaffolds that has been tested on mice bladder constructions each in order to fabricate a human kidney. The process needs five
[149]. However, before the clinical reality of the bladder re- robotic dispensing systems (each consists of 250 multi wells) to
constructions, a number of improved trials with more legitimate handle the whole printing process [74]. Although their suggestion
functional and durable steps are needed to be validated for these remained an idea, it is not impossible to achieve this target with an
experimental approaches. advanced technology. Computer aided design (CAD) and a blue
Fig. 7 shows the representative construction of a human lung print of the particular organ are essential before initiating the
system. A number of robotic arms each incorporating number of printing attempts. Digitized image reconstruction, magnetic reso-
reservoir's with heterogeneous bio-ink are needed to print the nance imaging (MRI), computed tomography, and mathematical
whole functional lung systems. The multiple robotic arms build the modelling using theoretical principle will enable the detailed 3D
desired trachea, bronchus, bronchi and bronchioles system with reconstruction of organs [120,151]. It is also essential to know in
diverse tissue spheroids integral to the organ. The organ tissues can advance, the structural determinants of material properties at
be created from vascularized organo-specific tissue spheroids. Post different stages of development for tissues and organs.
processing stages are essential to keep the organ fully functional A more efficient approach is the separation of the complicated
before implanting in the host body. For printing a whole organ with organ printing task into many simpler tasks that can be done
multiple cell types, bio-plotting technology (printing the construct independently at the same time. The result can later be eventually
into a less viscous solution by utilizing buoyancy compensation combined to produce a functioning organ ready for transplantation.
principle) could perhaps be a good options to reduce the surface For example, mapping a human organ, converting it to a suitable 3D
tension and the gravitational force of large printed structures design, slicing a 3D design into layer of 2D format for dispensing,
[94,127]. The printed structure of this method has a smooth surface, modifying the coordinate system, synchronizing the dispenser with
which is not suitable for cell adhesions and cellecell interactions. A the software, could be done by engineering experts. Chemistry
surface treatment could solve these problems. Moreover, several experts could provide ample nutrition to the printed construct
challenges such as accuracy, resolution, limited range of scaffold using heterogeneous bio-ink. Medical experts can transplant the
materials, processing speeds, and cell encapsulation, all of which desired organ into an in-vivo subject.
need to be addressed and improved in order to print a large For organ printing, researchers may consider technological
structures. challenges and solutions associated with the organ transplantation
High cell density obviously allows for quick tissue assembly and process. Organ transplantation can be done by decellularization
cell maturation, suitable for organ printing. For example, to fabri- and recellularization of cells. Decellularization is the process to
cate a human kidney, over one million glomeruli and nephrons are isolate the extra cellular matrix (ECM) of a tissue from its cellular
needed which seems practically not feasible with current tech- components. The decellularization process retains the structural,
nologies [8]. Self-assembly and self-organisation, which are and functional characteristic of the original micro-vascular network
autonomous processes of cells to form from an initial state to a final and prepares the scaffold for tissue engineering. This scaffold
pattern, could make this complex fabrication process more product also maintains the protein, and growth factor of natural
Fig. 7. Demonstration of organ printing from multi-layer complex bronchi system of a lung to whole printed lung. The printing process can be initiated from bottom-up setup
incorporating multiple robotic dispensing systems with number of reservoir and nozzles. Sacrificial scaffolds are used to hold the structures if necessary.
tissues. Successful decullularization has been reported for various to the construction of the whole human organ. For these purposes,
organs such as heart, liver, bladder, artery, skin and trachea current medical knowledge associated with organ transplantation
[152e154]. Similar initiatives can be addressed for preparing needs to be integrated with future 3D organ-printing platform.
functional bio-ink metrics allowing for printing the whole organ. Engineers, biologists, chemists, computer scientists, mathemati-
In contrast, recellularization allows the vascular network to be cians and physicians need to work together to solve the challenges
connected for the circulation, facilitation of rapid oxygen and nu- of the bio-printing. Biologists need to address what is needed to be
trients with the host for cell viabilities, and cell functions [152]. understood and to be developed. Based on the feedback of bi-
During the recellularization process, functional organ can be ologists, engineers design the printing platforms considering
reproduced by introducing progenitor or adult stem cells within the mathematical parameters and physical laws. Computer scientists
scaffolds. This knowledge may be useful after successful printing of develop corresponding software to synchronize the machines with
a whole organ, maintaining its functional properties with bio- the specific needs of users. A cell data bank needs to be established
reactors facilitating the transplantation. Furthermore, a detailed that will include cell properties and behaviours so that the bi-
analytical approach of cell formations and cell interactions might ologists can use, further modify and improve them if needed. This
allow to form a set of universal bio-ink material suitable for cell database will facilitate the future commercialisation of 3D or-
commercialization. For example, human induced pluripotent stem gan printing. Moreover, commercialisation of bio-printing requires
cells (hiPSCs), human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) have been re- large-scale bio-fabrication tools. Barnett et al. recently conducted
ported to be present in varieties of tissues and organs. Combination an experiment with large-scale 3D printing where the robotic tools
of these cells with a suitable hydrogel solution could make a ver- with six degrees of freedom allowing a large range of motion. Even
satile bio-ink for constructing a number of engineered tissues and though their printing material was non biological as they utilized
organs. These cells have excellent ability to self-renew for indefinite polymeric foam to construct a large-scale statue, the knowledge
times, and pluripotency e the capability of forming any type of and challenges from this can be taken in consideration for the
adult cells or tissues by mimicking the early stages of embryo- future large-scale bio-printing [18].
genesis. Moreover, human pluripotent stem cell shows similar It will be possible for surgeons to facsimile patient's specific
physiological reaction of a whole organ in a smaller scale. Utilizing body parts according to the needs for repair, replace or removed.
this stem cell line for fabricating micro tissues and organs will Considering the state of the art of bio-printing, it might take two or
promote more reliable drug testing platform and an end of animal three decades or perhaps more to fabricate a marketable printed
testing. human organs with high order of functionality. Nonetheless within
Jones et al. used hESCs derived hepatocyte like cells with algi- the next decade, direct visualization and quantification of diverse
nate hydrogel matrix as a bio-ink material to construct a circular medical and biological processes can be expected. For example,
structure of 40 layers inside of a multi well plates [96]. The con- artificial skin printing (in-vitro) as a testing beds for cosmetic in-
structed structures maintained their pluripotency and showed dustries; engineered tissues and mini organ printing for toxicity/
excellent viabilities, and proliferation for longer periods. Ouyang efficiency screening of pharmacological drugs; in-vitro tumour,
et al. used extrusion-based 3D printing to fabricate ESCs into a 3D cancer, trauma, and infected tissue modelling that might enables
cell-laden structures [155]. ESCs were mixed with a matrix material examination of identical operational conditions in human body.
of gelatin/alginate hydrogel solution and printed into a layer-by- Customized 3D printing for dental industries, urological applica-
layer cubic porous structures. Cell viabilities were more than 90% tions, bone vascular co-culture for orthopaedic applications, stem
promoting pluripotency and proliferation. The cell proliferation cell based neurological applications, personalized medicine will
allows the ESCs to form highly uniformed and size controllable become increasingly a common practice.
spheroids. However, it takes longer time (5 days) to reach the same The 3D printing of a specific tissue such as tumour for drug
size spheroids diameter of 60e70 mm. Producing human tissues testing will improve the efficiency of the drug. Preclinical testing
from pluripotent stem cells requires a lengthy culture period of including in-vitro analysis to determine toxicity, absorption, dis-
several weeks to months. Therefore it is very important to ensure tribution and metabolism on the cells and tissues will enhance
the printed construct to be free from microbial contaminations. the reliability of the drug. Three-dimensional bio-printing tech-
Maintaining a high-class microbiological safety cabinet and an nology will hopefully one day solve the organ transplantation
improved sterility system is necessary. crisis and revolutionize health sectors including drug screening,
tissue engineering, and biological testing with minimum clinical
4. Perspectives and conclusions trials.
Bio-printing technology still is in its infant stage. In terms of

both technology and biology, a number of challenges still have to be
solved. For instance, engineering challenges are the development of References
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Journal of Science: Advanced Materials and Devices 1 (2016) 1e17

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Science: Advanced Materials and Devices

Three-dimensional printing of biological matters

1. Introduction biological implants, through layer-by-layer patterning with ultra-

Milestone Year (CE) Details

Book printing 200 Woodblock printing used in China.

Printed Printing Bio-ink formation Media Implants Ref.

Hard Thermal CaP:CaSO4, HA:CaSO4 e e Water based binders e In-vitro [35]

Bio-printing technology still is in its infant stage. In terms of

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