Java (programming language)

Java is a general-purpose programming language that is class-based,

object-oriented, and designed to have as few implementation Java Programming
dependencies as possible. It is intended to let application developers Language
write once, run anywhere (WORA),[17] meaning that compiled Java
code can run on all platforms that support Java without the need for
recompilation.[18] Java applications are typically compiled to
bytecode that can run on any Java virtual machine (JVM) regardless
of the underlying computer architecture. The syntax of Java is
similar to C and C++, but it has fewer low-level facilities than either
of them. As of 2019, Java was one of the most popular programming
languages in use according to GitHub,[19][20] particularly for client-
server web applications, with a reported 9 million developers.[21]

Java was originally developed by James Gosling at Sun

Microsystems (which has since been acquired by Oracle) and
released in 1995 as a core component of Sun Microsystems' Java
platform. The original and reference implementation Java compilers,
virtual machines, and class libraries were originally released by Sun Paradigm Multi-paradigm:
under proprietary licenses. As of May 2007, in compliance with the generic, object-
specifications of the Java Community Process, Sun had relicensed oriented (class-
most of its Java technologies under the GNU General Public based), imperative,
License. Meanwhile, others have developed alternative reflective
implementations of these Sun technologies, such as the GNU
Compiler for Java (bytecode compiler), GNU Classpath (standard Designed by James Gosling
libraries), and IcedTea-Web (browser plugin for applets). Developer Sun Microsystems

The latest versions are Java 14, released in March 2020, and Java 11, First appeared May 23, 1995[1]
a currently supported long-term support (LTS) version, released on Stable release Java SE 14[2] /
September 25, 2018; Oracle released for the legacy Java 8 LTS the March 17, 2020
last free public update in January 2019 for commercial use, while it
will otherwise still support Java 8 with public updates for personal Typing Static, strong, safe,
use up to at least December 2020. Oracle (and others) highly discipline nominative,
recommend uninstalling older versions of Java because of serious manifest
risks due to unresolved security issues.[22] Since Java 9, 10, 12 and Filename .java, .class, .jar
13 are no longer supported, Oracle advises its users to immediately extensions
transition to the latest version (currently Java 14) or an LTS release.
Website oracle.com/java/ (h
ttp://oracle.com/jav
a/)
Contents
Influenced by
History CLU,[3] Simula67,[3] LISP,[3]
Principles SmallTalk,[3] Ada 83, C++,[4] C#,[5]
Versions Eiffel,[6] Mesa,[7] Modula-3,[8]
Editions Oberon,[9] Objective-C,[10] UCSD
Execution system Pascal,[11][12] Object Pascal[13]
 Java JVM and bytecode Influenced
Performance Ada 2005, BeanShell, C#,
Non-JVM Chapel,[14] Clojure, ECMAScript,
Automatic memory management Fantom, Gambas,[15] Groovy,
Syntax Hack,[16] Haxe, J#, Kotlin, PHP,
Hello world example Python, Scala, Seed7, Vala
Example with methods Java Programming at Wikibooks
Special classes
Applet
Servlet
JavaServer Pages
Swing application
JavaFX application
Generics
Criticism
Class libraries
Documentation
Implementations
Use outside the Java platform
Android
Controversy
See also
Comparison of Java with other languages
References
Works cited
External links

History
James Gosling, Mike Sheridan, and Patrick Naughton initiated the Java language
project in June 1991.[23] Java was originally designed for interactive television, but it
was too advanced for the digital cable television industry at the time.[24] The
language was initially called Oak after an oak tree that stood outside Gosling's office.
Later the project went by the name Green and was finally renamed Java, from Java
coffee, the coffee from Indonesia.[25] Gosling designed Java with a C/C++-style
syntax that system and application programmers would find familiar.[26]

Sun Microsystems released the first public implementation as Java 1.0 in 1996.[27] It
promised Write Once, Run Anywhere (WORA) functionality, providing no-cost
run-times on popular platforms. Fairly secure and featuring configurable security, it
Duke, the Java
allowed network- and file-access restrictions. Major web browsers soon incorporated
mascot
the ability to run Java applets within web pages, and Java quickly became popular.
The Java 1.0 compiler was re-written in Java by Arthur van Hoff to comply strictly
with the Java 1.0 language specification.[28] With the advent of Java 2 (released
initially as J2SE 1.2 in December 1998 – 1999), new versions had
multiple configurations built for different types of platforms. J2EE
included technologies and APIs for enterprise applications typically
run in server environments, while J2ME featured APIs optimized for
mobile applications. The desktop version was renamed J2SE. In
2006, for marketing purposes, Sun renamed new J2 versions as Java
EE, Java ME, and Java SE, respectively.

In 1997, Sun Microsystems approached the ISO/IEC JTC 1

standards body and later the Ecma International to formalize Java,
but it soon withdrew from the process.[29][30][31] Java remains a de
facto standard, controlled through the Java Community Process.[32]
At one time, Sun made most of its Java implementations available
James Gosling, the creator of Java,
without charge, despite their proprietary software status. Sun in 2008
generated revenue from Java through the selling of licenses for
specialized products such as the Java Enterprise System.

On November 13, 2006, Sun released much of its Java virtual

machine (JVM) as free and open-source software (FOSS), under the
terms of the GNU General Public License (GPL). On May 8, 2007,
Sun finished the process, making all of its JVM's core code available
under free software/open-source distribution terms, aside from a
small portion of code to which Sun did not hold the copyright.[33]
The TIOBE programming language
popularity index graph from 2002 to
Sun's vice-president Rich Green said that Sun's ideal role with
2018. Java is steadily on the top
regard to Java was as an evangelist.[34] Following Oracle since mid-2015.
Corporation's acquisition of Sun Microsystems in 2009–10, Oracle
has described itself as the steward of Java technology with a
relentless commitment to fostering a community of participation and transparency.[35] This did not prevent
Oracle from filing a lawsuit against Google shortly after that for using Java inside the Android SDK (see the
Android section).

On April 2, 2010, James Gosling resigned from Oracle.[36]

In January 2016, Oracle announced that Java run-time environments based on JDK 9 will discontinue the
browser plugin.[37]

Java software runs on everything from laptops to data centers, game consoles to scientific
supercomputers.[38]

Principles

There were five primary goals in the creation of the Java language:[18]

1. It must be simple, object-oriented, and familiar.

2. It must be robust and secure.
3. It must be architecture-neutral and portable.
4. It must execute with high performance.
5. It must be interpreted, threaded, and dynamic.
Versions

As of March 2020, Java 8 and 11 are supported as Long Term Support (LTS) versions, and one later non-
LTS version is supported. Major release versions of Java, along with their release dates:

JDK 1.0 (January 23, 1996)[39]

JDK 1.1 (February 19, 1997)
J2SE 1.2 (December 8, 1998)
J2SE 1.3 (May 8, 2000)
J2SE 1.4 (February 6, 2002)
J2SE 5.0 (September 30, 2004)
Java SE 6 (December 11, 2006)
Java SE 7 (July 28, 2011)
Java SE 8 (March 18, 2014)
Java SE 9 (September 21, 2017)
Java SE 10 (March 20, 2018)
Java SE 11 (September 25, 2018)[40]
Java SE 12 (March 19, 2019)
Java SE 13 (September 17, 2019)
Java SE 14 (March 17, 2020)

Editions
Sun has defined and supports four editions of Java targeting different application environments and
segmented many of its APIs so that they belong to one of the platforms. The platforms are:

Java Card for smart-cards.[41]

Java Platform, Micro Edition (Java ME) – targeting environments with limited resources.[42]
Java Platform, Standard Edition (Java SE) – targeting workstation environments.[43]
Java Platform, Enterprise Edition (Java EE) – targeting large distributed enterprise or Internet
environments.[44]

The classes in the Java APIs are organized into separate groups called packages. Each package contains a set
of related interfaces, classes, and exceptions. Refer to the separate platforms for a description of the
packages available.

Sun also provided an edition called Personal Java that has been superseded by later, standards-based Java
ME configuration-profile pairings.

Execution system

Java JVM and bytecode

One design goal of Java is portability, which means that programs written for the Java platform must run
similarly on any combination of hardware and operating system with adequate run time support. This is
achieved by compiling the Java language code to an intermediate representation called Java bytecode,
instead of directly to architecture-specific machine code. Java bytecode instructions are analogous to
machine code, but they are intended to be executed by a virtual machine (VM) written specifically for the
host hardware. End users commonly use a Java Runtime Environment (JRE) installed on their machine for
standalone Java applications, or in a web browser for Java applets.

Standard libraries provide a generic way to access host-specific features such as graphics, threading, and
networking.

The use of universal bytecode makes porting simple. However, the overhead of interpreting bytecode into
machine instructions made interpreted programs almost always run more slowly than native executables.
Just-in-time (JIT) compilers that compile byte-codes to machine code during runtime were introduced from
an early stage. Java itself is platform-independent and is adapted to the particular platform it is to run on by
a Java virtual machine for it, which translates the Java bytecode into the platform's machine language.[45]

Performance

Programs written in Java have a reputation for being slower and requiring more memory than those written
in C++.[46][47] However, Java programs' execution speed improved significantly with the introduction of
just-in-time compilation in 1997/1998 for Java 1.1,[48] the addition of language features supporting better
code analysis (such as inner classes, the StringBuilder class, optional assertions, etc.), and optimizations in
the Java virtual machine, such as HotSpot becoming the default for Sun's JVM in 2000. With Java 1.5, the
performance was improved with the addition of the java.util.concurrent package, including lock free
implementations of the ConcurrentMaps and other multi-core collections, and it was improved further with
Java 1.6.

Non-JVM

Some platforms offer direct hardware support for Java; there are micro controllers that can run Java
bytecode in hardware instead of a software Java virtual machine,[49] and some ARM-based processors could
have hardware support for executing Java bytecode through their Jazelle option, though support has mostly
been dropped in current implementations of ARM.

Automatic memory management

Java uses an automatic garbage collector to manage memory in the object lifecycle. The programmer
determines when objects are created, and the Java runtime is responsible for recovering the memory once
objects are no longer in use. Once no references to an object remain, the unreachable memory becomes
eligible to be freed automatically by the garbage collector. Something similar to a memory leak may still
occur if a programmer's code holds a reference to an object that is no longer needed, typically when objects
that are no longer needed are stored in containers that are still in use. If methods for a non-existent object are
called, a null pointer exception is thrown.[50][51]

One of the ideas behind Java's automatic memory management model is that programmers can be spared the
burden of having to perform manual memory management. In some languages, memory for the creation of
objects is implicitly allocated on the stack or explicitly allocated and deallocated from the heap. In the latter
case, the responsibility of managing memory resides with the programmer. If the program does not
deallocate an object, a memory leak occurs. If the program attempts to access or deallocate memory that has
already been deallocated, the result is undefined and difficult to predict, and the program is likely to become
unstable or crash. This can be partially remedied by the use of smart pointers, but these add overhead and
complexity. Note that garbage collection does not prevent logical memory leaks, i.e. those where the
memory is still referenced but never used.
Garbage collection may happen at any time. Ideally, it will occur when a program is idle. It is guaranteed to
be triggered if there is insufficient free memory on the heap to allocate a new object; this can cause a
program to stall momentarily. Explicit memory management is not possible in Java.

Java does not support C/C++ style pointer arithmetic, where object addresses can be arithmetically
manipulated (e.g. by adding or subtracting an offset). This allows the garbage collector to relocate
referenced objects and ensures type safety and security.

As in C++ and some other object-oriented languages, variables of Java's primitive data types are either
stored directly in fields (for objects) or on the stack (for methods) rather than on the heap, as is commonly
true for non-primitive data types (but see escape analysis). This was a conscious decision by Java's designers
for performance reasons.

Java contains multiple types of garbage collectors. By default, HotSpot uses the parallel scavenge garbage
collector.[52] However, there are also several other garbage collectors that can be used to manage the heap.
For 90% of applications in Java, the Concurrent Mark-Sweep (CMS) garbage collector is sufficient.[53]
Oracle aims to replace CMS with the Garbage-First Collector (G1).[54]

Having solved the memory management problem does not relieve the programmer of the burden of handling
properly other kind of resources, like network or database connections, file handles, etc., especially in the
presence of exceptions. Paradoxically, the presence of a garbage collector has faded the necessity of having
an explicit destructor method in the classes, thus rendering the management of these other resources more
difficult.

Syntax
The syntax of Java is largely influenced by C++. Unlike C++, which
combines the syntax for structured, generic, and object-oriented
programming, Java was built almost exclusively as an object-oriented
language.[18] All code is written inside classes, and every data item is
an object, with the exception of the primitive data types, (i.e. integers,
floating-point numbers, boolean values, and characters), which are not
objects for performance reasons. Java reuses some popular aspects of
C++ (such as the printf method).

Unlike C++, Java does not support operator overloading[55] or multiple

inheritance for classes, though multiple inheritance is supported for
Dependency graph of the Java
interfaces.[56]
Core classes (created with jdeps
Java uses comments similar to those of C++. There are three different and Gephi)
styles of comments: a single line style marked with two slashes (//), a
multiple line style opened with /* and closed with */, and the Javadoc
commenting style opened with /** and closed with */. The Javadoc style of commenting allows the user
to run the Javadoc executable to create documentation for the program and can be read by some integrated
development environments (IDEs) such as Eclipse to allow developers to access documentation within the
IDE.

Hello world example

The traditional Hello world program can be written in Java as:[57]

 public class HelloWorldApp {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Hello World!"); // Prints the string to the console.
}
}

Source files must be named after the public class they contain, appending the suffix .java, for example,
HelloWorldApp.java. It must first be compiled into bytecode, using a Java compiler, producing a file
with the .class suffix (HelloWorldApp.class, in this case). Only then can it be executed, or
launched. The Java source file may only contain one public class, but it can contain multiple classes with a
non-public access modifier and any number of public inner classes. When the source file contains multiple
classes, it is necessary to make one class (introduced by the class keyword) public (preceded by the
public keyword) and name the source file with that public class name.

A class that is not declared public may be stored in any .java file. The compiler will generate a class file for
each class defined in the source file. The name of the class file is the name of the class, with .class
appended. For class file generation, anonymous classes are treated as if their name were the concatenation of
the name of their enclosing class, a $, and an integer.

The keyword public denotes that a method can be called from code in other classes, or that a class may be
used by classes outside the class hierarchy. The class hierarchy is related to the name of the directory in
which the .java file is located. This is called an access level modifier. Other access level modifiers include
the keywords private and protected.

The keyword static[19] in front of a method indicates a static method, which is associated only with the
class and not with any specific instance of that class. Only static methods can be invoked without a
reference to an object. Static methods cannot access any class members that are not also static. Methods that
are not designated static are instance methods and require a specific instance of a class to operate.

The keyword void indicates that the main method does not return any value to the caller. If a Java program
is to exit with an error code, it must call System.exit() explicitly.

The method name main is not a keyword in the Java language. It is simply the name of the method the Java
launcher calls to pass control to the program. Java classes that run in managed environments such as applets
and Enterprise JavaBeans do not use or need a main() method. A Java program may contain multiple
classes that have main methods, which means that the VM needs to be explicitly told which class to launch
from.

The main method must accept an array of String (https://docs.oracle.com/javase/10/do

cs/api/java/lang/String.html) objects. By convention, it is referenced as args although any
other legal identifier name can be used. Since Java 5, the main method can also use variable arguments, in
the form of public static void main(String... args), allowing the main method to be
invoked with an arbitrary number of String arguments. The effect of this alternate declaration is
semantically identical (to the args parameter which is still an array of String objects), but it allows an
alternative syntax for creating and passing the array.

The Java launcher launches Java by loading a given class (specified on the command line or as an attribute
in a JAR) and starting its public static void main(String[]) method. Stand-alone programs
must declare this method explicitly. The String[] args parameter is an array of String (http
s://docs.oracle.com/javase/10/docs/api/java/lang/String.html) objects
containing any arguments passed to the class. The parameters to main are often passed by means of a
command line.
Printing is part of a Java standard library: The System (https://docs.oracle.com/javase/1
0/docs/api/java/lang/System.html) class defines a public static field called out (http
s://docs.oracle.com/javase/10/docs/api/java/lang/System.html#out). The out
object is an instance of the PrintStream (https://docs.oracle.com/javase/10/docs/ap
i/java/io/PrintStream.html) class and provides many methods for printing data to standard out,
including println(String) (https://docs.oracle.com/javase/10/docs/api/java/
io/PrintStream.html#println(java.lang.String)) which also appends a new line to the
passed string.

The string "Hello World!" is automatically converted to a String object by the compiler.

Example with methods

// This is an example of a single line comment using two slashes

/*
* This is an example of a multiple line comment using the slash and asterisk.
* This type of comment can be used to hold a lot of information or deactivate
* code, but it is very important to remember to close the comment.
*/

package fibsandlies;

import java.util.Map;
import java.util.HashMap;

/**
* This is an example of a Javadoc comment; Javadoc can compile documentation
* from this text. Javadoc comments must immediately precede the class, method,
* or field being documented.
*/
public class FibCalculator extends Fibonacci implements Calculator {
private static Map<Integer, Integer> memoized = new HashMap<>();

/*
* The main method written as follows is used by the JVM as a starting point
* for the program.
*/
public static void main(String[] args) {
memoized.put(1, 1);
memoized.put(2, 1);
System.out.println(fibonacci(12)); // Get the 12th Fibonacci number and print to console
}

/**
* An example of a method written in Java, wrapped in a class.
* Given a non-negative number FIBINDEX, returns
* the Nth Fibonacci number, where N equals FIBINDEX.
*
* @param fibIndex The index of the Fibonacci number
* @return the Fibonacci number
*/
public static int fibonacci(int fibIndex) {
if (memoized.containsKey(fibIndex)) return memoized.get(fibIndex);
else {
int answer = fibonacci(fibIndex - 1) + fibonacci(fibIndex - 2);
memoized.put(fibIndex, answer);
return answer;
}
}
}

Special classes

Applet
Java applets were programs that were embedded in other applications, typically in a Web page displayed in a
web browser. The Java applet API is now deprecated since Java 8 in 2017.[58][59]

Servlet

Java servlet technology provides Web developers with a simple, consistent mechanism for extending the
functionality of a Web server and for accessing existing business systems. Servlets are server-side Java EE
components that generate responses (typically HTML pages) to requests (typically HTTP requests) from
clients.

The Java servlet API has to some extent been superseded by two standard Java technologies for web
services:

the Java API for RESTful Web Services (JAX-RS 2.0) useful for AJAX, JSON and REST
services, and
the Java API for XML Web Services (JAX-WS) useful for SOAP Web Services.

JavaServer Pages

JavaServer Pages (JSP) are server-side Java EE components that generate responses, typically HTML pages,
to HTTP requests from clients. JSPs embed Java code in an HTML page by using the special delimiters <%
and %>. A JSP is compiled to a Java servlet, a Java application in its own right, the first time it is accessed.
After that, the generated servlet creates the response.[60]

Swing application

Swing is a graphical user interface library for the Java SE platform. It is possible to specify a different look
and feel through the pluggable look and feel system of Swing. Clones of Windows, GTK+, and Motif are
supplied by Sun. Apple also provides an Aqua look and feel for macOS. Where prior implementations of
these looks and feels may have been considered lacking, Swing in Java SE 6 addresses this problem by
using more native GUI widget drawing routines of the underlying platforms.[61]

JavaFX application

JavaFX is a software platform for creating and delivering desktop applications, as well as rich Internet
applications (RIAs) that can run across a wide variety of devices. JavaFX is intended to replace Swing as the
standard GUI library for Java SE, but both will be included for the foreseeable future. JavaFX has support
for desktop computers and web browsers on Microsoft Windows, Linux, and macOS. JavaFX does not have
support for native OS look and feels.[62]

Generics

In 2004, generics were added to the Java language, as part of J2SE 5.0. Prior to the introduction of generics,
each variable declaration had to be of a specific type. For container classes, for example, this is a problem
because there is no easy way to create a container that accepts only specific types of objects. Either the
container operates on all subtypes of a class or interface, usually Object, or a different container class has
to be created for each contained class. Generics allow compile-time type checking without having to create
many container classes, each containing almost identical code. In addition to enabling more efficient code,
certain runtime exceptions are prevented from occurring, by issuing compile-time errors. If Java prevented
all runtime type errors (ClassCastExceptions) from occurring, it would be type safe.

In 2016, the type system of Java was proven unsound.[63]

Criticism
Criticisms directed at Java include the implementation of generics,[64] speed,[65] the handling of unsigned
numbers,[66] the implementation of floating-point arithmetic,[67] and a history of security vulnerabilities in
the primary Java VM implementation HotSpot.[68]

Class libraries
The Java Class Library is the standard library, developed to support application development in Java. It is
controlled by Oracle in cooperation with others through the Java Community Process program.[69]
Companies or individuals participating in this process can influence the design and development of the
APIs. This process has been a subject of controversy during the 2010s.[70] The class library contains
features such as:

The core libraries, which include:

IO/NIO
Networking
Reflection
Concurrency
Generics
Scripting/Compiler
Functional programming (Lambda, Streaming)
Collection libraries that implement data structures such as lists, dictionaries, trees, sets,
queues and double-ended queue, or stacks[71]
XML Processing (Parsing, Transforming, Validating) libraries
Security[72]
Internationalization and localization libraries[73]
The integration libraries, which allow the application writer to communicate with external
systems. These libraries include:
The Java Database Connectivity (JDBC) API for database access
Java Naming and Directory Interface (JNDI) for lookup and discovery
RMI and CORBA for distributed application development
JMX for managing and monitoring applications
User interface libraries, which include:
The (heavyweight, or native) Abstract Window Toolkit (AWT), which provides GUI
components, the means for laying out those components and the means for handling
events from those components
The (lightweight) Swing libraries, which are built on AWT but provide (non-native)
implementations of the AWT widgetry
APIs for audio capture, processing, and playback
 JavaFX
A platform dependent implementation of the Java virtual machine that is the means by which
the bytecodes of the Java libraries and third party applications are executed
Plugins, which enable applets to be run in web browsers
Java Web Start, which allows Java applications to be efficiently distributed to end users across
the Internet
Licensing and documentation

Documentation
Javadoc is a comprehensive documentation system, created by Sun Microsystems, used by many Java
developers. It provides developers with an organized system for documenting their code. Javadoc comments
have an extra asterisk at the beginning, i.e. the delimiters are /** and */, whereas the normal multi-line
comments in Java are set off with the delimiters /* and */.[74]

Implementations
Oracle Corporation is the current owner of the official implementation of the Java SE platform, following
their acquisition of Sun Microsystems on January 27, 2010. This implementation is based on the original
implementation of Java by Sun. The Oracle implementation is available for Microsoft Windows (still works
for XP, while only later versions are currently officially supported), macOS, Linux, and Solaris. Because
Java lacks any formal standardization recognized by Ecma International, ISO/IEC, ANSI, or other third-
party standards organization, the Oracle implementation is the de facto standard.

The Oracle implementation is packaged into two different distributions: The Java Runtime Environment
(JRE) which contains the parts of the Java SE platform required to run Java programs and is intended for
end users, and the Java Development Kit (JDK), which is intended for software developers and includes
development tools such as the Java compiler, Javadoc, Jar, and a debugger. Oracle has also released
GraalVM, a high performance Java dynamic compiler and interpreter.

OpenJDK is another notable Java SE implementation that is licensed under the GNU GPL. The
implementation started when Sun began releasing the Java source code under the GPL. As of Java SE 7,
OpenJDK is the official Java reference implementation.

The goal of Java is to make all implementations of Java compatible. Historically, Sun's trademark license for
usage of the Java brand insists that all implementations be compatible. This resulted in a legal dispute with
Microsoft after Sun claimed that the Microsoft implementation did not support RMI or JNI and had added
platform-specific features of their own. Sun sued in 1997, and, in 2001, won a settlement of US$20 million,
as well as a court order enforcing the terms of the license from Sun.[75] As a result, Microsoft no longer
ships Java with Windows.

Platform-independent Java is essential to Java EE, and an even more rigorous validation is required to
certify an implementation. This environment enables portable server-side applications.

Use outside the Java platform

The Java programming language requires the presence of a software platform in order for compiled
programs to be executed.
Oracle supplies the Java platform for use with Java. The Android SDK is an alternative software platform,
used primarily for developing Android applications with its own GUI system.

Android

The Java language is a key pillar in Android, an open source mobile

operating system. Although Android, built on the Linux kernel, is written
largely in C, the Android SDK uses the Java language as the basis for
Android applications but does not use any of its standard GUI, SE, ME or
other established Java standards.[76] The bytecode language supported by
the Android SDK is incompatible with Java bytecode and runs on its own
virtual machine, optimized for low-memory devices such as smartphones
and tablet computers. Depending on the Android version, the bytecode is
either interpreted by the Dalvik virtual machine or compiled into native code
by the Android Runtime.

Android does not provide the full Java SE standard library, although the
Android SDK does include an independent implementation of a large subset
of it. It supports Java 6 and some Java 7 features, offering an
implementation compatible with the standard library (Apache Harmony).

The Android operating

Controversy system makes extensive
use of Java-related
The use of Java-related technology in Android led to a legal dispute between technology
Oracle and Google. On May 7, 2012, a San Francisco jury found that if APIs
could be copyrighted, then Google had infringed Oracle's copyrights by the
use of Java in Android devices.[77] District Judge William Haskell Alsup ruled on May 31, 2012, that APIs
cannot be copyrighted,[78] but this was reversed by the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal
Circuit in May 2014.[79] On May 26, 2016, the district court decided in favor of Google, ruling the
copyright infringement of the Java API in Android constitutes fair use.[80] On March 2018, this ruling was
overturned by the Appeals Court, which sent down the case of determining the damages to federal court in
San Francisco.[81] Google filed a petition for writ of certiorari with the Supreme Court of the United States
in January 2019 to challenge the two rulings that were made by the Appeals Court towards Oracle's
favor.[82]

See also
C#
C++
Dalvik, used in old Android versions, replaced by non-JIT Android Runtime
Deterministic Parallel Java
List of Java virtual machines
List of Java APIs
List of JVM languages

Comparison of Java with other languages

Comparison of C# and Java
Comparison of Java and C++
References
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tion/) from the original on March 14, 2016. Retrieved March 18, 2016.
2. "The Arrival of Java 14!" (https://blogs.oracle.com/java-platform-group/the-arrival-of-java-14).
Oracle. March 17, 2020. Retrieved March 17, 2020.
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4. Chaudhary, Harry H. (July 28, 2014). "Cracking The Java Programming Interview :: 2000+
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Works cited
Gosling, James; Joy, Bill; Steele, Guy; Bracha, Gilad; Buckley, Alex (2014). The Java®
Language Specification (https://docs.oracle.com/javase/specs/jls/se8/jls8.pdf) (PDF) (Java SE
8 ed.).
Gosling, James; Joy, Bill; Steele, Guy L., Jr.; Bracha, Gilad (2005). The Java Language
Specification (https://java.sun.com/docs/books/jls/index.html) (3rd ed.). Addison-Wesley.
ISBN 0-321-24678-0.
Lindholm, Tim; Yellin, Frank (1999). The Java Virtual Machine Specification (https://java.sun.co
m/docs/books/vmspec/2nd-edition/html/VMSpecTOC.doc.html) (2nd ed.). Addison-Wesley.
ISBN 0-201-43294-3.

External links
The dictionary definition of Java at Wiktionary
Media related to Java at Wikimedia Commons
Java at Wikibooks
Learning materials related to Java at Wikiversity

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