Part A PDF
Part A PDF
nThe Quality Control Department Quality control procedures fabric and process
(including a representative from the chemical information analytical capabilities.
laboratory).
For each department individuals having the best understanding of the department as a whole
should be selected as the representative. This individual will be in the best position to describe
and quantify the processes carried out as well as being in the best position to make estimates
where necessary.
Note: It may not always be possible to get precise information but it is the function of the
Audit Team to make their best judgements and estimates if specific data are not available.
This information may not be readily available and in some cases may be scattered throughout
the factory. It is important that as much information as possible is collected at this stage to
minimise the amount of investigative work needed later.
It is important that the information collected is as accurate as possible - where assumptions
have been made these should be clearly stated.
Step 4 Understand Factory Operations and Processes
This following general information will need to be obtained or derived:
nConstruction of a flow diagram for each process (example given as Figure 5.1). This
should identify all steps that are carried out and list all of the inputs (including raw materials
process chemicals steam water and energy etc.) outputs (products by-products solid liquid
and gaseous emissions) and any recycling steps. If flow diagrams have already been
collected in the Collection of Baseline Information step they will need to be carefully checked
for recent and/or unrecorded modifications.
nThe information gathered so far should then be verified by conducting a walk through of
the factory. This walk through can also be used to identify and record obvious losses that
are occurring such as leaks and spills. High noise levels should also be noted as these may
indicate that equipment maintenance is required. The information gathered should also be
discussed with Production staff from each department as they will be able to give a good
account of actual operating conditions and problems.
Note: A walk through should be carried Examples of Questions for Production Staff:
out whenever data is missing or there ? How much time is needed to complete each stage of the
appears to be a conflict between 2 process?
different sources of data. ? What are water and energy requirements for each step?
If on-site laboratories exist they should ? What raw materials are used? How are these weighed
be assessed to determine what can be and transported to the production area?
analysed and which specific tests can be ? What rejects are there and what is their volume? What
carried out for example incoming seeds happens to these rejects?
(e.g. acidity) and wastewater quality (e.g. ? How close are operating conditions to design
pH BOD COD). conditions?
Figure 5.1: Example of a Process Flow Diagram (Alkali Refining of Crude Oil)
Process Steps
INPUTS OUTPUTS
n Steam n Condensate
n Crude oil
Heating (recycled to boiler)
Degumming
n Phosphoric acid n Gummy substances
(mixer 1)
Sodium hydroxide
Neutralisation
n n (none)
(mixer 2)
n Water
Separator n Mucilage (sent to soap
(number 1) plant)
Washing
n Hot water n (none)
(mixer 3)
Separator
n (none) n Hot wastewater
(number 2)
Washing
n Hot water n (none)
(mixer 4)
n (none)
Separator
n Hot wastewater
(number 3)
Third Grade
Oil
If specific data are not available best estimates should be used and the basis for these estimates
clearly stated. Other issues that should be quantified include storage and handling losses of raw
materials and existing reuse and recycling steps.
Step 6 Define Outputs
The outputs identified in the process flow diagram need to be quantified. As with the inputs if
specific data are not available best estimates should be used and the basis for these estimates
clearly stated. The following outputs should be considered:
n Process outputs including final and downgraded products (quantity and quality) spillage losses
evaporation losses reusable wastes.
n Wastewater sources the units that they come from their volume and concentration. Examples
include washes and rinses within the processes boiler blowdown floor washing. Combined
wastewater flows should also be clearly identified in terms of their origin where in the factory
this takes place and how they are combined (e.g. into a balancing tank combined in main drain
etc.).
n Solid wastes including information on where they come from what they consist of their volume
and their eventual disposal route (e.g. segregated and sold recycled disposed as a waste off-site).
n Gaseous emissions including in-process sources vents and chimneys.
n Note: A checklist can be used as an aide memoire in collecting the information described in
steps 3-6. The checklist used in the SEAM Project is given as Appendix 5.
⇒the value of the losses incurred. This can be calculated using the cost of the raw material
and the corresponding volume and value of the lost product.
⇒the amount of resources consumed in the production of 1ton of product.
⇒the volume of waste generated in the production of 1ton of product.
Step 8 Benchmarks and Standards
The values derived for resource consumption and wastes generation can then be compared to
national (where they exist) and international averages known as benchmarks to show how well
the factory is performing. These benchmarks can also be used to set targets for the factory to
achieve in order to reduce wastage and optimise production.
At present no benchmarks have been developed specifically for Egypt.
2. These measures are generally easy to implement with little or no capital investment.
3. Identify particularly Hazardous or Polluting Wastes. Pollution in wastewater is an
indicator that valuable raw materials products or potential by-products are being wasted.
Highly polluted wastewaters may also be toxic and hazardous difficult to treat and its
discharge into the environment can cause significant damage as well as exceeding
legislative discharge standards.
4. Develop Other Improvement Measures. These can include:
Priority 1: Factors where there are significant polluting effects or a strong probability of an
incident which will require urgent and effective action OR where the company is acting
illegally OR significant benefit to the company will result through reduced costs or improved
efficiency. This group will include most of the Obvious Improvement Measures described in
Step 9 which will be very easy and cheap to implement. The financial benefit to the company
will exceed the cost of implementation within a short time (less than 1 year).
Priority 2: Factors where there are apparent polluting effects or a probability of an incident
which will damage the environment OR is a significant risk to the health and safety of staff OR
the benefits to the company will result through investment in the medium term (1-3 years).
Priority 3: Factors which will not have immediate adverse consequences but where the
company can expect benefits in the longer term through reduced costs or better employee
customer or public relations.
necessary. For example if one chemical has been substituted by another revised instructions to
the purchasing department will be required.
3. Monitoring and Evaluation - this will need to be carried out once implementation has been
completed to ensure that the project is performing normally and that the expected benefits
are being realised. This will help identify - and solve - any unforeseen problems at an early
stage as well as informing management of progress.
nTemperature.
nConductivity.
nTurbidity.
npH.
n Wherever possible dry cleaning and removal of solids should be carried out before wet
cleaning. This will allow spilt products (e.g. soap) to be recovered and will also minimise
the strength of the final effluent.
Raw materials can also be conserved by:
n Identifying how they interact with processes substrates and other chemicals.
n Determining their environmental effects proper handling and emergency procedures.
n Adopting a system that allows mislabelled drums to be quickly identified to reduce the
likelihood of the wrong chemicals being used.
Staff training concerning the causes and effects of pollution along with how it can be
effectively eliminated will increase awareness and help to eliminate a significant number of
these problems.
At another factory upgrading of the existing steam network was carried out. This included
rehabilitation of steam lines boiler tuning and improved treatment of boiler feedwater recycling of
steam condensate replacement of faulty/broken valves replacement or repair of steam traps and
pipes and the insulation of hot water and steam pipes. As a result of these actions steam
consumption has been reduced by 1800 tons of steam per month and one boiler was taken off
line. This resulted in annual savings of over LE550000 for a capital investment of LE30000
(see Waste Minimisation at Sila Edible Oil Co. Fayoum Appendix 7).Other actions including
some equipment modifications are also recommended. Typical modifications for energy
conservation include:
LE13000 in terms of reduced water consumption alone were calculated. In another factory
recycling the cooling water from the soap plant to a chiller rather than disposing of it to the
sewer would save around 1975m3 per day. Initial calculations showed that for a capital
investment of LE10000 annual savings of around LE135000 could be achieved.
n In the oil refining process washwater from the second stage can be recycled and reused in
the first washing step. It can also be used to prepare the caustic soda solution required for
neutralisation.
n An evaporative cooling system is preferable to open cooling circuits. This can reduce
water consumption by 85% as well as reducing the volume of the final effluent.
n Steam condensate can be recycled to save both energy and minimise the consumption of
demineralised water. An assessment of one factory showed that for an initial investment of
LE96000 annual savings totalling LE425000 could be realised. Actions required included
repairing and upgrading the existing system requiring the insulating of the condensate
return pipes as well as installing and insulating components such as steam traps and water
buckets.
⇒ All equipment has to be tightly closed and explosion proof which adds to the cost.
⇒ Miscella has to be concentrated to about 50% oil before being refined which requires a
two stage solvent removal process.
nCollection and recycling of oil spilt in the packaging unit. In most of the factories visited
spillage and consequent loss of the edible oil was common. In one of these factories a
system was installed to recover edible oil from accidental spillages in the bottling
department. Originally the oil fell directly to the floor where it was washed to drain. The
system was modified so that the oil was immediately collected in troughs and then pumped
to a collection tank where the oil was recycled to the refinery for reprocessing.
Approximately 1.16 tons of edible oil are recovered on a monthly basis. This was achieved
for a capital Cost of LE2500 generating annual savings of LE35000 (recovered oil only).
nAccurate adjustment of temperature and pressure in the glycerine distillation unit to prevent
polymer formation. Distillation of crude glycerine should take place under reduced pressure
(6-12 mm Hg absolute) in a current of steam at a temperature ranging between 157 to 160 °C.
If these conditions are not maintained accurately the temperature of thermal decomposition at
this pressure could be less than the boiling of the solution in the distillation unit. The result of
such bad operating conditions is production of a polymeric residue that if discharged to
wastewater streams represents a shock pollution load. Therefore accurate adjustment of
distillation conditions is a very important pollution prevention measure.
nFeeding hot spent lye to a saponification unit (resaponification of hot spent lye). Inefficient
separation of soap from the spent lye discharged from saponification kettles (batch
saponification process) results in high soap content in the spent lye. This usually causes over
flow of foam to the floor of the unit which is usually washed down causing foaming
problems in wastewater. The recommended solution is feeding hot spent lye (at 105°C) to a
saponification unit. A determined amount of free fatty acids based on the residual caustic
soda in the spent lye can be added. The remaining glycerine water mixture will then be
almost free from foams.
nAny wasted soap should be recovered and recirculated to the saponification unit through
a closed loop operation system.
nA direct pipeline between a batch saponification unit and glycerine production unit
should be installed. This will prevent significant spills and loss of material.
nIn the soap production plant pipelines carrying molten soap should be steam jacketed. If
pipelines are not adequately protected and a power cut occurs the soap will cool rapidly
solidifying and clogging the whole system. The plant will then be unable to operate until
the system is cleaned out. In one of the factories audited a capital investment of LE600 was
all that was required to insulate the pipeline which would keep the soap hot for long
enough to allow it to be completely pumped out . This resulted in annual savings of
LE2400 in terms of soap alone - lost revenue due to down time will significantly increase
this value. Some manufacturers tackle this problem by blowing steam to soap deposits and
collecting these deposits in a simple tank although the soap quality will be poor. To avoid
soap deposits building up in this collection tank thus reducing its capacity a steam-jacketed
tank should be used.
nHigh levels of soap dust were commonly observed in soap preparation units. This results
in a thick coating of dust on all surfaces clogging of moving parts and unpleasant working
conditions. In one factory the soap powder recovered from the cyclone was dumped on
the floor and manually transferred back to the main process rather than being recycled in a
closed mechanical system.
nReduction of pollution load discharged from a saponification unit. In an attempt to
reduce the organic load discharged from the saponification process wash water discharged
after completion of the saponification process was collected in an empty pan. Sufficient
fats were added to the pan in order to neutralise the caustic soda The residue was then
boiled using steam and allowed to settle. The incompletely saponified product was been
returned to the first pan to complete saponification. This allowed recovery of fats and
caustic soda and decreased the strength of wastewater significantly.
nRecovery of Fodder Ingredients. Animal fodder production unit tend to be characterised
by heavy dust emissions caused during the loading and unloading of the raw materials.
This results in the loss of valuable raw materials as well as clogging machinery and
generating unpleasant working conditions. In one factory LE127600 was invested in the
installation of a cyclone vacuum system which recovered the ingredients and transferred
them directly to the raw material intake system. Annual savings of LE107520 were
achieved.
nInjectionof a neutralising amine at high pressure into the steam pipeline just after the
boiler. This avoids pipe corrosion by condensate which may become acidic by absorbing
atmospheric carbon dioxide.
nIn addition to process optimisation the assessment of the performance of existing
equipment and possible modifications to improve efficiency will need to be considered.
These following modifications are most likely to be required:
⇒ To replace solvent spray shower (perforated) by fishtail fan flat type to get uniform
and effective extraction.
nRecovery of Broken Seeds. Seeds delivered to oil and soap factories are sieved to
remove stones and gravel (which are disposed as waste) and hulls and broken seeds
(constituting around 1% by volume and containing 25% oil). In most factories audited these
were collected and sold for LE100 as animal feed. Alternatively the process can be
modified so that these are collected and transferred to the preparation unit where they are
further processed. In one factory all that was required was the installation of a screw
conveyor from the sieving and screening area to the seed preparation unit. As a result an
extra 78 tons of oil and 595 tons of meal are produced annually valued at LE463250 for a
capital investment of LE9000.
nLecithin can be recovered from gums produced in the degumming unit and sold to the
food industry as an emulsifier for LE3800. In one factory 100 tons of gum was produced
annually from which about 80 tons of lecithin could be recovered generating a revenue of
around LE304000. In a second factory 22.3 tons of lecithin was produced annually
generating an annual income of LE84700. In one factory which did not have a lecithin
recovery unit gums from soybean processing were sold for lecithin recovery for LE700/ton
generating an annual revenue of LE175000.
nUtilisation of spent earth as a fuel (having a calorific value of around 14MJ/kg). In one
factory the spent earth is supplied free of charge to nearby homes use in for domestic
ovens.
nUtilisation of spent earth as soil conditioner. This use is still being researched the
feasibility of utilising spent earth to improve sandy soils for agricultural use will be
investigated. Physical and chemical properties of spent earth need to be analysed and its
effect on sandy soil will be investigated after biological composting. If proven feasible
using spent earth in soil conditioning can significantly reduce solid waste problems in the
industry and reduce environmental risks of spent earth storage and disposal.
nVolatile Fatty Acids (VFA) escaping from the deodorisation columns will accumulate on
the surface of the hot well. This can be skimmed off manually and used as an animal
fodder constituent.
nDeodorisation distillate (fatty acids) can be collected and sold to soap factories for
manufacturing third grade soap. In one factory distillate from the oil deodorisation process
was sold for LE900/ton giving an annual revenue of LE135000. The same factory also sold
deodorisation distillate from the shortening unit for LE1200/ton generating an annual
income of LE126000.
nThe deodorisation distillate is usually considered to be a waste. It contains odoriferous
volatile substances tocopherol and free acids (it is especially rich in free acids when the
deodoriser is used as a physical refining unit as well as a deodorisation unit as is the case
with palm oil processing). This waste can be utilised to obtain two components which are
economically valuable:
⇒ Tocopherol (vitamin E) is used as a natural antioxidant for edible oils and their products
and
⇒ Distilled free acids are used in the soap and food industries. Processing of this waste to
recover utilisable products also reduces the final pollution load.
nDuring the hydrogen production process (hydrogen being used in the hydrogenation of
oils) oxygen is generated as a by-product. If generated in sufficient quantities this can be
recovered and compressed for use in the medical sector where it is valued at LE1.7/m3.
nThe semi-solid waste generated in the distillation tower in the fatty acid splitting unit and
in the glycerine concentration plant may be suitable for use as a waterproofing or paving
material. At one of the factories audited this pitch-like material is collected from the
glycerine concentration plant stored in barrels and sold annually for LE1000 rather than
being disposed as a solid waste.
nIn the glycerine concentration unit the salt that is generated by the process can be recovered
and reused in the soap plant. In one factory 600kg of salt were generated daily - if managed
correctly this would fulfil all the salt needs of the soap plant and no additional purchases
would be required. This would generate annual savings of LE10000.
nIn one of the factories audited glycerine residues from the glycerine concentration plant are
recycled to the soap plant rather than being lost to the wastewater during cleaning.
nSolid aluminium soap is formed in the glycerine unit as a result of treating the glycerine
water with aluminium sulphate. This is usually treated as a solid waste and disposed off-site.
However this can be recovered and sold as a metallic soap. The aluminium soap could also
be treated with caustic soda to produce aluminium hydroxide.
nImproving handling of deoiled seeds by minimising losses. Deoiled seed cake has an
estimated price of LE250/ton as it is an important ingredient in animal fodder production.
Estimated annual seed losses due to bad control of handling and feeding systems have
reached 1000 tonnes in some cases. In one factory the provision of forklift truck equipped
with suitable platform for proper handling of seed bags was recommended to overcome this.
It was estimated that this would cost LE200000 ultimately saving LE250000 L.E per year
(assuming 100% efficiency of the system) and reducing many wastage problems.
nRecovery of soap stock from wastewater. Although such wastewater may be low in
volume its organic strength is usually significantly high. By segregating this wastewater
stream and then filtering it a BOD load of 73000 mg/l can been reduced by 50%. The semi-
solid filtrate (fatty matter) is then collected and reused in the process.
6.7.3 General
nConstruction of oil and grease traps at the outlet of each process unit to recover fats and
minimise the strength of the final effluent. This should be collected on a regular basis and
either processed on site or sold to soap producing factories. The amount of oil and fatty
matter that was wasted in wastewater and which could be recovered by simple gravity means
reached 600 tons/year in some cases. The capital cost involved in fitting efficient gravity oil
separators is relatively high (about LE100000 per separator) but the benefits are usually high
with a pay back period of less than a year.
nRecovery of fatty matter from the refinery effluent. Fat can be manually collected from the
refinery effluent by scraper acidulated and then split. The wastewater can then be treated or
disposed and the fatty matter transferred to soapstock storage tanks. The benefits of this
intervention are the recovery of product and reduced strength of wastewater. In one of the
factories where this was implemented an additional 29 tons/year of soapstock was recovered
valued at LE500/ton. For a capital investment of LE 5000 annual savings of LE 14500 were
achieved.
nCopper welding electrode residues and copper wires can be collected and sold to copper
processing factories for LE8000 per ton.
nWastewater Segregation. Wastewater produced by oil and soap factories includes process
effluents domestic sewage boiler blowdown cooling tower blowdown and steam condensate.
Of these process effluents have the highest organic loads the effluent coming from the
refinery being particularly strong; with typical BOD values exceeding 3000 mg/l.
The blowdown and condensate are usually low in terms of organic pollution but high in
volume. In general process effluents blowdown and condensate are combined and disposed
generating a high volume organically polluted wastewater. An alternative to combining these
wastewater streams is to segregate them. The cooling and condensate water is of a suitably
high quality to use for land reclamation activities within the factory such as watering lawns
and trees. The heavily contaminated process effluents alone can then be sent straight to the
wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) thus reducing the required capacity of the WWTP (see
section 6.10).
nIn one factory the effluent disposal costs were reduced by LE18000/year for no additional
cost (existing structures used). This was also recorded in another factory where the
combined effluent was 420-650m3/hour of which process effluent was only 20-30m3/hour.
Segregation of the heavily polluted wastewater from this reduced the required WWTP
capacity resulting in capital expenditure savings of LE680000.
Current research and experience suggests that one or more of the following steps will be
needed to effectively treat from an oil and soap factory:
nDissolved air floatation is an efficient method of oil and fat removal.
nActivated sludge process is efficient in reducing the organic load of effluent down to
allowed levels.
nActivated sludge should be used after physico-chemical separation.
nUse of coagulants can improve the efficiency of dissolved air floatation process.
nIn a study comparing plain floatation dissolved air floatation and dissolved air floatation
aided by coagulants oil removal efficiencies was 50% 60% and 94% respectively.
reviewed each option in more detail to see which met SEAM Project objectives particularly with
regard to compliance with existing laws replicability and sustainability. Factory commitment to
the CP approach was also required and was assessed in terms of how many of the no cost
options had been implemented by the factory.
Table 7.1 Criteria used to Shortlist the Demonstration Projects
Criterion Yes No
Does the project comply with Egyptian laws (i.e. not in known violation of existing laws)?
Does the project comply with the DFID (ODA)/SEAM funding policy?
Does the project result in economic benefits with a relatively short payback period?
Does the Project demonstrate the benefits of waste minimisation and/or CP principles?
Have any low cost measures identified in the audit been implemented?
High Priority
Financial
Is internal or external parallel funding (possibly in kind) available?
Does the Project involve relatively low initial capital expenditure?
Environmental
Is the Project consistent with the priorities set by the NEAP/GEAP/NIPPP?
Does the Project assure/assist in compliance with the Environmental Laws?
Technical
Is the technology appropriate to local conditions?
Does the Company possess appropriate levels of technical skills and resources to
implement and maintain improvements?
Managerial
Does the management show good awareness of environmental issues and willingness to
implement good environmental practices including pollution control at source?
Are managerial and structural barriers to change absent or removable?
Sustainability
Is management willing to commit staff resources to the on-going process of internal auditing
and improvements for pollution control?
Is environmental management likely to be integrated in the existing structure?
Replicability
Are there significant opportunities to replicate the Project?
Project Design and Implementation
Can the Project be completed and evaluated in less than 12 months?
Can any necessary approvals/licenses be obtained within 2 months?
Medium Priority
Environmental
Will organic loads chemical or toxic components be reduced/ eliminated?
Technical
Can the Project be implemented without significant interruption to process schedules?
Can the Project be implemented without training of operators or maintenance personnel?
Managerial
Does the management effectively communicate policy changes within the company?
Replicability
Can the equipment be obtained/manufactured locally?
Social
Will the health and safety of the workers be improved?
Does the project avoid negative effects on the community?
Low Priority
Environmental
Will on-site improvements lead to an improvement in the external environment* ?
Will the project result in a variety of internal environmental improvements?
* Such as water quality air quality health noise transmission land contamination etc.
Based on the discussions in the preceding chapters the main elements of the demonstration
projects address the following issues:
nReuse and Recycling of in-plant materials.
nWater reuse through separation of cooling systems and appropriate physical separation.
nOptimisation of energy use through improved maintenance and process control.
nMinimisation of heavy organic loads via recovery of raw materials products and by-
products.
Product recovery:
nReuse of fines from the Preparation Unit.
nRecovery of broken seeds.
nRecovery of fatty matter from the final effluent.
Material Substitution:
nUse of liquid rather than solid caustic soda.
By introducing these waste minimisation measures water consumption and the organic load of
the final wastewater was reduced such that the final wastewater treatment plant was downsized
by 66%. This downsizing resulted in capital savings of over LE950000; additional savings will
also result from reduced operating and maintenance costs.
The success of this project demonstrates the way barriers can be overcome by having a
champion on site especially when it demonstrates the commitment of management. This
project also shows that many aspects of management which are normally taken for granted
such as controlling overflows and spills are often overlooked until solutions are pointed out.
Management are then to eager to adopt necessary improvements.
7.7.2 Oil and Fats Recovery Tanta Oil and Soap Company Tanta
An industrial audit of the factory indicated that there were a number of low cost measures that
could be implemented to reduce pollution and minimise losses. A number of these have been
implemented by the factory - to date this has involved a total investment of LE621247 resulting
in annual savings of LE637020. By implementing these actions the hydraulic load and organic
load of the wastewater was reduced such that the required capital investment was reduced by
LE500000.
The actions carried out included:
nUpgrading of loading and unloading procedures. During the transfer of oil ghee and fatty
matter to and from the batch reactors and separators spillages often occurred. These losses
were eliminated by improving the existing procedural instructions and by improving their
supervision.
nRecovery of oil ghee and fatty matter. Three gravity oil separators (GOS) units were
installed in the continuous refining unit the fatty acids splitting unit and the deodorisation
unit. This has resulted in the recovery of large volumes of oil and ghee.
nRecovery of animal fodder ingredients. The animal fodder unit used to generate large
volumes of dust particularly during the loading and unloading of the ingredients. This was
recovered by installing a cyclone vacuum system with the recovered material being
transferred directly to the intake system. As well as recovering valuable raw materials
working conditions were also improved.
nWater conservation. Large volumes of water were being wasted as cooling water was
being sent directly to the drain with the process effluents rather than being recycled and
reused in a closed circuit system. This was addressed by segregating these from one another
and sending the cooling water to the rehabilitated cooling towers. This also had the effect of
reducing the hydraulic load of the final effluent.
Introduction of these waste minimisation measures significantly reduced both the water
consumption and the organic load of the final wastewater. As a result the capital investment
required for the final wastewater treatment plant was reduced by LE500000. Additional
savings will also result from reduced operating and maintenance costs.
7.7.3 Reduced Wastage through Improving Raw Water Quality Alexandria Oil and Soap
Company Kafr El-Sheikh
Increasing salinity of the water abstracted from underground wells for use in processing and