CHAPTER ONE

LITERATURE REVIEW

One.1 Introduction

This section will discuss more about the previous study or research that interrelated to
this study in which the evidences from the past can be used as guidelines in order to find out
the acceptable answer for this study.

One.2 Current Performance of National Rugby Team

Rugby is a sport that is gaining popularity in Malaysia. Although rugby is not the
number one sport in the country, it is still active at school, university, club and state levels.
Malaysia also has never missed out on participating in any of the international
championships, and the team's performance has been improving so far (Sani & Huzairi,
2018). Rugby seven (7s) is an anaerobic collision sport which consists of seven players per
team, playing for seven minutes for two quarters per match in the tournaments and up to three
days events (Prather, Zaragoza, Tinnin, Secrest, Goonan, Taylor, & Lemuel, 2020). Besides,
Rugby 7s is also an Olympic collision sport played by both sexes which is males and females
(Lopez, Ma, Weinstein, Hume, Cantu, Victoria, Haleem, Delallo, & Allen, 2018).
In Malaysia, the National men's and women's rugby 7s teams have shown
remarkable success over the last three years and it is such a great achievement. Based on
these outstanding achievements, researchers have interviewed head coaches of the national
rugby 7s teams to discover the secrets of success that have led coaches and athletes to achieve
the best performance so far. The questions that have been asked by a researcher to the
coaches are: what is the team current performance, the great achievements that have been
achieved by team so far, what is the factors that have influenced team performance, how was
the relationship between coach and athlete, and how the coach and athlete’s relationship is
based on the 3Cs model.

According to an interview conducted by telephone with the head coach of the

national men's rugby 7s team, Mr. Mohd Saizul Hafifi Bin Md Noor, 37, the coach has been
involved in rugby for 25 years and has been the head coach of men’s National rugby 7s team
since the year of 2015 to present (five years). In relation to the questions that have been
asked, the coach of men's rugby 7s team declared that,
“the performance of men's rugby 7s team has improved from previous years,
however, players need more exposure training abroad so that all the players can maintain
their performance and improve themselves. Most recently, the men's rugby 7s team placed
second in the Southeast Asian Games 2019 and qualified for the Division 1 Asian Rugby
Sevens Series 2020. Basically, the players physical appearance is one of the key factors that
has influenced team's victory because this kind of sport requires contact, so larger body size
and full of strength was really helpful. In addition, a good relationship between coach and
athlete is also one of the factors which has helped in improving team's performance. Due to
the existence of good relations between me and the players, they seem happy and comfortable
during training and can easily hear the instructions given during the tournament.
Furthermore, all the three interpersonal constructs of 3Cs model was greatly influenced the
achievement of men’s team performance indirectly”.
Meanwhile, an interview was also conducted with the head coach of national
women’s rugby 7s team, Mr. Nik Safuan Ismade bin Nik Man, 39-year-old. Primarily, Mr.
Nik Safuan Ismade bin Nik Man has been involved in rugby for 21 years and has been the
head coach of the women's National rugby team since 2016 until now (four years). Based on
the interview conducted, the coach specified that,
“the performance of women's rugby team is on the level of great pride for retaining
the position of number three in the Southeast Asia Games 2019 and reached number seventh
in Asian Rugby Women’s Sevens Series 2019. As for now, many women's rugby teams have
been formed especially among primary and secondary students based on recent achievements
shown by national women's team. The main factor influencing the performance of the team is
not based on size of the body as a whole, but it is more depth to the individual interests and
they want to try the rugby itself. Besides that, we also have a great coach-athlete relationship
that leads the team towards great results. The relationship that exists between me and my
athlete is more about trusting each other, I trust and feel confidence with my athletes in
achieving success during the tournaments. In terms of commitment, some are very committed
and some are not really giving their commitment during training session and with respect to
the complementarity, it's there but based on certain guidelines. As a whole, I can see that a
good relationship that exists between coaches and athletes are indirectly helping the team to
achieve better sport performance”.
Based on two interviews conducted with the head coach of national men’s and
women’s rugby 7s teams, the existence of good relationship between coach and athlete is
needed in achieving success as the athletes appear to be more comfortable and happier during
training sessions and coaches also trust the athletes in realizing the team's mission. Besides,
the coach of the women's rugby 7s team is a man and as explained, the coach and athlete in
the women’s team have a good relationship between each other, thus, gender differences do
not at all affect the success of the women's team.
Therefore, CAR is essential in achieving outstanding performance of a team.
However, there has been little research done in Malaysia where the head coach also claimed
that there is no further research on CAR has been done with the National rugby 7s teams.

One.3 Roles of Coach & Athlete

There are many factors that can affect the success of athletes in national or
international level and the relationship between coach and athlete played a major role in
shaping a sportsman’s career (Txi, 2019). The individuals who can affect the lives of others
such as in terms of well-being, desires and beliefs, it is considered to be called as a
interpersonal relationship and, the existence of connection between coaches and athletes is
the examples of interpersonal relationship that occurs in the sports surroundings (Crooks &
Wolfe, 2007). Consequently, coaches play an extremely important role in sports
circumstance, predominantly at high levels of sport where they have to make sure that all the
athletes are in good conditions either physically or mentally because the athletes are generally
spending an extra time with coaches compared to household members (Donelly, 1993).
Besides, coaches also need athletes to show their full commitment during training sessions
and give a great response to the coach (Txi, 2019). At the same time, every athlete
correspondingly needs a coach to teach, train, guide and share the existing experiences in
order to improve athlete’s sports performance.
According to Soheili, Tojari, and Amirtash (2013), it is not an easy ways for coaches
to foster good relationship with athletes, nevertheless in order to develop good atmosphere
between both parties, it is underpinned by coach mentality, abilities of interpersonal as well
as psychological behaviors. In recent study done by Norman and French (2013), the
relationship between coaches and athletes that grounded by trust, respect, sharing all the
useful information, as well as interdependent for each other can inspire them to produce a
good relationship. Accordingly, coaches and athletes should work together and rendering to
Jowett (2007), there is a mutual dependence between coaches and athletes in terms of their
thinking and behavior.
Consequently, sport achievements are not based solely on the strength or advantages
of one person because both coaches and athletes need each other to improve the sport
performance, thus, research on the relationship between coach and athlete is important to
establishing good CAR quality.

One.4 Sports Victories based on the Coach-Athlete Relationship

Great sport performance can be achieved when coach and athlete work together in a
harmonious relationship (Coe, 1996). It is supported by Murugeesan and Hasan (2016) where
a great sport performance, by its nature, relies heavily on coaches and athletes who are
concerned with the building of good CAR. Indeed, a good CAR could significantly produce
great results on athlete’s satisfaction, sport performance and life quality (Greenleaf, Gould, &
Dieffenbach, 2001).
The best athletes in the world (which was successful in World Championships and
Olympic Games) often admit that the coach played a major role in the achievement of sport
excellence (Jowett & Shanmugam, 2016). On the contrary, it is rare to hear athletes criticize
the coaches after winning a gold medal or breaking a record.
One of the most successful Olympians in
history, Michael Phelps, in fact, has never thought to work with another coach other than the
former coach Bob Bowman whom Phelps started working together since the age of 11.
Bowman has been the witness and the most responsible person in developing Phelps’s talent
from just a boy of a divorced family, thus become 22 Olympic medalists. The relationship not
only relationship between coach and athlete, but it works very well on different levels such as
parent and child, partner, and close friend (Newberry, 2012). Additionally, coaches and
athletes such as Mary Lou Retton and Bela Karolyi (Olympic gold medalist in gymnastic),
Michael Johnson and Clyde Hart ( World record holder in 400m), as well as Lance
Armstrong and Chris Carmichael (winner of 7-time Tour de France) also several other
examples from Western countries who had experienced a good CAR, which significantly
affect athletes succeeds at the World stage (Murugeesan & Hasan (2016).
In Malaysia, Azizulhasni Awang which is the
National track cyclist has emphasized that one of the best lessons derived from his coach,
John Beasley, was through good communication (Jayabalan, 2015). Likewise, many other
Malaysian national athletes also have the same opinion as Azizulhasni Awang where a good
CAR is one of the important elements to succeed in sports. For examples, Datuk Nicol Ann
David, our National squash queen, has placed her coach as an outstanding mentor and a best
friend (Jayabalan, 2015) while our National badminton player, Datuk Lee Chong Wei also
has placed his coach, Datuk Misbun Sidek, as inspiration. For him, the ways of
communicating and strict coaching methods enforced by Datuk Misbun Sidek is what has led
him to become a champion, and World-Class badminton player (Jayabalan, 2015). The
unique relationship that exists between coach and athlete is known as CAR and this is a great
way for both parties to improve sports performance and personal satisfaction (Jowett &
Shanmugam, 2016).
There are many successes have been achieved as a
result of good relationship that exist between coach and athlete. furthermore, National
athletes in Malaysia have also acknowledged that good CAR are one of the key factors that
influence success, but, it does not go deeper into the 3Cs model. Therefore, in this study the
athlete’s perceptions of CAR will be conducted by using the 3Cs model.

One.5 Coach-Athlete Relationship (3Cs Model)

According to Jowett and colleagues (Jowett &

Poczwardowski, 2007), the CAR has been defined as a condition in which the interpersonal
feelings, thoughts, and behavior between coaches and athletes are mutually dependent.
Furthermore, Jowett (2007) stated that the relationship quality is seen as a dynamic state
consisting of a combination of interactions between coaches and athletes' interpersonal
feelings of Closeness, thought of Commitment and behaviours of Complementarity (known
as 3Cs Model). Consequently, the construction of this 3Cs Model have been chosen
independently to explore the coach and athlete emotional states, behaviours and feelings
(Jowett, 2003; Jowett & Cockerill, 2003; Jowett & Meek, 2000). To measure the emotional,
cognitive and behavioural aspects of CAR, Jowett and Ntoumanis (2004) have developed a
self-report instrument (CART-Q) by utilising the 3Cs Model.
Closeness is defined as an emotional state which is closely linked to respect, trust,
friendship, and value of each other’s within the relationship (Balduck & Jowett, 2010). Same
definition also explained that closeness is an appreciation feeling of emotion and affection for
one another (Cho, Choi, & Huh, 2013) and it can be related to Jowett and Clark-Carter (2006)
evidence where closeness is about belief, respect and feeling of the relationship between
coach and athlete. According to Jowett and Poczwardowski (2007), this relationship nature
often changes from time to time where there would be different of emotions and behaviors
take place, but by having good CAR, the strength of relationship might not be simply affected
by those problems.
Commitment is known as coach-athlete understandings on maintaining their
relations over time, and also the ways of how they communicate towards each other to sustain
their relationship for a long term (Jowett 2007). According to Cho, Choi and Huh (2013), the
objective of commitment is to promote and maintain the relationship between both parties
through honest communication and mutual understanding within each other. To ensure that
coaches and athlete’s feel committed to each other, both sides need to be genuine to one
another.
Complementarity refers to as co-operative interactions that occurred between coach
and athlete in a way, they work together responsively to enhance the quality of one another
(Cho, Choi, & Huh, 2013). Complementarity also had been outlined to reflect on co-
operation, affiliate and act re-actively of the cooperation (Balduck and Jowett, 2010). The
extent to where coaches and athlete’s respond and cooperate to each other could give impact
on perceived level of complementarity in CAR. However, relationship could be weak if coach
and athlete do not communicate effectively according to the existing situation. Ultimately, all
3C’s model of closeness, commitment and complementarity were notable as the important
components needed in achieving effective CAR, and many other researches have been carried
out for more in-depth research findings. However, interpersonal conflicts will occur if there is
a shortfall in terms of closeness, commitment and complementarity in CAR (Jowett & Meek,
2000).

One.6 Theory of Interdependence and Coach-Athlete Relationship

The Interdependence Theory (IT) focuses on how individuals can influence other
individuals in order to achieve their both common goals (Kelley & Thibaut, 1978). In sports
setting, athletes and coaches are mutually dependent where athletes need more provision,
desired to learn and trying to implement what has been taught and for the coaches, they more
to provide supervision, giving support and assisting in the development of athletes in order to
achieve high level performance (Jowett & Nezlek, 2011). Therefore, the relationship between
the coach and the athlete has the nature of dependence as explained by Rusbult, Kumashiro,
Coolsen and Kirchner (2004).

One.6.1.1 Interdependence and the Coach-Athlete Relationship within three

interpersonal constructs

The 3Cs model which known as closeness, commitment and complementarity had
provided an appropriate outlines that explain on mutually dependent of the relationship
between coaches and athletes (Jowett & Nezlek, 2011). Besides, in other study done by
Jowett (2009), feelings (closeness), beliefs (commitment) and actions (complementarity) of
coaches and athletes are three mutually dependent elements that was found in this model
where closeness can be seen as a close relationship that exists between coaches and athletes
such as respecting one another, confidence to the superiority of each other, and valuing each
of human being in order to create positive environment. Next, commitment is referring to an
effort in which both sides tried to give a strong reliability to each other in order to maintain
their relationship. Lastly, complementarity was seen as a situation where coaches and athletes
are depending on each other in order to achieve their successful performance level.

One.6.1.2 Coach-Athlete Interdependence and Accomplishments

In a study done by Jowett and Nezlek (2011), they had done a research regarding on
3Cs Model within the context of interdependent relationships and satisfaction, and result
shown that the 3Cs provides optimistic impacts to the fulfilment of both parties in terms of
their training session or performance achievement. As to defence the results, Jowett and Don
Carolis (2003), stated that there is a positive effects on mutually dependent relationship
between coaches and athletes towards their satisfaction in which the interpersonal constructs
of closeness, commitment and complementarity are highly interconnected with the
performance accomplishments. Besides, Lorimer (2009), also claimed that the superiority of
performance achievements are primarily underlying by the positive interdependence that
occur between coaches and athletes which related to their fulfilment.
On the other hand, LaVoi (2007), had declared that, to enhance the relationship
between coaches and athletes, closeness is the most essential component that must be
established in the relationship and plus, it have been implemented by both parties in order to
achieve the best performance results. In addition to the study of Jowett and Cockerill (2003)
on the research that they have done toward Olympic medallist, they had conclude that a good
relationship between coach and athlete has been seen as a crucial component in assisting
athletes development even if they are at the highest level of competitive games.

One.7 Coach-Athlete Relationship utilising 3Cs Model

According to Li et al., (2015), there are several qualitative researches

studies that have been conducted on interpersonal constructs of Closeness, Co-orientation and
Complementarity (3Cs Model). Jowett and Cockerill (2003) investigated CAR by selecting
12 Olympic medalists as the participants to examine their stories and memories through the
3Cs Model. As a result, the interpersonal constructs of closeness, commitment and
complementarity played a major role in achieving excellent performance. As well, Jowett
(2003) continued to examine the interpersonal conflicts within CAR by applying the 3Cs
model and the study declared that coach and athlete has dissimilar perceptions of their
relationship, in terms of emotional control, psychological state and understanding.
Furthermore, Jowett and Timson-Katchis (2005) also investigated the effect of parental care
on CAR by utilizing 3Cs Model. After interviewing 15 participants from five coach-athlete-
parents triangle relations, various information has been known, in which the parents keep
providing high moral support and opportunities to the athletes, where it could impact CAR
significantly. In addition, Philippe and Seiler (2006) investigated the relationship quality
between male athlete and their male coaches by selecting five male swimmers from Swiss
national swimming team as participants. The study proves that a good relationship preserved
by coach and athlete can lead to an outstanding accomplishment through discussions of 3Cs
Model. In more recent study of Rhind, Jowett and Yang
(2012) on the differences of athlete’s perceptions of CAR quality, results found that athletes
from individual sport (athletics, swimming, archery) tend to feel closer with coaches
compared to athletes from team sport (basketball, cricket, football). Li et al., (2015) studied
12 Olympians, including six Chinese Olympians and six Western Olympians, in the context
of 3Cs Model and the results show that Chinese Olympians have higher satisfaction than
Western Olympics in terms of coach commitment and enthusiasm.
Until now, most of the sports psychology literatures are more focused
on CAR of Western athletes’, especially in North America and Europe (Jowett & Cockerill,
2003; Jowett, 2003; Philippe & Seiler, 2006). One of the important voices missing here is the
voice of Asian athletes, on how they perceive their CAR especially Malaysian athletes. It is
supported by Murugeesan and Hassan (2016) where the studies of CAR that utilizing the 3Cs
model is still under weak acceptance in Malaysia.

One.8 Gender and Coach-Athlete relationship

Gender also has been seen as a factor that can affect CAR quality
(Murugeesan & Hasan, 2016). There has been a lot of research done on studying athletes’
priorities, whether it is better to be trained by coaches of either different-gender or same-
gender. According to the study of Unger and Crawford (1992), female athletes trained by
female coaches are more likely to be emotionally engaged when interacting to each other,
while male athletes who receive training from male coaches are more likely to share their
knowledge on performance improvements. CAR of different gender leads to the question of
compatibility, as male and female have different emotional and motivational levels. In
addition, gender may also be one of mediating factors for effectiveness of CAR (Lirgg,
Dibrezzo, & Smith, 1994; Medwechuk & Crossman, 1994).
In Western countries, strong gender bias in favor of male
coaches can be seen in the men's and women's basketball teams where athletes stated that
male coaches are extra knowledgeable, more competent, tend to excel, and have decent
capability to motivating athletes (Parkhouse & William, 1986). Otherwise, in the study of
Molstad and Whitaker (1087), female basketball players preferred female coaches over male