ABSTRACT

Supply of continuous electricity is still not available in several areas of

the country and the world. At such places, this work will be helpful for

refrigeration of food, medicines, etc... This project investigates the result of an

experimental study carried out to determine the performance of domestic

refrigerator when a Butane which is locally available which comprises of 24.4%

propane, 56.4% butane and 17.2% isobutene which is varied from company to

company is used as a Refrigerant. TheButaneis cheaper and possesses an

environmental friendly nature with no Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) and no

Global Warming Potential (GDP). It is used in world for cooking purposes. The

refrigerator used in the present study is designed to work on BUTANE. The

performance parameters investigated is the refrigeration effect in certain time.

The refrigerator worked efficiently when BUTANE was used as a refrigerant

instead of R134a. Also from the experiment which done in atmospheric

condition, we can predict the optimum value of cooling effect with the suitable

operating condition of regulating valve and capillary tube of the system. The

use of Butane for refrigeration purpose can be environment friendly since it has

no ozone depletion potential (ODP). Usually Butaneis used as a fuel for cooking

food in houses, restaurants, hotels, etc.. and the combustion products ofButane

are CO2 and H2O. In this project we have designed and analyzed a refrigerator

using Butaneas refrigerant. Butaneis available in cylinders at high pressure.

1
When this high pressure Butaneis passed through the capillary tube of small

internal diameter, the pressure of Butaneis dropped due to expansion and phase

change of Butaneoccurs in an isoenthalpicprocess. Due to phase change from

liquid to gas latent heat is gained by the liquid refrigerant and the temperature

drops. In this way Butane can produce refrigerating effect for a confined space.

From experimental investigations, we have found that the COP of a refrigerator

which uses Butane is higher than a domestic refrigerator.

2
 CHAPTER: 1

INTRODUCTION

Due to the huge demand of electricity over the world, we think of

recovering the energy which is already spent but not being utilized further, to

overcome this crisis with less investment. The climatic change and global

warming demand accessible and affordable cooling systems in the form of

refrigerators and air conditioners. Annually Billions of dollars are spent in

serving this purpose. Hence forth, we suggest COST FREE Cooling Systems.

Although government agencies are not able to continuously supply a major

portion of electricity in both the urban as well as in rural areas. Still the people

in these regions require refrigeration for a variety of socially relevant purposes

such as cold storage or storing medical supplies and domestic kitchens this

project has the novelty of using Butane instead of electricity for refrigeration.

This solution is convenient for refrigeration in regions having scares in

electricity.

The term ‘refrigeration’ in a broad sense is used for the process of removing

heat (i.e. Cooling) from a substance. It also includes the process of reducing and

maintaining the temperature of a body below the general temperature of its

surroundings. In other words, the refrigeration means a continued extraction of

heat from a body, whose temperature is already below the temperature of its

surroundings. For example, if some space (say in cold storage) is to be kept at -

3
2ᵒC, we must continuously extract heat which flows into it due to leakage

through the walls and also the heat, which is brought into it with the articles

stored after the temperature is one reduced to -2 ºC. Thus in a refrigerator, heat

is virtually being pumped from a lower temperature to a higher temperature.

The refrigeration system is known to the man, since the middle nineteenth

century. The scientist, of the time, developed a few stray machines to achieve

some pleasure. But it paved the way by inviting the attention of scientist for

proper studied and research. They were able to build a reasonably reliable

machine by the end of nineteenth century for the refrigeration jobs. But with the

advent of efficient rotary compressors and gas turbines, the science of

refrigeration reached its present height.

Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans places large amounts of snow into storage pits

dug into the ground and insulated with wood and straw. The ancient Egyptians

filled earthen jars with boiled water and put them their roofs, thus exposing the

jars to the night’s cool air. In India, evaporating cooling was employed. When a

liquid vaporizes rapidly, it expands quickly. The rising modules of vapor

abruptly increase their kinetic energy and this increase is drawn from the

intermediate surroundings of the vapor. These surroundings are therefore

cooled. The intermediate stage in the history of cooling foods was to add

chemicals like sodium nitrate or potassium nitrate to water causing the

temperature to fall. Cooling wine via above method was recorded in 1550.

4
According to the second law thermodynamics, this process can only be

performed with the supply of some external work. It is thus obvious, that supply

of power (say electrical motor) is regularly required to drive a refrigerator. The

substance which work in a heat pump to extract heat from a cold body and to

deliver it to a hot body is called “refrigerant”. When we think about refrigerator

we only remember refrigeration in kitchen, but actually it is divided in types in

which each type having their own type of functioning. One which used I

industrial purpose is called industrial refrigerator, which is used as food

processing, chemical processing, and cold storage. Industrial refrigeration,

which frequently uses ammonia refrigeration to maintain temperature, is

necessary for computer, foodstuffs, blood vaccines, and quite a few other goods

that must maintain a constant and steady temperature at all times. It works on

the principle that during the conversion of Butaneinto gaseous form, expansion

of Butane takes place.

Due to this expansion there is a pressure drop and increase in volume of

BUTANE that results in the drop of temperature and a refrigerating effect is

produced. This refrigerating effect can be used for cooling purposes. So this

work provides refrigeration for socially relevant needs as well as replaces global

warming creator refrigerants. While going through the literature review in

BUTANE refrigeration system, Conventional VCR (Vapour Compression

Refrigeration System) uses BUTANE as refrigerant and produced the

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refrigerating effect. But in our proposed very simple type of refrigeration

system in which the high pressureBUTANE is passing through a capillary tube

and expands. After expansion the phase ofBUTANE is changed and converted

from liquid to gas and then it passes through the evaporator where it absorbs the

heat and produces the refrigerating effect. After evaporator it passes through the

gas burner where it burns.

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

A.Baskaran&P.KoshyMathews in their paper A Performance Comparison

of Vapour Compression Refrigeration System Using eco-friendly refrigerant

of low Global Warming Potential VCR system with the new R290/R600a

refrigerant mixture as a substitute refrigerant for CFC12 and HFC 134a. The

refrigerant R290/R600a had a refrigerating capacity 28.6% to 87.2% higher

than that of R134a.

A.Baskaran&P.Koshy Mathews in their paper A Performance Comparison

of Vapour Compression Refrigeration System Using Eco Friendly

Refrigerants of Low Global Warming Potential. R600a performance have a

slightly higher than coefficient(COP) R134a for the condensation

temperature of 50 C⁰ and evaporating temperatures ranging between -30 C⁰

and10⁰C.Hence, The coefficient performance (COP) of this mixture was up

to 5.7% higher.

M. Mohanraj et. al. , have studied experimentally the drop in substitute for

R134a with the environment friendly, energy efficient hydrocarbon (HC)

mixture which consists of 45% HC290 and 55% R600a at various mass

charges of 50g, 70g and 90g in domestic refrigerator. The experiments were

7
carried out in 165 litres domestic refrigerator using R134a with POE oil as

lubricant. The discharge temperatures of HC mixtures are found to be lower

than R134a by 13.76%, 6.42% and 3.66% for 50g, 70g and 90g respectively.

The power consumption of HC mixture at 50g and 70g are lower by 10.2%

and 5.1% respectively and 90g shows higher power consumption by 1.01%.

The percentage reduction in pull down time is 18.36%, 21.76% and 28.57%

for 50, 70 and 90g mass charges respectively when compared to R134a. The

HC mixture because of its high energy efficiency will also reduce the

indirect global warming. In conclusion HC mixture of 70g is found to be an

effective alternative to R134a in 165 litres domestic refrigerator.

B.O.Bolaji have Experimental study of R152a/R32 to replace R134a in a

domestic refrigerator and find out that COP obtained by R152a is 4.7%

higher than that of R134a. COP of R32 is 8.5% lower than that of R134a and

propane is an attractive and environmentally friendly alternative to CFCs

used currently used.

R.W.James&J.F.Missenden have use of propane in domestic refrigerators

and conclude that he implications of using propane in domestic refrigerators

are examined in relation consumption, compressor costs, availability, to

energy lubrication, environmental factors and safety propane is an attractive

and environmentally friendly alternative to CFCs used currently.

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Bilal A. Akash et. al, has conducted performance tests on the performance

of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) as a possible substitute for R12 in domestic

refrigerators. The refrigerator which is initially designed to work with R12 is

used to conduct the experiment for LPG (30% propane, 55% n-butane and

15% isobutane). Various mass charges of 50, 80 and 100g of BUTANE were

used during the experimentation.LPG compares very well to R12. The COP

was higher for all mass charges at evaporator temperatures lower than

−15˚C. Overall, it was found that at 80g charge, LPG had the best results

when used in this refrigerator. The condenser was kept at a constant

temperature of 47˚C. Cooling capacities were obtained and they were in the

order of about three to fourfold higher for BUTANE than those for R12

M. Fatouh et. al. investigated substitute for R134a in a single evaporator

domestic refrigerator with a total volume of 0.283 m3 with Liquefied

petroleum gas (LPG) of 60% propane and 40% commercial butane. The

performance of the refrigerator, tests were conducted with different capillary

lengths and different charges of R134a and LPG. Experimental results of the

refrigerator using LPG of 60g and capillary tube length of 5 m were

compared with those using R134a of 100g and capillary tube length of 4 m.

Pull-down time, pressure ratio and power consumption of LPGrefrigerator

were lower than those of R134a by about 7.6%, 5.5% and 4.3%,

respectively. COP of LPGrefrigerator was 7.6% higher than that of R134a.

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Lower on-time ratio and energy consumption ofLPGrefrigerator was lower

than 14.3% and 10.8%, respectively, compared to R134a. In conclusion, the

proposed LPG is drop in replacement for R134a, to have the better

performance, optimization of capillary length and refrigerant charge was

needed.

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 CHAPTER 3

DESIGN OF BASIC COMPONENTS OF BUTANE REFRIGERATION

SYSTEM

Two main components (capillary tube and evaporator) have been

designed in this system.

3.1 DESIGN OF CAPILLARY TUBE

The capillary tube is a fixed restriction-type device. It is a long and

narrow tube connecting the condenser directly to the evaporator. The pressure

drop through the capillary tube is due to the following two factors: 1. Friction,

due to fluid viscosity, resulting in frictional pressure drop. 2. Acceleration, due

to the flashing of the liquid refrigerant into vapour, resulting in momentum

pressure drop. Design parameters for capillary tube are: Cylinder size = 14 kg,

Diameter of cylinder = 295 mm andcapillary = 1.05mm

3.2 DESIGN OF EVAPORATOR

The evaporator is the component of a refrigeration system in which

heat is removed from air, water or any other body required to be cooled by the

evaporating refrigerant. In experimental setup plate and tube type evaporator

has been used because it provides a gentle type of evaporation with low

11
residence time. It also preserves the food and other products from bacterial

attack and requires low installation cost.

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 CHAPTER: 4

TYPES OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

REFRIGERATION:

Refrigeration may be defined as the process of achieving and maintaining

a temperature below that of the surroundings, the aim being to cool some

product or space to the required temperature. One of the most important

applications of refrigeration has been the preservation of perishable food

products by storing them at low temperatures. Refrigeration systems are also

used extensively for providing thermal comfort to human beings by means of air

conditioning. Air Conditioning refers to the treatment of air so as to

simultaneously control its temperature, moisture content, cleanliness, odor and

circulation, as required by occupants, a process, or products in the space. The

subject of refrigeration and air conditioning has evolved out of human need for

food and comfort, and its history dates back to centuries. The history of

refrigeration is very interesting since every aspect of it, the availability of

refrigerants, the prime movers and the developments in compressors and the

methods of refrigeration all are a part of it.

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4.1 NATURAL REFRIGERATION

In olden days refrigeration was achieved by natural means such as the use of ice

or evaporative cooling. In earlier times, ice was either:

1. Transported from colder regions

2. Harvested in winter and stored in ice houses for summer use or

3. Made during night by cooling of water by radiation to stratosphere.

In Europe, America and Iran a number of icehouses were built to store

ice. Materials like sawdust or wood shavings were used as insulating materials

in these icehouses. Later on, cork was used as insulating material. Literature

reveals that ice has always been available to aristocracy who could affordit. In

India, the Mogul emperors were very fond of ice during the harsh summer in

Delhi and Agra, and it appears that the ice used to be made by nocturnal

cooling. In 1806, Frederic Tudor, (who was later called as the “ice king”)

began the trade in ice by cutting it from the Hudson River and ponds of

Massachusetts and exporting it to various countries including India. In India

Tudor’s ice was cheaper than the locally manufactured ice by nocturnal cooling.

The ice trade in North America was a flourishing business. Ice was transported

to southern states of America in train compartments insulated by 0.3m of cork

insulation. Trading in ice was also popular in several other countries such as

Great Britain, Russia, Canada, Norway and France. In these countries ice was

14
either transported from colder regions or was harvested in winter and stored in

icehouses for use in summer. The ice trade reached its peak in 1872 when

America alone exported 225000 tones of ice to various countries as far as China

and Australia. However, with the advent of artificial refrigeration the ice trade

gradually declined.

4.2. ART OF ICE MAKING BY NOCTURNAL COOLING

The art of making ice by nocturnal cooling was perfected in India. In this

method ice was made by keeping a thin layer of water in a shallow earthen tray,

and then exposing the tray to the night sky. Compacted hay of about 0.3 m

thickness was used as insulation. The water looses heat by radiation to the

stratosphere, which is at around -55°C and by early morning hours the water in

the trays freezes to ice. This method of ice production was very popular in

India.

4.3. EVAPORATIVE COOLING

As the name indicates, evaporative cooling is the process of reducing the

temperature of a system by evaporation of water. Human beings perspire and

dissipate their metabolic heat by evaporative cooling if the ambient temperature

is more than skin temperature. Animals such as the hippopotamus and buffalo

coat themselves with mud for evaporative cooling. Evaporative cooling has

been used in India for centuries to obtain cold water in summer by storing the

15
water in earthen pots. The water permeates through the pores of earthen vessel

to its outer surface where it evaporates to the surrounding, absorbing its latent

heat in part from the vessel, which cools the water. It is said that Patliputra

University situated on the bank of river Ganges used to induce the evaporative-

cooled air from the river. Suitably located chimneys in the rooms augmented the

upward flow of warm air, which was replaced by cool air. Evaporative cooling

by placing wet straw mats on the windows is also verycommon in India. The

straw mat made from “khus” adds its inherent perfume also to the air. Now-

adays desert coolers are being used in hot and dry areas to provide cooling in

summer.

4.4. COOLING BY SALT SOLUTIONS

Certain substances such as common salt, when added to water dissolve in

water and absorb its heat of solution from water (endothermic process). This

reduces the temperature of the solution (water + salt). Sodium Chloride salt

(NaCl) can yield temperatures up to -20°C and Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) up to

- 50°C in properly insulated containers. However, as it is this process has

limited application, as the dissolved salt has to be recovered from its solution by

heating.

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4.5. ARTIFICIAL REFRIGERATION

Refrigeration as it is known these days is produced by artificial means.

Though it is very difficult to make a clear demarcation between natural and

artificial refrigeration, it is generally agreed that the history of artificial

refrigeration began in the year 1755, when the Scottish professor William

Cullen made the first refrigerating machine, which could produce a small

quantity of ice in the laboratory. Based on the working principle, refrigeration

systems can be classified as vapour compression systems, vapour absorption

systems, gas cycle systems etc.

4.6. VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS:

The basis of modern refrigeration is the ability of liquids to absorb

enormous quantities of heat as they boil and evaporate. Professor William

Cullen of the University of Edinburgh demonstrated this in 1755 by placing

some water in thermal contact with ether under a receiver of a vacuum pump.

The evaporation rate of ether increased due to the vacuum pump and water

could be frozen. This process involves two thermodynamic concepts, the vapour

pressure and the latent heat. A liquid is in thermal equilibrium with its own

vapor at a pressure called the saturation pressure, which depends on the

temperature alone. If the pressure is increased for example in a pressure cooker,

the water boils at higher temperature. The second concept is that the

evaporation of liquid requires latent heat during evaporation. If latent heat is

17
extracted from the liquid, the liquid gets cooled. The temperature of ether will

remain constant as long as the vacuum pump maintains a pressure equal to

saturation pressure at the desired temperature. This requires the removal of all

the vapors formed due to vaporization. If a lower temperature is desired, then a

lower saturation pressure will have to be maintained by the vacuumpump.

The component of the modern day refrigeration system where cooling is

produced by this method is called evaporator. If this process of cooling is to be

made continuous the vapors have to be recycled by condensation to the liquid

state. The condensation process requires heat rejection to the surroundings. It

can be condensed at atmospheric temperature by increasing its pressure. The

process of condensation was learned in the second half of eighteenth century.

U.F. Clouet and G. Monge liquefied SO2 in 1780 while van Marum and Van

Troostwijk liquefied NH3 in 1787. Hence, a compressor is required to maintain

a high pressure so that the evaporating vapours can condense at a temperature

greater than that of the surroundings.

4.7. DOMESTIC REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS:

The domestic refrigerator using natural ice (domestic ice box) was

invented in 1803 and was used for almost 150 years without much alteration.

The domestic ice box used to be made of wood with suitable insulation. Ice

used to be kept at the top of the box, and low temperatures are produced in the

box due to heat transfer from ice by natural convection. A drip pan is used to
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collect the water formed due to the melting of ice. The box has to be replenished

with fresh ice once all the ice melts. Though the concept is quite simple, the

domestic ice box suffered from several disadvantages. The user has to replenish

the ice assoon as it is consumed, and the lowest temperatures that could be

produced inside the compartment are limited. In addition, it appears that warm

winters caused severe shortage of natural ice in USA. Hence, efforts, starting

from 1887 have been made to develop domestic refrigerators using mechanical

systems. The initial domestic mechanical refrigerators were costly, not

completely automatic and were not very reliable. However, the development of

mechanical household refrigerators on a large scale was made possible by the

development of small compressors, automatic refrigerant controls, better shaft

seals, developments in electrical power systems and induction motors. General

Electric Company introduced the first domestic refrigerator in 1911, followed

by Frigidaire in 1915.

Kelvinator launched the domestic mechanical refrigerator in 1918 in

USA. In 1925, USA had about 25 million domestic refrigerators of which only

75000 were mechanical. However, the manufacture of domestic refrigerators

grew very rapidly, and by 1949 about 7 million domestic refrigerators were

produced annually. With the production volumes increasing the price fell

sharply (the price was 600 dollars in 1920 and 155 dollars in 1940). The initial

domestic refrigerators used mainly sulphur dioxide as refrigerant. Some units

19
used methyl chloride and methylene chloride. These refrigerants werereplaced

by Freon-12 in 1930s. In the beginning these refrigerators were equipped with

open type compressors driven by belt drive. General Electric Company

introduced the first refrigerator with a hermetic compressor in 1926. Soon the

open type compressors were completely replaced by the hermetic compressors.

First refrigerators used water-cooled condensers, which were soon replaced by

air cooled-condensers. Though the development of mechanical domestic

refrigerators was very rapid in USA, it was still rarely used in other countries. In

1930 only rich families used domestic refrigerators in Europe. The domestic

refrigerator based on absorption principle as proposed by Platen and Munters,

was first made by Electrolux Company in 1931 in Sweden. In Japan the first

mechanical domestic refrigerator was made in 1924. The first dual temperature

(freezer-refrigerator) domestic refrigerator was introduced in 1939. The use of

mechanical domestic refrigerators grew rapidly all over the world after the

Second World War. Today, a domestic refrigerator has become an essential

kitchen appliance not only in highly developed countries but also in countries

such as India. Except very few almost all the present day domestic refrigerators

are mechanical refrigerators that use a hermetic compressor and an air cooled

condenser. The modern refrigerators use either HFC-134a (hydro-fluoro-

carbon) or isobutane as refrigerant.

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4.8. AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

Refrigeration systems are also used for providing cooling and

dehumidification in summer for personal comfort (air conditioning). The first

air conditioning systems were used for industrial as well as comfort air

conditioning. Eastman Kodak installed the first air conditioning system in 1891

in Rochester, New York for the storage of photographic films. An air

conditioning system was installed in a printing press in 1902 and in a telephone

exchange in Hamburg in 1904. Many systems were installed in tobacco and

textile factories around 1900. The first domestic air conditioning system was

installed in a house in Frankfurt in 1894. A private library in St Louis, USA was

air conditioned in 1895, and a casino was air conditioned in Monte Carlo in

1901. Efforts have also been made to air condition passenger rail coaches using

ice. The widespread development of air conditioning is attributed to the

American scientist and industrialist Willis Carrier. Carrier studied the control of

humidity in 1902 and designed a central air conditioning plant using air washer

in 1904. Due to the pioneering efforts of Carrier and also due to simultaneous

development of different components and controls, air conditioning quickly

became very popular, especially after 1923. At present comfort air conditioning

is widely used in residences, offices, commercial buildings, air ports, hospitals

and in mobile applicationssuch as rail coaches, automobiles, aircrafts etc.

Industrial air conditioning is largely responsible for the growth of modern

21
electronic, pharmaceutical, chemical industries etc. Most of the present day air

conditioning systems use either a vapour compression refrigeration system or a

vapour absorption refrigeration system. The capacities vary from few kilowatts

to megawatts. Figure shows the basic components of a vapour compression

refrigeration system. As shown in the figure the basic system consists of an

evaporator, compressor, condenser and an expansion valve. The refrigeration

effect is obtained in the cold region as heat is extracted by the vaporization of

refrigerant in the evaporator. The refrigerant vapour from the evaporator is

compressed in the compressor to a high pressure at which its saturation

temperature is greater than the ambient or any other heat sink. Hence when the

high pressure, high temperature refrigerant flows through the condenser,

condensation of the vapour into liquid takes place by heat rejection to the heat

sink. To complete the cycle, the high pressure liquid is made to flow through an

expansion valve. In the expansion valve the pressure and temperature of the

refrigerant decrease. This low pressure and low temperature refrigerant vapour

evaporates in the evaporator taking heat from the cold region. It should be

observed that the system operates on a closed cycle. The system requires input

in the form of mechanical work. It extracts heat from a cold space and rejects

heat to a high temperature heat sink. Schematic of a basic vapour compression

refrigeration system.

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 A refrigeration system can also be used as a heat pump, in which the

useful output is the high temperature heat rejected at the condenser.

Alternatively, a refrigeration system can be used forproviding cooling in

summer and heating in winter. Such systems have been built and are available

now.

4.9. VAPOUR ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

John Leslie in 1810 kept H2SO4 and water in two separate jars

connected together. H2SO4 has very high affinity for water. It absorbs water

vapour and this becomes the principle of removing the evaporated water vapour

requiring no compressor or pump. H2SO4 is an absorbent in this system that has

to be recycled by heating to get rid of the absorbed water vapour, for continuous

operation. Windhausen in 1878 used this principle for absorption refrigeration

system, which worked on H2SO4. Ferdinand Carre invented aqua-ammonia

23
absorption system in 1860. Water is a strong absorbent of NH3. If NH3 is kept

in a vessel that is exposed to another vessel containing water, the strong

absorption potential of water will cause evaporation of NH3 requiring no

compressor to drive the vapours. A liquid pump is used to increase the pressure

of strong solution. The strong solution is then heated in a generator and passed

through a rectification column to separate the water from ammonia. The

ammonia vapour is then condensed and recycled. The pump power is negligible

hence; the system runs virtually on low- grade energy used for heating the

strong solution to separate the water from ammonia. These systems were

initially run on steam. Later on oil and natural gas based systems were

introduced. Figure shows the essential components of a vapour absorption

refrigeration system. In 1922, Balzar von Platen and Carl Munters, two students

at Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm invented a three fluid system that

did not require a pump. A heating based bubble pump was used for circulation

of strong and weak solutions and hydrogen was used as a non-condensable gas

to reduce the partial pressure of NH3 in the evaporator. Geppert in 1899 gave

this original idea but he was not successful since he was using air as non-

condensable gas. The Platen-Munters refrigeration systems are still widely used

in certain niche applications such as hotel rooms etc.

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 Another variation of vapour absorption system is the one based on

Lithium Bromide water. This system is used for chilled water air-conditioning

system. This is a descendent of Windhausen’s machine with LiBr replacing

H2SO4. In this system LiBr is the absorbent and water is the refrigerant. This

system works at vacuum pressures. The condenser and the generator are housed

in one cylindrical vessel and the evaporator and the absorber are housed in

second vessel. This also runs on low-grade energy requiring a boiler or process

steam.

4.10 GAS CYCLE REFRIGERATION

If air at high pressure expands and does work (say moves a piston or

rotates a turbine), its temperature will decrease. This fact is known to man as

early as the 18th century. Dalton and Gay Lusaac studied this in 1807. Sadi

25
Carnot mentioned this as a well-known phenomenon in 1824. However, Dr.

John Gorrie a physician in Florida developed one such machine in 1844 to

produce ice for the relief of his patients suffering from fever. This machine used

compressed air at 2 atm. pressure and produced brine at a temperature of –7oC,

which was then used to produce ice. Alexander Carnegie Kirk in 1862 made an

air cycle cooling machine. This system used steam engine to run its compressor.

Using a compression ratio of 6 to 8, Kirk could produce temperatures as low as

40oC. Paul Gifford in 1875 perfected the open type of machine. This machine

was further improved by T B Lightfoot, A Haslam, Henry Bell and James

Coleman. This was the main method of marine refrigeration for quite some

time. Frank Allen in New York developed a closed cycle machine employing

high pressures to reduce the volume flow rates. This was named dense air

machine. These days air cycle refrigeration is used only in aircrafts whose turbo

compressor can handle large volume flow rates. Figure shows the schematic of

an open type air cycle refrigeration system. The basic system shown here

consists of a compressor, an expander and a heat exchanger. Air from the cold

room is compressed in the compressor. The hot and high pressure air rejects

heat to the heat sink (cooling water) in the heat exchanger. The warm but high

pressure air expands in the expander. The cold air after expansion is sent to the

cold room for providing cooling. The work of expansion partly compensates the

work of compression; hence both the expander and the compressor are mounted

on a common shaft.

26
4.11 STEAM JET REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

If water is sprayed into a chamber where a low pressure is maintained, a

part of the water will evaporate. The enthalpy of evaporation will cool the

remaining water to its saturation temperature at the pressure in the chamber.

Obviously lower temperature will require lower pressure. Water freezes at 0oC

hence temperature lower than 4oC cannot be obtained with water. In this

system, high velocity steam is used to entrain the evaporating water vapour.

High-pressure motive steam passes through either convergent or convergent-

divergent nozzle where it acquires either sonic or supersonic velocity and low

pressure of the order of 0.009 kPa corresponding to an evaporator temperature

of 400C.

27
 The high momentum of motive steam entrains or carries along with it the

water vapour evaporating from the flash chamber. Because of its high velocity it

moves the vapours against the pressure gradient up to the condenser where the

pressure is 5.6-7.4 kPa corresponding to condenser temperature of 35-45oC.

The motive vapour and the evaporated vapour both are condensed and recycled.

This system is known as steam jet refrigeration system. Figure 4.11 shows a

schematic of the system. It can be seen that this system requires a good vacuum

to be maintained. Sometimes, booster ejector is used for this purpose. This

system is driven by low- grade energy that is process steam in chemical plants

or a boiler.

In 1838, the Frenchman Pelletan was granted a patent for the compression

of steam by means of a jet of motive steam. Around 1900, the Englishman

28
Charles Parsons studied the possibility of reduction ofpressure by an

entrainment effect from a steam jet. However, the credit for constructing the

steam jet refrigeration system goes to the French engineer, Maurice Leblanc

who developed the system in 190708. In this system, ejectors were used to

produce a high velocity steam jet (≈ 1200 m/s). Based on Leblanc’s design the

first commercial system was made by Westinghouse in 1909 in Paris. Even

though the efficiency of the steam jet refrigeration system was low, it was still

attractive as water is harmless and the system can run using exhaust steam from

a steam engine. From 1910 onwards, stem jet refrigeration systems were used

mainly in breweries, chemical factories, warships etc. In 1926, the French

engineer Follainimproved the machine by introducing multiple stages of

vaporization and condensation of the suction steam. Between 1928-1930, there

was much interest in this type of systems in USA.

In USA they were mainly used for air conditioning of factories, cinema

theatres, ships and even railway wagons. Several companies such as

Westinghouse, Ingersoll Rand and Carrier started commercial production of

these systems from 1930. However, gradually these systems were replaced by

more efficient vapour absorption systems using LiBr-water. Still, some east

European countries such as Czechoslovakia and Russia manufactured these

systems as late as 1960s. The ejector principle can also be used to provide

refrigeration using fluids other than water, i.e., refrigerants such as CFC-11,

29
CFC-21, CFC-22, CFC-113, CFC-114 etc. The credit for first developing these

closed vapour jet refrigeration systems goes to the Russian engineer, I.S.

Badylkes around 1955. Using refrigerants other than water, it is possible to

achieve temperatures as low as –100oC with a single stage of compression. The

advantages cited for this type of systems are simplicity and robustness, while

difficult design and economics are its chief disadvantages.

30
 CHAPTER: 5

WORKING OF VCR SYSTEM

A vapour compression refrigeration system is an improved type of air

refrigeration system in which a suitable working substance, termed as

refrigerant is used. It condensed and evaporates at temperatures and pressures

close to the atmospheric conditions. The refrigerants usually used for this

purpose are ammonia, carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide.

5.1 COMPARISON BETWEEN GAS CYCLES AND VAPOR CYCLES

Thermodynamic cycles can be categorized into gas cycles and vapour

cycles. In a typical gas cycle, the working fluid (a gas) does not undergo phase

change, consequently the operating cycle will be away from the vapour dome.

In gas cycles, heat rejection and refrigeration take place as the gas undergoes

sensible cooling and heating. In a vapour cycle the working fluid undergoes

phase change and refrigeration effect is due to the vaporization of refrigerant

liquid. If the refrigerant is a pure substance then its temperature remains

constant during the phase change processes.. Hence, the required mass flow

rates for a given refrigeration capacity will be much smaller compared to a gas

cycle. Vapour cycles can be subdivided into vapour compression systems,

vapour absorption systems, vapour jet systems etc. Among these the vapour

compression refrigeration systems are predominant.

31
5.2 MECHANISM OF SIMPLE VAPOUR COMPRESSION

REFRIGERATION SYSTEM:

Compression refrigeration cycles take advantage of the fact that highly

compressed fluids at a certain temperature tend to get colder when they are

allowed to expand. If the pressure change is high enough, then the compressed

gas will be hotter than our source of cooling (outside air, for instance) and the

expanded gas will be cooler than our desired cold temperature. In this case,

fluid is used to cool a low temperature environment and reject the heat to a high

temperature environment. Vapour compression refrigeration cycles have two

advantages. First, a large amount of thermal energy is required to change a

liquid to a vapor, and therefore a lot of heat can be removed from the

airconditioned space. Second, the isothermal nature of the vaporization allows

extraction of heat without raising the Simple Vapour Compression Refrigeration

System temperature of the working fluid to the temperature of whatever is being

cooled. This means that the heat transfer rate remains high, because thecloser

the working fluid temperature approaches that of the surroundings, the lower the

rate of heat transfer. The refrigeration cycle is shown in Figure below and can

be broken down into the following stages: 1 – 2 Low-pressure liquid refrigerant

In the evaporator absorbs heat from its surroundings, usually air, water or some

other process liquid. During this process it changes its state from a liquid to a

gas, and at the evaporator exit is slightly superheated. 2 – 3 The superheated

32
vapour Enters the compressor where its pressure is raised. The temperature will

also increase, because a proportion of the energy put into the compression

process is transferred to the refrigerant. 3 – 4 The high pressure superheated

gas Passes from the compressor into the condenser. The initial part of the

cooling process (3-3a) superheats the gas before it is then turned back into

liquid (3a-3b). The cooling for this process is usually achieved by using air or

water. A further reduction in temperature happens in the pipe work and liquid

receiver (3b - 4), so that the refrigerant liquid is sub-cooled as it enters the

expansion device. 4 - 1 The high-pressure sub-cooled liquid Passes through the

expansion device, which both reduces its pressure and controls the flow into the

evaporator.

5.3 SIMPLE VAPOR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE

It is shown on T-S below at point 1, let T1, P1, and s1 be the properties of

vapour refrigerant . the four processes of the cycle are as follows: 1.

Compression process: The vapour refrigerant at low pressure p1 and

temperature T1 is compressed isentropically to dry saturated vapour as shown

by the vertical line 1-2 on T-s diagram and by the curve 1-2 on p-h diagram.

The pressure and temperature rises from 1 to 2. The work done during

isentropic compression is given by: W=h2-h1. Condensing process The high

pressure and temperature vapour refrigerant from the compressor is passed

through the condenser where it is completely condensed at constant pressure p2

33
and temperature T2. The vapour refrigerant is changed into liquid refrigerant.

The refrigerant while passing through the condenser, gives its latent heat to the

surrounding condensing medium. 3. Expansion process: The liquid refrigerant

at pressure p3=p2 expanded by throttling process through the expansion valve to

a low pressure p4=p1 and temperature T4=T1. Some of the liquid refrigerant

evaporates as it passes through expansion valve, but the greater portion is

vaporized in the evaporator. During the throttling process no heat is absorbed or

rejected by the liquid refrigerant. 4. Vaporizing process: The liquid vapour

mixture of the refrigerant at pressure p 4=p1 and temperature T4=T1 is evaporated

and changed into vapour refrigerant at constant pressure and temperature.

During evaporation, the liquid vapour refrigerant absorbs its latent heat of

vaporization from medium (air, water or brine) which is to be cooled. The heat

absorbed or extracted by the liquid vapour refrigerant during evaporation is

given by: RE=h1-h4=h1-hf3……………………………….2 Where hf3 is

sensible heat at T3 (enthalpy of liquid refrigerant leaving the condenser). The

coefficient of performance is ratio of refrigerating effect to the work done.

C.O.P = (h1-h4 ) / ( h1-hf3) = (h1-hf3) / (h2-h1)

34
35
5.4 TYPES OF REFRIGERANT USED IN VAPOUR COMPRESSION

SYSTEMS

A variety of refrigerants are used in vapor compression systems. The

required cooling temperature largely determines the choice of fluid. Commonly

used refrigerants are in the family of chlorinated fluorocarbons. The properties

of these refrigerants are summarized in the below table

36
5.5 ADVANTAGES OF VCR:

 Large amount of refrigeration at lower initial purchase and operating cost.

 Very efficient

 Very compact system for small to very large heat loads.

 Cycle can be reversed for heat pump operation.

DISADVANTAGES OF VCR:

 Parts can wear out.

 System causes noises.

 Potential refrigerant leaks.

37
  Operates in limited orientation.

5.6 APPLICATIONS OF VCR:

 Household refrigerator.

 Air conditioners.

 Water coolers.

 Ice and Ice cream makers.

 Deep freezers.

 Large industrial refrigeration.

 Air conditioning systems.

5.7 FUNDAMENTALS OF REFRIGERATION REFRIGERATION AND

SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:

Refrigeration is the removal of heat from a space at a temperature lower

than the surrounding temperature. Due to the natural frequency of heat to flow

from higher to lower temperature, the rushes to replace the heat removed. But a

refrigerator rejects the heat that is entering into the system back to the

atmosphere. Hence input of work is essential, according to second law of

thermodynamics systems for pumping heat from lower to higher temperatures.

Second law of thermodynamics: The second law of thermodynamics is a limit

law. It gives the upper limit of efficiency of a system. The second law also

acknowledges that processes follow in a certain direction but not in the opposite

38
direction. It also defines the important property called entropy. It is common

sense that heat will not flow spontaneously from a body at lower temperature to

a body at higher temperature. In order to transfer heat from lower temperature to

higher temperature continuously (that is, to maintain the low temperature) a

refrigeration system is needed which requires work input from external source.

This is one of the principles of second law of thermodynamics, which is known

as Clausius statement of the second law.

Clausius’ statement of second law: It is impossible to transfer heat in a

cyclic process from low temperature to high temperature without work from

external source. It is also a fact that all the energy supplied to a system as work

can be dissipated as heat transfer. On the other hand, all the energy supplied as

heat transfer cannot be continuously converted into work giving a thermal

efficiency of 100 percent. Only a part of heat transfer at high temperature in a

cyclic process can be converted into work, the remaining part has to be rejected

to surroundings at lower temperature. If it were possible to obtain work

continuously by heat transfer with a single heat source, then automobile will run

by deriving energy from atmosphere at no cost. A hypothetical machine that can

achieve it is called Perpetual Motion Machine of second kind. This fact is

embedded in Kelvin-Planck Statement of the Second law. Kelvin-Planck

statement of second law: It is impossible to construct a device (engine)

39
operating in a cycle that will produce no effect other than extraction of heat

from a single reservoir and convert all of it into work.

Mathematically, Kelvin-Planck statement can be written as: cycle ≤ 0W

(for a single reservoir) Reversible and Irreversible Processes: Irreversible

Processes: A process is reversible with respect to the system and surroundings if

the system and the surroundings can be restored to their respective initial states

by reversing the direction of the process, that is, by reversing the heat transfer

and work transfer. The process is irreversible if it cannot fulfill this criterion. If

work is done in presence of friction, say by movement of piston in a cylinder

then a part of the work is dissipated as heat and it cannot be fully recovered if

the direction of process is reversed. Similarly, if heat is transferred through a

temperature difference from higher temperature to a lower temperature, its

direction cannot be reversed since heat transfer from lower temperature to

higher temperature would require external work input. These are two examples

of irreversible processes. Reversible process : It is a hypothetical process in

which work is done in absence of friction and heat transfer occurs isothermally.

Irreversibility leads to loss in work output and loss in availability and useful

work. Heat engines, Refrigerators, Heat pumps:

Heat engines : A heat engine may be defined as a device that operates in a

thermodynamic cycle and does a certain amount of net positive work through

40
the transfer of heat from a high temperature body to a low temperature body. A

steam power plant is an example of a heat engine.

Refrigerators : A refrigerator may be defined as a device that operates in a

thermodynamic cycle and transfers a certain amount of heat from a body at a

lower temperature to a body at a higher temperature by consuming certain

amount of external work. Domestic refrigerators and room air conditioners are

the examples. In a refrigerator, the required output is the heat extracted from the

low temperature body.

Heat pumps : A heat pump is similar to a refrigerator, however, here the

required output is the heat rejected to the high temperature body.

Carnot’s theorems for heat engines:

Theorem 1: It is impossible to construct a heat engine that operates between

two thermal reservoirs and is more efficient than a reversible engine operating

between the same two reservoirs.

Theorem 2: All reversible heat engines operating between the same two

thermal reservoirs have the same thermal efficiency. The two theorems can be

proved by carrying out a thought experiment and with the help of second law.

Carnot’s theorems can also be formed for refrigerators in a manner similar to

heat engines. Carnot efficiency: The Carnot efficiencies are the efficiencies of

completely reversible cycles operating between two thermal reservoirs.

41
According to Carnot’s theorems, for any given two thermal reservoirs, the

Carnot efficiency represents the maximum possible efficiency. If we consider a

combined system that includes the system and its surroundings, then the

combined system becomes an isolated system. Then one can write: Δ system +

ΔSS surroundings = σisol> 0 since entropy is produced in all actual processes,

only processes that can occur are those for which the entropy of the isolated

system increases. Energy of an isolated system is conserved whereas entropy of

an isolated system increases. This is called the principle of increase of entropy.

Units of Refrigeration: A unit is used in the field of refrigeration is known as

Ton of Refrigeration. A Ton of Refrigeration is defined as the quantity of the

heat required to be required to be removed from one ton of ice within 24 hours

when the initial condition of water is 0 ᵒC, because same cooling effect will be

given by melting the same ice. 5.8

REFRIGERANTS:

The thermodynamic efficiency of refrigeration system mainly depends on

its operating temperatures. However, important practical issues such as system

design, size, initial and operating costs, safety, and serviceability etc.; depend

very much on the type of the refrigerant selected for given application. Due to

several environmental issued such as ozone layer depletion and global warming

and their relation to the refrigerants used, the selection of suitable refrigerant

has become one of the important issues in recent times. Replacement of an

42
existing refrigerant by a completely new refrigerant, for whatever reason, is an

expensive proposition as it may call for several changes in the design and

manufacturing of refrigeration systems. Hence it is very important to understand

the issues related to the selection and the use of refrigerants. In principle, any

fluid can be used as a refrigerant in vapor compression refrigeration systems

only.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY REFRIGERANTS:

Fluids suitable for refrigeration purpose can be classified into primary

and secondary refrigerants. Primary refrigerants are those fluids, which are used

directly as working fluids, for example in vapor compression and vapor

compression refrigeration systems. When used in compression or absorption

systems, these fluids provide refrigeration by undergoing phase changing

process in the evaporator. As the name implies, secondary refrigerants are those

fluids, which are used for transporting thermal energy from one location to

other. Secondary refrigerants are also known under the name brines or

antifreezes. Of course, if the operating temperatures are above 0ᵒC, then pure air

blower can also be used as secondary refrigerant, for example in large air

conditioning systems. The secondary refrigerants do not undergo phase change

as they transport energy from one location to other.

43
 An important property of secondary refrigerant is its freezing point.

Generally, the freezing point of brine will be lower than the freezing point of its

constituents. The temperature at which the freezing point of brine takes place

depends on its concentration. The concentration at which a lowest temperature

can be reached without solidification is called as eutectic point. The commonly

used secondary refrigerants are the solution of air blower and ethylene glycol,

propylene glycol or calcium chloride. These solutions are known under the

general name of brines. In vapor absorption system, a refrigerant and absorbent

combination is used as the working fluid.

REFRIGERANT SELECTION CRITERIA:

Selection of refrigeration for a particular application is based on the

following requirements

 Thermodynamic and thermo physical properties

 Environmental and safety properties, and

 Economics Thermodynamics and Thermo Physical Properties The

requirements are:

 Suction pressure: At a given evaporated temperature, the saturation

pressure should be above atmospheric for prevention of air or moisture

ingress into the system and case of leak detection. Higher suction

pressure is better as it leads to smaller compressor and displacement.

44
 Discharge pressure: At a given condenser temperature, the discharge

pressure should be as small as possible to allow light weight construction

of compressor, condenser etc.

 Pressure ratio: Should be as small as possible for the high volumetric

efficiency as low power consumption.  Latent and heat of vaporization:

Should be as large as large possible so that the required mass flow rate

per unit cooling capacity will be small.

 Environmental and Safety Properties: Next to the thermodynamic and

thermos physical properties, the environmental and safety properties are

very important. In fact, at the present the environment friendliness of the

refrigerant is a major factor in deciding the usefulness of a particular

refrigerant.

45
 CHAPTER:6

BUTANE REFRIGERATION

In India, more than 80% of the domestic refrigerator utilizes HFC 134a as

refrigerant, due to its excellent thermodynamic and thermo physical properties.

But HFC 134a has a high global warming potential (GWP) of 1300. There is a

need to evaluate various refrigerant options considering the existing

refrigerators in the field and for the future market. CFC’s are principally

destroyed by ultraviolent radiations in the stratosphere; the chlorine released in

the high stratosphere catalyzes the decomposition of ozone to oxygen; and

ultraviolent radiations penetrate to lower altitudes. The ozone impact of car air

conditioners also cannot be ignored. Hydro fluorocarbons (HFC’s) can be

thought of as a replacement, but unfortunately the radiation properties of HFCs

like R-134a make them powerful global warming agents. HFC 134a and the HC

blend have been reported to be substitutes for CFC 12, but they have their own

drawbacks in energy efficiency, flammability and service ability aspects of the

systems. HFC 134a is not miscible with mineral oil, and hence polyol ester oil is

recommended, which is highly hygroscopic in nature.

6.1. BUTANE

BUTANE is a mixture of commercial butane and commercial propane

having both saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons. BUTANE marketed in

46
India shall be governed by Indian Standard Code IS-4576 (Refer Table 1.0) and

the test methods by IS-1448. 6.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND

CHARACTERISTICS OFBUTANE DENSITY BUTANE at atmospheric

pressure and temperature is a gas which is 1.5 to 2.0 times heavier than air. It is

readily liquefied under moderate pressures. The density of the liquid is

approximately half that of water and ranges from 0.525 to 0.580 @ 15 deg. C.

Since BUTANE vapour is heavier than air, it would normally settle down at

ground level/ low lying places, and accumulate in depressions.

6.2.VAPOUR PRESSURE

The pressure inside a BUTANE storage vessel/ cylinder will be equal to

the vapour pressure corresponding to the temperature of BUTANE in the

storage vessel. The vapour pressure is dependent on temperature as well as on

the ratio of mixture of hydrocarbons. At liquid full condition any further

expansion of the liquid, the cylinder pressure will rise by approx. 14 to 15

kg./sq.cm. for each degree centigrade. This clearly explains the hazardous

situation that could arise due to overfilling of cylinders. 1.2.3

FLAMMABILITY BUTANE has an explosive range of 1.8% to 9.5% volume

of gas in air. This is considerably narrower than other common gaseous fuels.

This gives an indication of hazard of BUTANE vapour accumulated in low

lying area in the eventuality of the leakage or spillage. The auto-ignition

temperature of BUTANE is around 410-580 deg. C and hence it will not ignite

47
on its own at normal temperature. Entrapped air in the vapour is hazardous in an

unpurged vessel/ cylinder during pumping/ filling-in operation. In view of this it

is not advisable to use air pressure to unload BUTANE cargoes or tankers.

6.3 COMBUSTION

The combustion reaction of BUTANE increases the volume of products

in addition to the generation of heat. BUTANE requires upto 50 times its own

volume of air for complete combustion .Thus it is essential that adequate

ventilation is provided when BUTANE is burnt in enclosed spaces otherwise

asphyxiation due to depletion of oxygen apart from the formation of carbon-

dioxide can occur. ODOUR BUTANE has only a very faint smell, and

consequently, it is necessary to add some odourant, so that any escaping gas can

easily be detected. Ethyl Mercaptan is normally used as stenching agent for this

purpose. The amount to be added should be sufficient to allow detection in

atmosphere 1/5 of lower limit of flammability or odour level 2 as per IS : 4576.

6.4 COLOUR

BUTANE is colourless both in liquid and vapour phase. During leakage

the vapourisation of liquid cools the atmosphere and condenses the water

vapour contained in them to form a whitish fog which may make it possible to

see an escape of BUTANE.

48
6.4 TOXICITY

BUTANE even though slightly toxic, is not poisonous in vapour phase,

but can, however, suffocate when in large concentrations due to the fact that it

displaces oxygen. In view of this the vapour posses mild anaesthetic properties.

6.5HAZARDS OF BUTANE

 BUTANE is approximately twice as heavy as air when in gas form and

will tend to sink to the lowest possible level and may accumulate in

cellars, pits, drains etc. BUTANE in liquid form can cause severe cold

burns to the skin owing to its rapid vapourisation.

 Vapourisation can cool equipment so that it may be cold enough to cause

cold burns.

 BUTANE forms a flammable mixture with air in concentrations of

between 2% and 10%.

 It can, therefore, be a fire and explosion hazard if stored or used

incorrectly.

 Vapour/air mixtures arising from leakages may be ignited some distance

from the point of escape and the flame can travel back to the source of the

leak.

 At very high concentrations when mixed with air, vapour is an anesthetic

and subsequently an asphyxiate by diluting the available oxygen.

49
  A vessel that has contained BUTANE is nominally empty but may still

contain BUTANE vapour and be potentially dangerous. Therefore treat

all BUTANE vessels as if they were full.

6.6 PARTS OF BUTANE REFRIGERATOR:

6.6.1 BUTANE CYLINDER:

BUTANE is a mixture of butane and isobutene. It is generally stored at

12.7 bar for house hold purpose cylinder. By using a suitable regulator

BUTANE is sent into capillary tube. BUTANE is used as a fuel for domestic,

industrial, horticultural, agricultural, cooking, heating and drying processes.

BUTANE can be used as an automotive fuel or as a propellant for aerosol, in

addition to other specialist applications BUTANE can also be used to provide

lighting through the use of pressure lanterns.

50
6.6.2 CAPILLARY TUBE:

The capillary tube is the commonly used throttling device in the domestic

refrigeration. The capillary tube is a copper tube of very small internal diameter.

It is of very long length and it is coiled to several turns so that it would occupy

less space. The internal diameter of the capillary tube used for the refrigeration

applications varies from 0.5 to 2.28 mm (0.020 to 0.09 inch). The capillary tube

is shown in picture. The decrease in pressure of the refrigerant through the

capillary depends on the diameter of capillary and the length of capillary.

Smaller is the diameter and more is the length of capillary more is the drop in

pressure of the refrigerant as it passes through the capillary tube.

51
6.6.3 EVAPORATOR:

The evaporators are another important parts of the refrigeration systems.

Through the evaporators the cooling effect is produced in the refrigeration

system. It is in the evaporators when the actual cooling effect takes place in the

refrigeration systems. For many people the evaporator is the main part of the

refrigeration system, consider other part as less useful. The evaporators are heat

52
exchanger surface that transfer the heat from the substance to be cooled to the

refrigerant, thus removing the heat from the substance.The evaporators are used

for wide variety of diverse application in refrigeration and hence the available in

wide variety of shape, sizes and designs. They are also classified in different

manner depending onthe method of feeding the refrigerant, construction of the

evaporator, direction of air circulation around the evaporator, application and

also the refrigerant control.

In the domestic refrigerators the evaporators are commonly known as

freezers since the ice is made in these compartments. In the evaporators the

refrigerant enters at very low pressure and temperature after passing through the

capillary tube. This refrigerant absorbs the heat from the substance that is to be

cooled so the refrigerant gets heated while the substance gets cooled. Even after

cooling the substance the temperature of the refrigerant leaving the evaporator

is less than the substance. In the large refrigeration plants the evaporator is used

for chilling water.

53
6.6.4 PRESSURE GUAGES:

Many techniques have been developed for the measurement of pressure

and vacuums. Instruments used to measure pressure are called pressure gauges

or vacuum gauges.

6.6.5 HIGH PRESSURE PIPES

54
 The range of high pressure pipes covers most application where there is a

requirement to transfer gas at high pressure. They consist of a steel pipe with

steel ball fitted to both ends. Two swiveling connection nipples press these balls

against the seating of the connecting hole and thus sealing against gas leakage.

All pipes are pressure tested to 100 M Pa (14,500 psi) over recommended

working pressure.

6.6.6 HIGH PRESSURE REGULATOR

55
 This type of regulator is used to send high pressure gas from the

cylinders. These are mainly used in functions to Bhatti stoves.

CHAPTER: 7

56
 CONSTRUCTION OF BUTANE REFRIGERATOR

7.1 SETUP OF REFRIGERATOR

The BUTANE refrigerator is shown in the figure. We make the one box

of the Thermo-coal sheet. The thermo-coal sheet size is 15mm used for the

BUTANE refrigerator. The size of the evaporator is 355*254*152 mm³. We

kept the thermo-coal sheet because the cold air cannot transfer from inside to

outside of refrigerator. And the evaporator is wrapped totally with aluminum

tape. The schematically diagram of the BUTANE refrigeration system is shown

in below diagram. The gas cylinder is connected to high pressure regulator,

which is connected to high pressure pipes. To the other end of the high pressure

pipes pressure guage is connected. To another end a copper tube is connected

which is connected to the capillary tube. The capillary tube is fitted with

evaporator. The evaporator coil end is connected to the stove by another high

pressure pipe. One pressure guage is put between capillary tube and cylinder

and another is put at the end of the evaporator.

7.2 WORKING OF BUTANE REFRIGERATOR:

The basic idea behind BUTANE refrigerator is to use the BUTANE to

absorb heat. The simple mechanism of the BUTANE refrigeration working is

shown in the figure below.

57
  BUTANE is stored in the BUTANE cylinder under high pressure. When

the gas tank of regulators is opened then high pressureBUTANE passes

through the high pressure pipe. This BUTANE is going by high pressure

gas pipe to capillary tube.

 High pressure BUTANE is converted in low pressure at capillary tube

with enthalpy remains constant.

 After capillary tube, low pressure BUTANE is passed through the

evaporator. BUTANE is converted into low pressure and temperature

vapor from and passes the evaporator which absorbs heat from the

chamber. Thus the chamber becomes cool down. Thus we can achieve

cooling effect in refrigerator.

 After passing through the evaporator low pressure BUTANE is passed

through the pipe to burner. And we can use the low pressure of BUTANE

in burning processes.

The BUTANE Refrigerator is work on the simple Vapour Compression

Refrigeration system. The working of VCR system is as follows:

Process 2-3: When the compressor is started, it draws the low pressure vapour

from the evaporator at state 2 and compresses it isentropically to sufficiently

high pressure up to state 3. Since in compression work is done on the vapour,

its temp also increases and hence it is converted into low pressure adiabatically

i.e. enthalpy remains constant. After capillary tube, this low

58
pressureBUTANEis passed through evaporator. In the evaporator BUTANE is

converted into low pressure and temperature form which it absorbs the heat

from the cooling chamber. Thus the cooling chamber cools down.

Process 3-4: Hot vapour from compressor under pressure is discharged into the

condenser where condenser cooling medium usually water or surrounding air is

absorb the heat from hot vapour. This converts the hot vapour into liquid and

the liquid is collected in liquid receiver at state 4. Process 4-1: The liquid from

the liquid receiver at high pressure is then piped to a refrigerant control valve

which regulates the flow of liquid into the evaporator. This control valve, while

restricting the flow, also reduces the pressure of the liquid with the result the

liquid change into vapour of low dryness fraction represented by state 1. During

this process the temperature of the refrigerant reduces corresponding to its

pressure. Process 1-2: Finally, the low pressure, low temperature refrigerant

passes through the evaporator coil where it absorb its latent heat from the cold

chamber or from brine solution at constant pressure and converts into vapour at

state 2. It is again supplied to compressor. Thus, the cycle is completed.

The idea behind working of BUTANE refrigeration is to absorb heat from

surrounding by using the evaporation of a BUTANE. The pressure of BUTANE

which is stored in cylinder is at about 80 psi. We are lowering this pressure of

BUTANE up to pressure 15 psi by using capillary and so that cooling is done on

surrounding by absorbing heat isentropically. Pressure of BUTANE in cylinder

59
is high, when the regulator of gas tank is opened then high pressureBUTANE

passes through gas pipe. After that this high pressureBUTANE goes in the

capillary tube from high pressure pipe. In the capillary tube this high

pressureBUTANE is converted into low pressure and hence low temperature

because of expansion of BUTANE gas in capillary tube. Thus we can get

refrigerating effect in refrigerator. After that the low pressureBUTANE from

evaporator is passed to the burner through high pressure pipe and we can use

this low pressure BUTANE for burning for further application. In this project

we use recompressed BUTANE cylinder instead of compressor. In this way we

can achieve refrigerating effect from this system.

60
 CHAPTER: 8

CALCULATIONS

Heat absorbed by BUTANE(Q BUTANE) = Latent heat absorbed (Q L) BUTANE

+Sensible heat gain(QSen) BUTANE

We have the volume flow rate of BUTANE is 0.1 liter per min and the specific

volume of BUTANE at 1.22 bar pressure is 1.763×10-3 m3/Kg.

Therefore mass flow rate of BUTANE is = 0.0001/1.763×10-3 = 0.0567 Kg/min

m = 9.448×10-4 Kg/sec,m BUTANE x Heat absorbed by BUTANE(Q BUTANE) =

Latent heat absorbed (QL) BUTANE +Sensible heat gain(QSen) BUTANE

We have the volume flow rate of BUTANE is 0.1 liter per min and the specific

volume of BUTANE at 1.22 bar pressure is 1.763×10-3 m3/Kg.

Therefore mass flow rate of BUTANE is = 0.0001/1.763×10-3 = 0.0567 Kg/min

m = 9.448×10-4 Kg/sec,m BUTANE xBUTANE.hfg + m BUTANE .cpBUTANE .

(Tsup-Tsat) =9.448×10-4×0.5×375×103×5400+ 9.448×10-4×1.67×(48)

= 0.956812 MJ/Hr. h2

= hf+X.hfg = 107.3 + 0.5 x 375 = 294.8 KJ/Kg hg

= hf+ hfg= 107.3 + 375 = 482.3 KJ/Kg.

61
h3 = hg + Cp. ΔT = 482.3 + 1.67 x 48 = 562.46 KJ/Kg

So the refrigerating effect is, RE = h3 – h2 = 562.46 – 294.8 = 267.66 KJ/Kg

CALCULATION OF COP:

COPof the BUTANE Refrigeration System COP = (h3 – h2)/W

= 267.66/42.39

= 6.3

After finding out the COP of the BUTANE refrigerator we found out the heat

liberated by BUTANE after burning in the burner with the burner efficiency of

92 %.

Heat liberated by BUTANE to atm.

QL= m×Cv

The volume flow rate of BUTANE is 0.1 liter per min and the specific volume

of BUTANE at 1.525 bar pressure is 1.763×10-3 m3/Kg.

Therefore mass flow rate of BUTANE is = 0.0001/1.763×10- 3 = 0.0567 Kg/min

m = 9.448×10-4 Kg/sec

Cv = 46.1 MJ/Kg

QL= 9.448×10-4× 46.1×103 = 43.56 W 

62
.hfg + m BUTANE .cpBUTANE .

(Tsup-Tsat) =9.448×10-4×0.5×375×103×5400+ 9.448×10-4×1.67×(48)

= 0.956812 MJ/Hr. h2

= hf+X.hfg = 107.3 + 0.5 x 375 = 294.8 KJ/Kg hg

= hf+ hfg= 107.3 + 375 = 482.3 KJ/Kg.

h3 = hg + Cp. ΔT = 482.3 + 1.67 x 48 = 562.46 KJ/Kg

So the refrigerating effect is, RE = h3 – h2 = 562.46 – 294.8 = 267.66 KJ/Kg

CALCULATION OF COP:

COPof the BUTANE Refrigeration System COP = (h3 – h2)/W

= 267.66/42.39

= 6.3

After finding out the COP of the BUTANE refrigerator we found out the heat

liberated by BUTANE after burning in the burner with the burner efficiency of

92 %.

Heat liberated by BUTANE to atm.

QL= m×Cv

63
The volume flow rate of BUTANE is 0.1 liter per min and the specific volume

of BUTANE at 1.525 bar pressure is 1.763×10-3 m3/Kg.

Therefore mass flow rate of BUTANE is = 0.0001/1.763×10- 3 = 0.0567 Kg/min

m = 9.448×10-4 Kg/sec

Cv = 46.1 MJ/Kg

QL= 9.448×10-4× 46.1×103 = 43.56 W 

64
 CHAPTER: 9

ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS

9.1 ADVANTAGES:

 Use of BUTANE as a refrigerant also improves the overall efficiency of

by 10 to 20%.

 The ozone depletion potential (ODP) of BUTANE is 0 and Global

warming potential (GWP) is 8 which is significantly negligible as

compare to other refrigerant.

 A part from environment friendly, use of BUTANE also gives us lot of

cost advantages.

 There is 60% reduction in weight of the system due to higher density of

BUTANE.

 This fridge works when electricity is off.

 The parts are effectively silent in operation.

 Running cost is zero

 Eliminates the compressor and condenser.

65
9.2 DISADVANTAGES:

 Efficiency is poor.

 Leakage of BUTANE causes the blast.

 Repairing and servicing of the system is difficult.

 System is very bulky

9.3 APPLICATION:

 It can play an important role in restaurants where continuously cooling

and heating is required.

 It can be used in chemical industries for refrigeration purpose.

 It can be useful in remote parts where electricity is not available.

 It can be used in refineries where consumption of BUTANE is high.

 The system can universally be used in industrial central cooling and

domestic refrigeration and air conditioning as well.

 It can be used in automobiles running on BUTANE or other Gaseous

fuels for air conditioning.

 It can be useful in remotes parts where Electricity is not available.

 Cooling and storage of essentials in remote areas and in emergency

vehicles, such as storage of essential bio-chemicals, injections, etc in an

ambulance, is easily possible.

 It can be used for zero cost air-conditioning of spaces like airports,

shopping malls, etc which have their own gas turbine power-plants.
66
 CHAPTER: 10

COST ESTIMATION

S. NO COMPONENT PRICE

1 EVAPORATOR BOX 2300

2 GAS PIPE 500 

3 CAPILLARY TUBE 470

4 BURNER 2000

5  INSULATOR THERMOCOL 500

6 PASTE 200

7 BUTANE GAS 2750

8 PRESSURE GAUGE 300

9 DIGITAL THERMOMETER 120

10 REFRIGERATOR BOX 1500

TOTAL 10640

67
 CHAPTER: 11

CONCLUSION

The aim of the BUTANE refrigerator was to use BUTANE as a refrigerant and

utilizing the energy of the high pressure in the cylinder for producing the

refrigerating effect. We have the BUTANE at a pressure of 12.41 bar in

Domestic 4.5 kg cylinder equipped with a high pressure regulator and this

pressure has reduced up to 1.41 bar with the help of capillary tube. But if we use

a low pressure regulator as is the practice in conventional domestic BUTANE

gas stove, the pressure of BUTANE after the expansion device and before the

burner would be different. So we have calculated the refrigerating effect with

the help of changes in properties of BUTANE (pressure, temperature, and

enthalpy) before and after the evaporator using high pressure regulator and the

amount of refrigerating effect is determined. With this energy input the COP of

the BUTANE refrigerator is 6.3 and it is greater than the domestic refrigerator.

But in the future scope the result may differ if energy input for 1Kg of

BUTANE production, would be taken from the energy audit report of any

refinery. This system is cheaper at initial as well as running cost. It does not

require an external energy sources to run the system and no moving part in the

system. So maintenance cost is also very low. This system is most suitable for

hotel, industries, refinery, chemical industries where consumption of BUTANE

is very high.

68
We conclude that:

 Propane is an attractive and environmentally friendly alternative to CFCs

used currently.

 Mass flow rate increases with increase in capillary inner diameter rand

coil diameter where as mass flow rate decreases with increase in length. It

was observed that the COP of system increases with similar change in

geometry of capillary tube.

 Cooling capacities were obtained order of about three- to four fold higher

for BUTANE than those for R- 12. capillary tube. COP of BUTANE

refrigerator was higher than that of R134a by about7.6%. BUTANE

seems to be an appropriate long-term candidate toreplaceR134a in the

existing refrigerator

 High COP values were obtained No operation problems have been

encountered compressor. The use of BUTANE as a replacement

refrigerant can contribute to the solution of (ODP) problem and global

warming potential.

69
REFERENCES

[1] Zainal Zakaria and Zulaikha Shahrun“ The possibility of using liquefied

petroleum gas in domestic refrigeration system” International Journal of

Research and Reviews in Applied Science(IJRRAS), December 2011, Volume9

[2] Vishwadipsingh J. Ghariya and Swastik R. Gajjar “International Journal for

Scientific Research and Development” ISSN (online): 2321-0613, March 2014,

Vol.2

[3] Ibrahim Hussain Shah and Kundan Gupta “International Journal of

Engineering Sciences and Research Technology” ISSN: 2277-9655, July 2014,

Vol. 3(206- 213).

[4] Khandare R. S. and Bhane A. B “International Journal of[4] Emerging

Technology and Advanced Engineering” ISSN: 2250-2459, March 2015,

Volume 5.

[5] A Textbook of Refrigeration And Air Conditioning By R.S. Khurmi, S.

Chand Publication.

[6] “PCRA energy audit report”, HPCL BUTANE bottling plant Asauda

Bahadurgarh (Haryana) Dec. 2006.

[7] “Basic statics on Indian petroleum and natural gas” 2006-07.

70
[8] Shank K. Wang, “Handbook of air conditioning and refrigeration” page no.

11.14 chapter 11.

[9] S. J. Cleg, “Thermodynamic analysis of BUTANE as refrigerant for

industrial refrigeration and transportation”, Institute of Transport Studies,

University of Leeds, Working paper of 471, 1996.

[10] Dr. Iqbal Husain, “Analysis of VCR and VAR systems using organic

refrigerants”, CRC press, Taylor and Francis Group, USA, 2012

[11] Text book of refrigeration and air conditioning by Arora and Domkundwar.

[12] Catalogue of Gas Authority of India on “Properties of combustible gases

for industrial purpose

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