ECE 3202 ch2
ECE 3202 ch2
ECE 3202 ch2
The process of imposing low frequency information signal onto a high frequency carrier signal is
known as modulation. Modulation is simply a process of changing some property of the carrier in
accordance with an information signal. Modulation is important for the following reasons:
- To radiate from an antenna of reasonable size.
- To enable more than one user to communicate over a channel at one time by selecting
different carrier frequency (FDM).
- For Effective radiation.
This is the form of modulation used for commercial AM broadcasting. It has the advantage that the
receiver is extremely simple (good for commercial applications, since radio receivers can be made very
cheaply). However, we will see the power efficiency at the transmitter is very poor.
1
Let the carrier be c(t ) Ac cos 2f c t and message signal be m(t ) . Then the block diagram of an AM
modulated wave is as shown in fig. 2.1.
AM Modulator s(t)
c(t)
m(t)
Where Ac is un-modulated carrier amplitude, ka is modulation sensitivity, m(t) is the message signal
(voice, music, data, etc), fc is carrier frequency
Fig 2.2 (a) Message signal m(t). (b) AM wave s(t) for k a m(t ) 1 for all t.
2
The amplitude of the envelope, a(t) is given as
a(t) = Ac [1 + ka m(t)] (2.2)
Which as we see varies in accordance with the message signal m(t). Here, we assume
k a m( t ) 1 for all t. (2.3)
Fig 2.2 shows a typical message waveform m(t) and the resulting AM (part b) wave. Note the envelope
(amplitude) of the wave varies in accordance with m(t), hence, m(t) can be recovered from the
envelope a(t) of s(t). Note also that the envelope function a(t) from equation (2.2) may be generated in
the following way: -
1. Multiply the message waveform m(t) by a suitably small constant ka so that the value ka m(t)
is small in comparison to unity for all time.
2. Add a DC value of 1 Volt to ka m(t).
3. Multiply (scale) the resulting signal [1 + ka m(t) ] by a content Ac to bring the signal up to a
desired level.
4. The envelope from part 3 is then multiplied by a carrier (cosine wave) at the desired
frequency.
Part (c) of fig 2.2 shows the case where equation (2.3) is violated; i.e. ka m(t) > 1, when m(t)< 0. This
causes the amplitude of s(t) to go negative during this interval, which results in a 1800 phase reversal
in the carrier waveform. Note that this condition results in distortion of the envelope of s(t). The
envelop of the modulated wave has the same shape as the baseband signal m(t) provided two
requirements are satisfied:
i. k a m(t ) 1 for all t. This assure that 1 k a m(t ) 0 , avoiding phase reversal of c(t).
ii. f c >> w , where w is the highest frequency component of m(t). Otherwise, the envelope
cannot be visualized and hence, cannot be detected satisfactorily.
3
A
Ackam(t)cos 2fct c ka [M ( f f c ) M ( f f c )]
2
(This is an important result: multiplication of m(t) in the time domain by cos2fct shifts M(f) upwards
and downwards by fc Hz).
This spectrum is shown in Fig 2.3 for a generic-type spectrum M(f). This spectrum contains the
Ak
message spectrum shifted upwards and downwards by fc, weighted by the factor c a . It also contains
2
A
two delta-functions of weight c at frequencies fc. These -functions are the most predominant
2
components present, yet they carry no information. Thus, we see that an AM modulation is wasteful in
terms of the power of the overall modulated signal to power in the message component, i.e. M(f) only.
As shown in fig. 2.3(b), the portion of the spectrum of an AM wave above fc for positive frequency
and below -fc for negative frequencies is referred to as upper side band (USB) and the portion of the
spectrum of an AM wave below fc for positive frequency and above -fc for negative frequencies is
referred to as lower side band (LSB).
For positive frequencies, the highest frequency component of the AM wave is f c W and the lowest
frequency component is f c W . The difference between these two frequencies define the transmission
bandwidth of the AM wave and it is exactly equal to twice the highest frequency of the message signal
i.e., BT 2W .
4
Single Tone Modulation
To visualize the AM process further, we examine the time and frequency domain representations of
s(t) when the message signal m(t) is a sinusoidal. Let m(t) = Am cos(2fmt) where f c >> f m . The
resulting AM waveform is then,
s(t) = Ac[1 + µcos(2fmt)] cos 2fct where µ=Amka. (2.6)
Using the standard trigonometric expansion for the cos (.) cos(.) term in (2.6), we have
5
It is possible to compute the modulation index from measurements taken on the modulated wave itself.
Whenever the message signal is displayed on an oscilloscope, the modulation can be computed from
Vmax and Vmin of the modulated wave.
V Vmin V Vmin
Am max and Ac max
2 2
V Vmin
m max (2.9)
Vmax Vmin
Two-sided frequency spectrum of a single tone modulated wave is shown in fig. 2.5 with
corresponding weight for each delta-function..
Ac/2 S(f) Ac/2
f
-fc-fm -fc -fc+fm fc-fm fc fc+fm
Pc
Ac / 2
2
Ac2
R 2R
PUSB PLSB
mA / 2 2
c
2
m 2 Ac2 m 2 Pc
(2.10)
R 8R 4
m2
Pt Pc PLSB PUSB 1 P
2 C
The power in the side bands depends upon the value of the modulation index. The greater the
modulation index, the higher the sideband power.
AM current Relations
In many cases the power output from an AM transmitter is not measured directly. Instead the output
current in the antenna is measured and the power is calculated. The total modulated current It is
determined by the un-modulated carrier current Ic, and the modulation index m.
Pt I 2R I2 m2 2
t2 t2 1 I t I c 1 m /2 (2.11)
Pc Ic R Ic 2
Efficiency of AM Transmitter
The carrier doesn’t contain message. The message is in the side bands. Each side band contains the
same information. Therefore the efficiency of an AM signal is power in sidebands divided by the total
power.
PUSB PLSB m2
i.e. 2 (2.12)
PT m 2
This has a maximum value of 1/3 = 33.3%. Therefore, DSB-with carrier modulation has a very low
efficiency. This is one of the disadvantages of DSB-with carrier AM. Another disadvantage is that it
requires wide bandwidth ( BT 2W ). However, it is inherently easy to modulate and demodulate.
6
Generation of AM waves
There are two basic ways to produce amplitude modulation. The first is to multiply the carrier by a
gain or attenuation factor that varies with the modulating signal. The second is to linearly mix or add
the carrier and the modulating signals and then apply the composite signal to a nonlinear device or
circuit.
We see from the diagram that v1(t) = m(t) + Ac cos 2fct. By substituting this into (2.13), we get,
v 2 (t ) [m(t ) Ac cos 2f c t ]g p (t ) (2.14)
where gp(t) is a periodic waveform [even signal] with period To = 1/fc, as shown in fig. 2.7.
1 (1) k 1
n 2k 1 (k 1,2,3,...)
2k 1
0 otherwise
1 2 (1) n1
g p (t ) cos[2f c t (2n 1)]
2 n 1 2n 1
7
Fig 2.6 Switching modulator (a) Circuit diagram (b) Idealized input-output relation.
m (t ) 1 2m(t ) 2A
Ac cos 2f c t cos 2f c t c cos 2 (2f c t ) higher order terms
2 2
Ac 4
1 m(t ) cos 2f c t unwanted terms (2.16)
2 Ac
8
The unwanted terms have out-of-band frequency components (DC and ≥ 2fc). These components can
be eliminated by band-pass filtering. Comparing (2.16) with the expression for s(t) (equation 2.1) we
4
see that the modulation index ka = and (2.16) describes an AM waveform.
Ac
Another AM generating circuit which is also the type of switching modulator is given in fig.2.8. The
resulting waveforms are given in fig. 2.9. The diode current shown in fig. 2.9(d) is clipped. The
clipped half cycle will be generated by the LC tuned circuit. Each pulse of diode current, if it were the
only one, would initiate a damped oscillation in the tuned circuit. The oscillation would have an initial
amplitude proportional to the size of the current pulse and a decay rate dependent on the time constant
of the circuit. Since series of diode current pulses are applied to the tuned circuit, each pulse will cause
a complete sine wave proportional in amplitude to the size of the pulse, generating signal waveform
shown in fig. 2.9(e) which is good approximation of AM wave. The process is known as flywheel
effect of tuned circuit and it works with tuned circuit whose Q factor is not too low.
2. Op amp as AM modulator
Another simple amplitude modulator is shown in fig. 2.10. It consists of an operational amplifier (op
amp) and a field-effect transistor (FET) used as a variable resistor. The op amp is connected as a non-
inverting amplifier for the carrier signal. The gain A of the circuit for the oscillator signal is given by
R
the expression Gain A 1 f . Note that this modulator works on the first method of generating AM
Ri
wave.
9
Fig. 2.10 Using a JFET to vary the gain of an op amp: Op-amp modulator
A small signal class A amplifier such as the one shown in fig. 2.11 can also be used to perform
amplitude modulation.
The primary disadvantage of emitter
modulation is the amplifier operates in class
A, which is extremely inefficient. Emitter
modulators are also incapable of producing
high-power output waveforms.
10
5. Linear IC AM Modulators
Linear Integrated Circuit AM modulators are also available and offer excellent frequency
stability, symmetrical modulation characteristics, circuit miniaturization, fewer components,
temperature immunity, and simplicity of design and troubleshooting. Linear IC AM modulators
are basically low-level modulators.
The location of modulator in a transmitter determines whether the circuit is a low level or high-
level transmitter. In low-level modulation, the modulation takes place prior to the output element
of the final stage of the transmitter. In high-level modulators, the modulation takes place in the
final element of the final stage. An example of low power modulator system is shown in fig.
2.12. The collector modulator discussed above is the type of high-level modulators.
Fig. 2.12: Low level modulator systems use liner power amplifiers to increase signal level
before transmission
Demodulation of AM wave
The function of AM detector or demodulator is to recover or reproduce modulating signal or the
original source information/message signal from the modulated wave at the receiver.
Under these conditions, the envelope containing the message signal m(t) can be stripped off of
s(t).
11
For proper operation the time constant also matters:
1
i. Charging time of C1 must be small compared to
fc
ii. C1 must discharge very little between periods of the carrier for voltage across it to follow
the envelope, but not so long that the capacitor will not discharge at maximum rate of s(t);
1 1
i.e., R1C1 where w is the highest frequency component of m(t).
fc w
The resulting output usually has small ripple at carrier frequency. This ripple is easily removed
by low pass filter.
To overcome this shortcoming of AM we may suppress the carrier component from the
modulated wave resulting in DSB-SC modulation. Thus by suppressing the carrier one will get a
DSB-SC wave, which is given by
The main advantage of DSB-SC over conventional AM is that it has a higher efficiency. Yet its
bandwidth is the same as that of the conventional AM.
12
DSB-SC Modulators
The DSB-SC consists of simply the product of the baseband and the carrier wave. A device
performing the multiplication is called product modulator. This can be either balanced modulator
or ring modulator.
1. Balanced Modulator
The circuit diagram for balanced modulator and waveforms are shown in fig. 2.15 and 2.16
respectively. The carrier c(t) is considerably higher in amplitude and frequency than the message
signal m(t). It turns on and off the diodes at high rate.
(e)
Fig. 2.16: Signal waveforms of modulator in fig.2.15
Assuming the +ve reference for the carrier generator is the right terminal, the signal at the primary
of T3 is given by,
m ( t ) , c (t ) 0 (2.18)
v (t )
0 , c (t ) 0 13
The output DSB-SC signal s (t ) m(t ) g p (t ) where gp(t) is a periodic waveform [even signal] with
period To = 1/fc, and amplitude of unity as shown in fig. 2.7. gp(t) can be expressed in a Fourier
series as
g p (t ) C 0 2 C n cos 2f 0 t
n 1
For duty cycle = ½,
1 n 1 sin( n / 2)
Cn sin c( )
2 2 2 (n / 2)
k 1
1 (1)
n 2k 1 (k 1,2,3,...)
2k 1
0 otherwise
1 2 (1) n 1
g p (t ) cos[2f c t (2n 1)]
2 n1 2n 1
1 2 2
Hence, s (t ) m(t )[ cos 2f c t cos 6f c t ...]
2 3
m(t ) 2m(t ) 2
cos 2f c t cos(6f c t ) higher order terms
2 3
2
m(t ) cos 2f c t unwanted terms
Therefore, rejecting the unwanted terms by using BPF that allows only components centered around
f c at the output of the modulator, DSB-SC signal can be obtained.
2. Ring Modulator
The circuit for ring modulator is shown in fig. 2.18. We assume the signal c(t) is much larger than
m(t). Thus c(t) controls the behavior of diodes which would be acting as ON-OFF devices. Consider
the carrier cycle where the terminal 1 is positive and terminal 2 is negative. T1 is an audio
frequency transformer which is essentially an open circuit at the frequencies near about the carrier.
With the polarities assumed for c(t) , D1, D4 are forward biased, where as D2, D3 are reverse biased.
As a consequence, the voltage at point ‘a’ gets switched to a' and voltage at point ‘b’ to b'. During
the other half cycle of c(t), D2 and D3 are forward biased where as D1 and D4 are reverse biased. As
a result, the voltage at ‘a’ gets transferred to b' and that at point ‘b’ to a'. This implies, during, say
the positive half cycle of c(t) , m(t) is switched to the output whereas, during the negative half
cycle, − m(t) is switched. In other words, v(t) can be taken as
m(t ) , c (t ) 0
v (t )
m(t ), c (t ) 0 (2.19)
m(t ) x p (t )
14
Fig. 2.17 Waveform of the signal x p (t ) in equation (2.19)
x p (t )
The Fourier series expansion of can be written as
4
(1) n1
x p (t ) cos[2f c t (2n 1)]
n 1 2n 1
4 4 4
s(t ) m(t ) cos 2f c t cos 6f c t cos10f c t...
Hence, 3 5
4m(t )
cos 2f c t unwanted out of terms terms
The signal at the output of the BPF is
4
s DSB SC (t ) m(t ) cos(2f c t ) (2.20)
Therefore, rejecting the unwanted terms by using BPF that allows only components centered around
f c at the output of the modulator, DSB-SC signal can be obtained. Fig. 2.19 shows the waveforms
of the input signals (carrier and modulating) and the output signal of ring modulator circuit given in
fig. 2.18.
15
Fig. 2.19 Signal waveforms of modulator in fig.2.18
16
Demodulation of DSB-SC
Non-coherent detection is not possible in DSB-SC. Therefore Coherent detection of the one shown
in fig. 2.20 is used in DSB-SC demodulation.
SSB modulation provides the following advantages as compared to conventional AM and DSB-SC.
1. It conserves frequency spectrum since only one of the side band is transmitted.
2. It requires relatively low power as compared to conventional AM.
3. Noise decrease since the Bw has decreased by half.
The benefit of using SSB is therefore derived from the reduced bandwidth requirement and the
elimination of the high power carrier wave. The principal disadvantage of the SSB system is its cost
and complexity.
SSB Modulators
The are two methods of generating SSB
1. Frequency Discrimination Method (Filter Method)
2. Phase Discrimination Method
17
In designing the bandpass filter in the SSB generator system in fig.2.21, the filter must have a pass
band at the same frequency range as the spectrum of the desired sideband. This type of frequency
discrimination can be satisfied only by using highly selective filter, which can be realized using
crystal and ceramic filters.
Demodulation of SSB
1. Coherent Detection
To demodulate an SSB wave and extract the baseband signal m(t), we have to shift the spectrum of
the sideband by ± fc so as to convert the transmitted sideband back to the baseband signal.
This can be accomplished by using coherent detection, which involves applying the SSB wave,
together with a locally generated sinusoidal wave Vccos(2πfct) to a product modulator and then low
pass filtering the modulator output will produce m(t).
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2.1.4. Vestigial (VSB) AM
When the information signal contains significant components at extremely low frequencies as in TV
signals, the SSB modulation is inappropriate in transmitting such baseband signals due to the
difficulty of isolating one side band. This difficulty suggests another scheme known as VSB
modulation, which is a compromise between SSB and DSB-SC modulation.
AM vestigial sideband (VSB) is a form of amplitude modulation in which the carrier and one
complete sideband are transmitted, but only part of the second sideband is transmitted. Probably
the most widely known VSB system is the picture portion of a commercial TV-broadcasting signal.
The bandwidth required by a VSB system is smaller than the DSB-SC system but higher than the
SSB system.
The VSB modulation can be generated by passing a DSB-SC wave through an appropriate filter
with transfer function H(f).
A
S VSB ( f ) C [ M f c f m M f c f m ]H ( f ) , where M(f) is Fourier transform of m(t).
2
It can also be generated as shown in fig.2.25 by passing the m(t) through Hilbert transform filter
H(f).
Demodulation of VSB AM
AM Transmitters
The transmitter is a part of communication system that accepts the message signal to be transmitted
and converts it into an RF signal capable of being transmitted over long distances. Every transmitter
has three basic functions. First, the transmitter must generate a signal of the correct frequency at a
desired point in the spectrum. Second, it must provide some form of modulation that causes the
information signal to modify the carrier signal. Third, it must provide sufficient power amplification
to ensure that the signal level is high enough so that it will carry over the desired distance.
19
An AM transmitter is shown below. An oscillator generates the final carrier frequency. In most
applications, this will be a crystal oscillator due to high frequency stability of the crystal. The
carrier signal is then fed to a buffer amplifier whose primary purpose is to isolate the oscillator from
the remaining power amplifier stages. The signal from the buffer is applied to the driver amplifier.
This is class C amplifier. It is designed to provide an intermediate level of power amplification.
The purpose of this circuit is to generate sufficient output power to drive the final power amplifier
stage. The final power amplifier, normally just referred to as the final, also operates class C at very
high power. The actual amount of power depends upon the application.
Assuming it as a voice transmitter, the voice from the microphone is amplified and processed by the
speech processor. The speech processor is used for filtering and amplitude control.
To design an AM transmitter one should know about the main blocks of the transmitter. These
include RF oscillators, Buffer amplifiers, Driver amplifiers, power amplifiers, filters and impedance
matching.
Exercise
Investigate the above mention circuits and draw circuit diagram of a typical AM transmitter.
AM Receivers
A conventional AM receiver simply converts an amplitude-modulated wave back to the original
source information. Fig. 2.27 shows a simple block diagram of AM receiver. The RF section
detects, select and amplify the received RF signal. The mixer/converter section down-converts the
RF frequency in to IF frequency. The primary function of the IF section is for amplification and
selectivity. The AM detector demodulates the AM wave and the audio section simply amplifies the
recovered information.
20
2.2. Angle Modulation
Previously, with amplitude modulation systems, the amplitude of the carrier is varied in some way
with the message.
21
2.2.3. Frequency modulator (FM)
A frequency modulator accepts the input as a frequency. The FM generates an output sinusoid
SFM(t) whose instantaneous frequency fi(t) varies with m(t).
Frequency
m(t) SFM(t)
Modulator
(Frequency)
In the following we take the constant k = 0. By subtitling (2.24) into (2.25) we have the (t) for an
FM wave:
t
(t) = 2 f i (t )dt
0
t
= 2fct + 2k f m(t )dt (2.26)
0
Therefore the FM wave SFM(t) is given as:
SFM(t) = Ac cos ( (t))
t
= Ac cos (2fct + 2k f m(t )dt ) (2.27)
0
Suppose we differentiate m(t) before applying to a frequency modulator. The resulting (t) from
(2.6) is
t
dm(t )
(t) = 2f c t 2k f dt
0
dt
2f c t 2k f m(t )
This phase term has exactly the same form as the PM version of (t) in (2.22), except for the
presence of a constant 2. The presence of this constant can be compensated by setting kf as that
2kf = kp. Thus, the following scheme is equivalent to PM:
PM signal
m(t) Differentiator Frequency S PM (t )
Modulator
22
Further, suppose we integrate m(t) before applying it to a phase modulator. The result from (2.22) is
t
(t) = 2f c t k p m(t )dt
0
This version of (t) now has the same form an (t) for the FM case – see (2.26), except for the
presence of the 2 term which can be compensated by adjusting kp. Thus, the following scheme is
equivalent to FM:
Phase FM signal
Integrator
m(t) Modulator S FM (t )
Thus, phase modulation and frequency modulation are interchangeable. For this reason, they are
called angle modulation schemes. We can see therefore that PM and FM are interchangeable. We
may deduce the properties of PM from those of FM, and vice versa.
A PM modulator is box whose output is a sinusoid, whose phase is directly proportional to the input
message. An FM modulator is a box whose output is a sinusoid, whose instantaneous frequency is
directly proportional to the input message.
Examples
1. Sinusoidally modulated FM wave
This is shown in Fig. 2.32. Note that when the sinusoidally modulating wave (a) is large, the
instantaneous frequency of the modulated wave (b) is large and vice-versa.
b) Indirectly as a frequency modulator (as in fig 2.30). Here, we differentiate the original
message m(t) to give the signal shown in Fig 2.32(c). This signal is used to frequency modulate the
carrier.
Fig 2.33 (a) shows the square wave m(t). Fig 2.33(b) shows the frequency modulated version s(t).
Note that the instantaneous frequency of s(t) of Fig 2.33(b) changes in accordance with the
message.
23
Fig 2.33(d) shows the phase-modulated version s(t). We can view Fig 2.33(d) either (i) as direct
phase modulation were the original wave m(t) of Fig 2.33(a) causes abrupt (say 1800) phase
excursions in s(t), or (ii) according to Fig 2.32(b), where we first differentiate m(t) (shown in Fig
2.33(c)) and use the result to frequency modulate the carrier. Since the modulating signal in this
case are impulses, we get very large frequency excursions in s(t) for very short periods of time: this
causes s(t) to abruptly change phase as shown in the Fig 2.33(d).
Frequency modulation is non-linear, i.e. if s1(t) is modulated by m1(t) and, s2(t) modulated by m2(t),
then (s1(t) +s2(t)) is not the wave produced by m1(t) + m2(t) (in AM, DSB-SC and SSB it is) (except
possibly for AM). Therefore the spectrum of an FM wave is not related in simple way to m(t).
Fig 2.32 (a) Sinusoidal modulating wave m(t) (b) Frequency-modulated wave (c) Derivative of m(t)
with respect to time (d) Phase-modulated wave.
24
Fig 2.33 (a) Square modulating wave m(t) (b) Frequency-modulated wave (c) Derivative of m(t)
with respect to time (d) Phase-modulated wave.
Single - tone FM: Phase Deviation, Modulation Index, and Frequency Deviation
f
= 2fct + sin 2fmt. (2.29)
fm
We define the parameter as
f k f Am
= = (2.30)
fm fm
The parameter is called modulation index or phase deviation. Substituting (2.30) into (2.29), we
get the following for the sinusoidally modulated FM wave s(t):
s(t) = Ac cos (2fct + sin 2fmt) (2.31)
Depending on the value of the modulation index, β there are two types of FM: Narrow band FM
(small β) and Wide Band FM (large β).
25
Assignment: Write a short note on the spectral analysis of a sinusoidally modulated FM wave. In
the note you should include the fact that the spectrum of a sinusoidally modulated FM wave is
discrete with components spaced every fm Hz whose amplitude is given by nthe order of the Bessel
fuction of β. Include also the approximate transmission bandwidth of sinusoidally modulated FM
wave which is given as follow.
Transmission Bandwidth
In theory an FM wave contains infinite number of side frequencies so the BW required to transmit
such a signal is similarly infinite in extent. In practice however the FM wave is effectively limited
to a finite number. Using Carson’s rule it is given by
BW 2f 2 f m 2f (1 1 / ) 2( 1) f m
Here is very small, typically < 0.2 radian. In this case, the transmission bandwidth is closely
equal to twice the bandwidth of the message. The approximate form of a narrow band FM wave is
S NBFM (t ) VC cos(2f C t ) VC sin( 2f C t ) sin( 2f m t )
2. Wideband FM (WBFM)
Here is large, and the spectrum consists of a larger number of sidebands. Note that for
sinusoidally-modulated FM, the sidebands act in such a way to vary the instantaneous frequency of
the carrier while still keeping its amplitudes constant. With narrow-band FM, where the frequency
deviation is small, only 2 sidebands are required to vary the frequency of the carrier according to a
sinusoid, and keep the amplitude constant. But when the f gets larger, a more sidebands are
required to do the same job.
Generally speaking, the larger the value of the more immune the FM wave is to noise
contamination.
Here, the idea is to start off with a narrow-band FM wave, and then use frequency multiplication to
increase the deviation f to a desired value. Frequency multiplication multiplies the instantaneous
frequency of the wave; it multiplies the carrier frequency fc, and simultaneously multiplies the
deviation f.
26
We saw previously the FM wave s(t) is described by
s(t) = Accos(2fct + (t)) (2.33)
t
Where (t) = 2 k1 m( t )dt
0
Where m(t) is the message. By assuming that (t) << 1 radian for all t [holds true for NBFM wave],
we have
cos [(t)] 1 and sin [(t)] (t) (2.34)
By writing (2.33) in the form
s(t) = Accos [2fct + (t)]
= Accos (2fct) cos (t) - A sin (2fct) sin(t)
Accos 2fct - A sin (2fct) (t)
t
= Accos 2fct - A sin (2fct) 2 kf m( t )dt .
0
Thus, a narrow-band FM wave may be generated by the block diagram shown in Fig 2.34.
Thus, a narrow-band FM wave can be generated from the procedure fist described. Remember, a
narrow-band FM signal corresponds to a low value of (<0.2).
The question now becomes "how can we correct the narrow-band FM signal to a wide-band FM
signal, with any desired value of ?”
The answer is by frequency multiplication. Suppose we pass s(t) through a circuit which multiplies
the instantaneous frequency of the wave by a factor n. Then, it is easily shown that the output of the
circuit is at center frequency nfc, with frequency deviation nf. Since the original modulating
frequency fm remains unchanged, the effective at the output of the multiplier has increased by a
factor of n. Thus, our objective of achieving a higher value of from the original low - narrow-
band FM accomplished.
Frequency multiplication can be accomplished as follows: pass the narrow-band wave through nth
order non-linearity, followed by band-pass filter centered at nfc, with suitable bandwidth. The
output yields the desired FM modulated wave with a modulation index n.
27
NBFM wave WBFM wave
nth order BPF
Non-linearity
(mod. Index , BT≈2W) (mod. Index n,
Centered at nfc carrier freq. = nfc)
Excites nth
BW=2nfm
harmonic of
input signal
The only problem with indirect method of FM generation, is that if a high value of is required, the
result could be that the value fc becomes too large to be of practical use (recall both fc and get
multiplied by n). To fix this problem, we perform the multiplication in two steps, with a frequency-
mixing (heterodyning) operation in the middle. The mixer translates the FM spectrum to a lower
value of fc without affecting the value of .
Extracts lower freq.
component and hence
shifts FM spectrum to
a lower value
WBFM wave
NBFM n1th order BPF Mixer n2th order BPF
wave non-linearity non-linearity mod. Index
n1 n2,
LO carrier freq.
Multiplies freq. by n1 Multiplies freq. by n2
n2(n1fc f0)
Fig 2.36 Frequency multiplication in two steps, with a frequency-mixing
A difficulty with this approach is that if there is any phase jitter in the original narrow-band FM
generator oscillator (see fig. 2.34), it gets multiplied by a factor n1·n2 at the output. This can result
in excessive phase jitter at the output, which will interfere with the desired frequency modulation.
Likewise, any jitter in the mixer local oscillator will be multiplied n2 times at the output. Therefore,
this approach requires very stable crystal-controlled oscillators to function properly.
This method is much more straightforward. The modulating signal is applied directly to the input of
a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) to produce an FM wave. The modulation index is controlled
by the maximum voltage of m(t), the sensitivity kf of the VCO, and the bandwidth of the message.
In practice, the direct method of FM generation is not often used. This is because VCO's are not
very stable. This results in phase jitter which interferes with the desired frequency modulation.
Hence, the indirect method is used more often in practices.
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2.2.6. Practical Circuits to Generate FM Waves
A varactor diode may be used to generate FM directly. All reverse-biased diodes exhibit a junction
capacitance that varies inversely with the amount of reverse bias. A diode that is physically
constructed so as to enhance this characteristic is termed as varactor diode. Fig 2.37 shows a
schematic of a varactor diode modulator.
In varactor diode modulator, the modulating signal applied to the varactor changes the capacitance
of the diode and, thus, the frequency of oscillation.
With no intelligence signal applied, the parallel combination of C1, L1, and D1's capacitance forms
the resonant carrier frequency. The diode D1 is effectively in parallel with L1 and C1 assuming the
coupling capacitors C3 and C2 that isolates the dc levels and from mixing with intelligence signal
and high-frequency carrier looks like a short to the signals at frequencies other than dc. When the
intelligence signal is applied to the varactor diode, its reverse bias is varied, which causes the
diode's junction capacitance to vary in step with the message signal amplitude. The oscillator
frequency is subsequently varied as required for FM, and FM signal is generated. For simplicity,
the oscillator circuitry is not shown in the circuit.
Varactor diode FM modulators are extremely popular because they are simple to use and are
reliable. However they are used primarily for low index applications, such as two-way mobile radio.
2. Reactance Modulator
Fig 2.38 illustrates a typical reactance modulator circuit diagram for a reactance modulator
using a BJT as the active device. This circuit configuration is called a reactance modulator
because the amplifier looks like a variable reactance load to the LC tank circuit.
Throughout the following discussion, we refer to fig 2.38. The circuit consists of reactance
circuit and the master oscillator which is left out for simplicity. The reactance circuit
operates on the master oscillator to cause its resonant frequency to shift up or shift down
depending on the modulating signal being applied. The reactance circuit appears capacitive
to the master oscillator. In this case, the reactance looks like a variable capacitor in the
oscillator's tank circuit.
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Transistor Q1 makes up the reactance modulator circuit. Resistors R1 and R2 establish a
voltage divider network that biases Q1. Resistor R3 furnishes emitter feedback to
thermally stabilize Q1. Capacitor C3 is a bypass component that prevents ac input signal
degeneration. Capacitor Cs interacts with transistor Q1's inter-electrode capacitance to
cause a varying capacitive reactance directly influenced by the input modulating signal.
The master oscillator can be a Colpitts oscillator built around the second transistor.
Capacitor C4 effectively couples the changes at Q1's collector to the tank circuit of while
blocking dc voltages.
When a modulating signal is applied to the base of transistor Q1 via capacitor C1 and
chokes RFC1, the reactance of the transistor changes in relation to that signal. If the
modulating voltage goes up the capacitance of Q1 goes down, and if the modulating
voltage goes down the reactance of Q1 goes up. This change in reactance is felt on Q1's
collector and also at the tank circuit of the oscillator transistor. As capacitive reactance at
Q1 goes up, the resonant frequency of the oscillator decreases. Conversely, if Q1 's
capacitive reactance goes down the oscillator resonant frequency increases.
The reactance modulator is efficient and provides a large deviation. It is popular and
used often in FM transmitters.
3. Linear IC Modulators
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2.2.7. FM Demodulator
FM demodulators are frequency dependent circuits that produce an output voltage that is
directly proportional to the instantaneous frequency at its input. FM detectors have to
change the frequency deviation of the incoming carrier into amplitude variation. The
most common FM detectors are: Slope detector, phase shift Discriminator, Ratio detector
and PLL demodulator.
The slope detector, phase shift discriminator, and ratio detector are all forms of tuned
circuit frequency discriminators. Tuned circuit frequency discriminators convert FM to
AM and then demodulate the AM envelope with conventional peak detector.
1. Slope Detector
The tuned circuit converts frequency variations in to amplitude variations (FM to AM
conversion). Then the peak detector converts the amplitude variations to an output
voltage whose amplitude is proportional to the frequency changes.
A balanced slope detector is simply two single ended slope detectors connected in
parallel and fed 180 out of phase. The circuit operation is quite simple. The output from
each tuned circuit is proportional to the input frequency, and each output is rectified by
its respective peak detector. Therefore the closer the input frequency is to the tank circuit
resonant frequency, the greater the tank circuit output voltage. The carrier frequency falls
exactly halfway between the resonance frequencies of the two tuned circuits.
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3. Phase shift Discriminator (Foster-Seeley Discriminator)
4. Ratio Detector
The ratio detector, shown in fig. 2.42, has one major advantage over the slope detector
and phase shift discriminator that a ratio detector is relatively immune to amplitude
variations in its input signal.
The operation of a PLL FM demodulator is probably the simplest to understand. It is known that
after frequency lock had occurred the VCO would track frequency changes in the input signal by
maintaining a phase error at the phase comparator. Thus the error signal can be taken as the
information signal.
Fig. 2.44 shows a block diagram of an FM transmitter. Most FM transmitters are used in the VHF
and UHF range, and crystals are not available to generate those frequencies directly. As a result,
the carrier is usually generated at a frequency considerably lower than the final output frequency.
To get the desired output frequency, one or more frequency multiplier stages are used. The
frequency multiplier not only increases the carrier frequency to the desired frequency, but also
multiplies the frequency deviation produced by the modulator as discussed in section 2.2.5.
To design an FM transmitter one should know about the main blocks of the FM transmitter.
These include VHF or UHF oscillators, Buffer amplifiers, frequency multipliers, Driver
amplifiers, power amplifiers, filters and impedance matching.
Exercise
Investigate the above mention circuits and draw circuit diagram of a typical FM transmitter.
2.2.9. FM Receivers
In FM receivers, the voltage at the output of the audio detector is directly proportional to the
frequency deviation at its input. In PM receivers, the voltage at the output of the audio detector is
directly proportional to the phase deviation at its input. Fig. 2.45 shows a simplified block
diagram for a double-conversion superhetrodyne FM receiver.
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2.2.10. Phase Modulation(PM)
As it was seen, PM and FM are quite related. Thus we can deduce about PM from FM. One can
also generate PM from FM by adding a differentiator in front of m(t) in an FM modulator. Thus
all the FM modulators can be made a phase modulators by simply adding a differentiator. This
method of generating PM wave is referred as an indirect method.
In addition to the indirect method one can generate PM using a direct method. This might be
done in many ways, to cite one example we can use a PLL such that the modulating signal is
given to the comparator results in phase-modulated signal at its output.
Another example of direct phase modulator is a simple phase-shift circuit whose resistance or
capacitance can be made to vary with the modulating signal. A varactor diode can be used to vary
capacitance and achieve phase shift modulation as shown in fig. 2.46 (a) and (b).
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2.46 Varactor diode PM circuit
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