VOCABULARIO TEMA 10

- In a nutshell: is a expression meaning “in a few words”, or “in a very brief form”. It is used
as a way of summarising something. An equivalent expression is “in short”.
- bilingual: able to speak two languages.
- conversation: oral communication between people.
- dialect: a special variety of a language. /a language considered as one of a group that have
a common ancestor.
- discourse: a formal discussion of a subject.
- Germanic: Pertainig to the Germanic branch of languages.
- Indo-European: a member of any of the peoples speaking an Indo-European language. /a
large, widespread family of languages, the surviving branches of which include Italic, Slavic,
Baltic, Hellenic, Celtic, Germanic, and Indo-Iranian, spoken by about half the world's
population: English, Spanish, German, Latin, Greek, Russian, Albanian, Lithuanian,
Armenian, Persian, Hindi, and Hittite are all Indo-European languages. Cf. family (def. 14).
- infinitive: the simple or basic form of the verb,
- jargon (jerga): the specialized language used by a particular trade, profession, or group
that is difficult for outsiders to understand:
- mother tongue: the first language that you learn when you are a baby, rather than a
language learned at school or as an adult.
- noun: a word or group of words that refers to a person, place, or thing or any syntactically
similar word.
- participle: a verbal form that can function as an adjective or be used with auxiliaries to
make compound verb forms, as burning in a burning candle or running in She was running.
- phrasal verb: a combination of verb and one or more adverbial or prepositional particles.
- prefix: an affix placed before a base or another prefix, as un- in unkind, and un- and re- in
- preposition: Grammar one of a group of words used before nouns and pronouns to form
phrases that give more information about a verb, noun, or other phrase, usually expressing a
relationship of time, place, or the like.
- sentence: a group of words that forms an independent grammatical unit.
- speaker: One who speaks/ a device that changes electric signals into sound waves;
loudspeaker:
- structure: the way or manner in which something is constructed.
- suffix: an affix that follows the element to which it is added, as -ment in entertainment.
- term (término, plazo, duración...): a word or group of words designating sommething/ time
or period through which something lasts.
- after all (al fin y al cabo; después de todo), in spite of any indications or expectations to the
contrary.
- all the same (a pesar de todo, sin embargo): in spite of this; nevertheless. "she knew they
had meant it kindly, but it had hurt all the same"
- ancestor: a person, typically one more remote than a grandparent, from whom one is
descended.
- anyhow (de todos modos, de todas maneras): in a careless or haphazard way.
- assimilate (to-): take in and understand fully (information or ideas).
- attitude: a settled way of thinking or feeling about something.
- be due (to-) (debido a, gracias a): because of; caused by.
- be made up of (to-): invented: not true.

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- become part of (to-): to blend into a functioning or unified.
- by and large: Generally; when everything about a situation is considered together.
Example, “by and large, the people of this state are not happy with the governor´s policies”
or “There are few things that i don´t like about my job, but by and large it´s very enjoyable”.
- champion: a person who has surpassed all rivals in a sporting contest or other competition.
- championship: a contest for the position of champion in a sport or game/the vigorous
support or defence of a person or cause."Alan's championship of his estranged wife"
- chronological: calculated in term of the passage of time.
- colonisation: the action by a plant or animal of establishing itself in an area.
- colonise (to-): appropriate (a place or domain) for one's own use.
- conquer (to-):overcome and take control of (a place or people) by military force.
- construction: the action of building something, typically a large structure.
- convention (convención/convenio): a way in which something is usually done.
- development: an event constituting a new stage in a changing situation.
- ease (facilidad; comodidad; aliviar): absence of difficulty or effort.
- equivalent: equal in value, amount, function, meaning, etc.
- elastic (elastico): of an object or material) able to resume its normal shape spontaneously
after being stretched or compressed.
- electronics: circuits or devices using transistors, microchips, and other components.
- evolve (to-): (evolucionar) develop gradually
- in a nutshell (en una palabra): in the fewest possible words.
- in order to: according to a particular sequence.
- in short incorporate (to-) (en pocas palabras): to unite or work into something already
existent so as to form an indistinguishable whole.
- leader (lider, dirigente): the person who leads or commands a group, organization, or
country.
- leadership (liderazgo, dirección): the leaders of an organization, country, etc.
- marker (marcador, rotulador): an object used to indicate a position, place, or route.
- massive : large and heavy or solid.
- membership: the fact of being a member of a group.
- migrate (to-): move from one part of something to another part.
- mind you (te importa): used for getting someone's permission to do something. This can
either be polite, impolite, or humorous. If someone says it in a loud way, they are showing
that they are angry or annoyed.
- nevertheless (sin embargo): You use nevertheless when saying something that contrasts
with what has just been said.
- no doubt: You use no doubt to emphasize that something seems certain or very likely to
you.
- purist: someone who believes in and follows very traditional rules or idea
- relation: the way in which two things are connected
- Renaissance: The Renaissance was the period in Europe, especially Italy, in the 14th,
15th, and 16th centuries, when there was a new interest in art, literature, science, and
learning.
- result: something that happens or exists because of something else
- scholar (alumno): A scholar is a person who studies an academic subject and knows a lot
about it. The library attracts thousands of scholars and researchers.
- skill: an ability to do an activity or job well
- skilled: having the abilities needed to do an activity or job well.

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- standing (posición, reputación): Position, status or reputation.
- summarise (to-): give a brief statement of the main points of (something).
- take into consideration (to-): take into account.
- tribesman: a man belonging to a tribe in a traditional society or group.
- yet: still
- accommodation: a room, group of rooms, or building in which someone may live or stay.
- assignment (asignación, cesión): a task or piece of work allocated to someone as part of a
job or course of study.
- be located (to-): situate in a particular place.
- caring (cuidando): the work or practice of looking after those unable to care for themselves,
especially on account of age or illness.
- complex (complejo, complicado): in a close or complicated way
- compound: a thing that is composed of two or more separate elements; a mixture.
- entertainment (entretenimiento, diversion): the action of providing or being provided with
amusement or enjoyment.
- environment: the natural world, as a whole or in a particular geographical area, especially
as affected by human activity.
- exchange: an act of giving one thing and receiving another (especially of the same kind) in
return.
- extracurricular (extraescolar): (of an activity at a school or college) pursued in addition to
the normal course of study.
- flexible: able to be easily modified to respond to altered circumstances.
- handbook: a book giving information such as facts on a particular subject or instructions for
operating a machine.
- host: a person who receives or entertains other people as guests.
- language school: a college at which foreign languages are taught.
- lifestyle; the way in which a person lives.
- master (to-) (dominar, vencer): acquire complete knowledge or skill in (a subject,
technique, or art).
- matter (materia, asunto): a subject or situation under consideration.
- meaning: a description of the features and limits of something
- naturally: without special intervention; in a natural manner.
- nearby: close by
- of course: Of course‟ is similar to „naturally‟. It means the speaker is aware that what s/he is
about to say is common sense and fol- lows from what s/he has just said. Be careful not to
confuse „of course‟ with „off course‟ (there‟s an extra „f‟ here). The latter means something is
not following its expected course or path.
- pace (paso; ritmo de paso): a single step taken when walking or running.
- rudimentary: involving or limited to basic principles.
- barrier: (barrera): a fence or other obstacle that prevents movement or access.
- come to a halt (to-) (parar): Stop, either permanently or temporarily. For example, The
sergeant ordered the men to come to a halt .
- communication: the imparting or exchanging of information by speaking, writing, or using
some other medium.
- Cornish ( es un idioma, una lengua celta británica hablada en el condado británico de
Cornualles): the ancient Celtic language of Cornwall, belonging to the Brythonic branch of
the Celtic language group. It gradually died out in the 17th and 18th centuries, although
attempts have been made to revive it.

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- crumb (miga, migaja): a small fragment of bread, cake or biscuit.
- cultural: relating to the ideas, customs, and social behaviour of a society.
- drop by (to-) (entrar un momento): call informally and briefly as a visitor.
- electrical appliance: A device or instrument designed to perform a specific function
- fat-free (libre de grasas): not containing animal or vegetable fats.
- generation: all of the people born and living at about the same time, regarded collectively.
- geographical: based on or derived from the physical features of an area.
- give out (to-) (repartir, divulgar): be completely used up.
- grammar: the whole system and structure of a language or of languages in general, usually
taken as consisting of syntax and morphology (including inflections) and sometimes also
phonology and semantics.
- polio (Es una enfermedad viral que puede afectar los nervios y llevar a parálisis total o
parcial. El nombre médico de la polio es poliomielitis.): a serious infectious disease that can
cause permanent paralysis
- pronunciation: the way in which a word or letter is said.
- quinine (La quinina era el principal compuesto empleado en el tratamiento de la malaria):
Quinine is a medication used to treat malaria and babesiosis.
- renovate (to-): restore.
- slang (jerga): a type of language consisting of words and phrases that are regarded as very
informal, are more common in speech than writing, and are typically restricted to a particular
context or group of people.
- spare (to-): (ahorrar, escatimar): give (something of which one has enough) to (someone)
- speech (discurso, habla): the expression of or the ability to express thoughts and feelings
by articulate sounds.
- take root (to-) (echar raíces): of a plant) begin to grow and draw nourishment from the soil
through its roots.
- vaccine vocabulary: To prevent you from getting sick
- I don´t get it: I don‟t get it is a very colloquial way of saying „I don‟t under- stand. What do
you mean?‟ Another form would be to replace „it‟ with „you‟, viz. „I don‟t get you‟ although this
is a more per- sonal statement meaning „I don‟t understand you (as a per- son)‟. In colloquial
English, to check if someone is following your line of argument, you can say: „Do you get it?‟
or „Do you get me?‟
- Had better: They‟d better‟ (= they had better) is an emphatic way of saying „must‟. Other
similar forms include „they ought to‟ and „they should.‟
- accustomed (acostumbrado, avezado): customary; usual.
- budget (presupuesto): .
- an estimate of income and expenditure for a set period of time.
- budget (to-) (hacer un presupuesto; presupuestar): allow or provide a particular amount of
money in a budget.
- commuting (desplazamiento): travel some distance between one's home and place of work
on a regular basis.
- conduct (to-) (conducta, comportamiento): the manner in which a person behaves,
especially in a particular place or situation.
- consider (to-) (considerar, examinar): think carefully about (something), typically before
making a decision.
- consonant (consonante): a basic speech sound in which the breath is at least partly
obstructed and which can be combined with a vowel to form a syllable.
- get used (to-): to require that one become familiar with something so that it seems normal

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or usual The new color is nice.
- launch (to-) (lanzar, presentar): start or set in motion (an activity or enterprise).
- mainly: (principalmente): more than anything else.
- majority (mayoría): the age at which a person is legally a full adult, usually either 18 or 21.
- nursery (vivero; semillero): a place where young plants and trees are grown for sale or for
planting elsewhere.
- obviously: in a way that is easily perceived or understood; clearly.
- official: a person holding public office or having official duties, especially as a
representative of an organization or government department.
- otherwise: in circumstances different from those present or considered; or else.
- Poland: a country in central Europe. Its present boundaries date from the end of World War
II. Warsaw is the capital.
- Polish: of, relating to, or characteristic of Poland, the Poles, or Polish
- process: a series of actions or steps taken in order to achieve a particular end.
- spinach (espinacas): an edible Asian plant of the goosefoot family, with large dark green
leaves which are widely eaten as a vegetable.
- transfer (to-) :move from one place to another.
- vowel (vocal): a speech sound which is produced by comparatively open configuration of
the vocal tract, with vibration of the vocal cords but without audible friction, and which is a
unit of the sound system of a language that forms the nucleus of a syllable.
- worry: feel or cause to feel anxious or troubled about actual or potential problems.
- Getting on: “Getting on‟ refers to the pro g ress of something. When it comes to
relationships with people, we could ask: „How are you get - ting on with Barry?‟ In this case
„getting on‟ is the same as „get - ting along‟.
- What can i do for you: An informal way of asking „How can I help you?‟ (implying a favour)
or „May I help you?‟ (asked by a shop assistant or receptionist).
- airfare (pasajero aereo): the price to be paid by an aircraft passenger for a particular
journey.
- context: the circumstances that form the setting for an event, statement, or idea, and in
terms of which it can be fully understood.
- fast food: easily prepared processed food served in snack bars and restaurants as a quick
meal or to be taken away.
- itinerary (itinerario, ruta): a travel document recording a route or journey; a planned route or
journey.
- low-budget (bajo presupuesto): made with a small amount of money.
- repellent : able to repel a particular thing.
- resort: (recurso, estación, playa, lugar de reunión): a place that is frequented for holidays
or recreation or for a particular purpose.
- theme park: (parque temático): an amusement park with a unifying setting or idea.
- tranquillity: the quality or state of being tranquil; calm
- travelling: (of a device) sufficiently compact for use on a journey.
- appeal to (to-) (apelar, atraer): make a serious, urgent, or heartfelt request; apply to a
higher court for a reversal of the decision of a lower court.
- express (to-) (exprimir, expresar): convey (a thought or feeling) in words or by gestures and
conduct: squeeze out (liquid or air).
- fix (to-) (fijar, arreglar): fasten (something) securely in a particular place or position: decide
or settle on (a specific price, date, course of action, etc.).
- fix (to-) / fix up (to-) : to arrange for something to happen. Perhaps we can fix up a meeting

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for next week.
- limited: restricted in size, amount, or extent; few, small, or short.
- offer: provide (access or an opportunity).
- quit (to-): (dejar)leave (a place), usually permanently.
- schedule: arrange or plan (an event) to take place at a particular time.
- specific (especifico, determinado): clearly defined or identified: a precise detail.
- Out if the question: n‟t consider this option‟ or „it‟s not a realistic possibili- ty‟. The opposite
expression to indicate that something is like- ly to happen or is a viable option, is it‟s on the
cards. It comes from the practice of fortune-telling using cards.
- Get in touch: Get in touch means „to contact‟ someone. Once contact has been
established, we are in touch or keep in touch.
- challenge (reto, desafio): a call to someone to participate in a competitive situation or fight
to decide who is superior in terms of ability or strength.
- challenge (to-) (desafiar, impugnar): invite (someone) to engage in a contest/dispute the
truth or validity of.
- challenging (desafiante, retador): testing one's abilities; demanding./inviting competition;
provocative.
- contingency(contingencia, circunstancia): a future event or circumstance which is possible
but cannot be predicted with certainty.
- council (consejo, concilio): a body of people elected to manage the affairs of a city, county,
or other municipal district.
- town council (consejo municipal): especially in the UK) the elected governing body in a
municipality.
- criticism (crítica, criticismo): the expression of disapproval of someone or something on the
basis of perceived faults or mistakes.
- desire (to-): a strong feeling of wanting to have something or wishing for something to
happen.
- desired (deseado): strongly wished for or intended.
- drown (to-) (ahogar, ahogarse): die through submersion in and inhalation of water.
- emphasise (to-) (enfatizar): give special importance or value to (something) in speaking or
writing.
- emphatic (enfático, enérgico, insistente): expressing something forcibly and clearly.
- excuse (excusa, disculpa): a reason or explanation given to justify a fault or offence.
- imply (to-) (implicar, insinuar): indicate the truth or existence of (something) by suggestion
rather than explicit reference.
- insufficient (insificiente, escaso): not enough; inadequate.
- management (administración, manejo): the process of dealing with or controlling things or
people.
- necessity : the state or fact of being required.
- obligation (obligación, compromiso): a debt of gratitude for a service or favour.
- open-minded (libre de prejuicios): willing to consider new ideas; unprejudiced.
- option: a thing that is or may be chosen.
- over and over (again) : repeatedly: again and again.
- pill: (pildora): a small round mass of solid medicine for swallowing whole.
- recommendation: a suggestion or proposal as to the best course of action, especially one
put forward by an authoritative body.
- requirement: (requisito, exigencia): a thing that is needed or wanted.
- sick (enfermo, nauseado): affected by physical or mental illness.

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- sleep: a condition of body and mind which typically recurs for several hours every night, in
which the nervous system is inactive,
- subjective: based on or influenced by personal feelings, tastes, or opinions.
- sub-standard: (sub estándar): below the usual or required standard.
- supply (suministro, oferta): make (something needed or wanted) available to someone;
provide.
- unnecessary: not wanted or not needed.
- fed up: Fed up is a way of saying that you are tired of something or someone. „Fed up‟ is
followed by „with‟ + noun / verb in the continuous tense. „Tired of‟ is similar in meaning but
does not take „with‟ after it. Another similar phrasal verb is „sick of‟.
- Have had: I‟ve had it with‟ is an even more forceful way of saying „tired of‟ or „fed up with‟. It
usually indicates that you do not intend to „put up with‟ something or someone any longer.
- adjective : a word naming an attribute of a noun. Such as sweet, red or technical.
- adverb: a word or phrase that modifies or qualifies an adjective, verb, or other adverb or a
word group, expressing a relation of place, time, circumstance, manner, cause, degree, etc.
(e.g., gently, quite, then, there ).
- aspect: a particular part or feature of something.
- auxiliary: providing supplementary or additional help and support.
- bare (desnudo, descubierto): not clothed or covered.
- cash desk: a counter or compartment in a shop or restaurant where payments are made.
- cashier: a person handling payments and receipts in a shop, bank or business.
- companion (compañero, acompañante): a person or animal with whom one spends a lot of
time or with whom one travels.
- compare (to-) (comparar): estimate, measure, or note the similarity or dissimilarity between.
- comparative (comparativo): measured or judged by estimating the similarity or dissimilarity
between one thing and another; relative.
- cross (to-) (cruzar, atravesar): go or extend across or to the other side of (an area, stretch
of water, etc.).
- crystal-clear (claro): completely transparent and unclouded.
- descriptive: describing or classifying in an objective and non-judgemental way.
- do without (to-) (hacer sin, pasarse sin): manage without.
- end: a final part of something, especially a period of time, an activity, or a story.
- end (to-) : come or bring to a final point; finish.
- example (ejemplar): be illustrated or exemplified.
- frequency: (frecuencia): the rate at which something occurs over a particular period of time
or in a given sample.
- go without (to-): (prescindir, pasarse sin): suffer lack or deprivation.
- illness (enfermedad): a disease or period of sickness affecting the body or mind.
- include (to-): (incluir): comprise or contain as part of a whole.
- inmate (preso, presidiario): a person confined to an institution such as a prison or hospital.
- jogging (jogging, footing): the activity of running at a steady, gentle pace as a form of
physical exercise.
- lack (falta, carencia): the state of being without or not having enough of something.
- lack (to-): be without or deficient in.
- move back to (to-) move away or backward.
- occupy (to-) (ocupar, habitar): reside or have one's place of business in (a building).
- Persian Gulf: (Golfo pérsico) is the mass of water located between the Iranian peninusla
and the Arab states of Iraq.

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- place (to-): a particular position, point, or area in space; a location.
- punctual (puntual, exacto): happening or doing something at the agreed or proper time.
- set up (to-) (establecer, crear): the way in which something, especially an organization or
equipment, is organized, planned, or arranged.
- shade (sombra, tono): comparative darkness and coolness caused by shelter from direct
sunlight.
- Way (manera, forma): a method, style, or manner of doing something; an optional or
alternative form of action.
- Get away: Get away is a phrasal verb which means „escape‟. To get away from it all would
be to „put one‟s worries behind one‟. Inmates can also „get away‟ from prison or prison
guards and can „make their getaway‟ in a stolen car.
- Flying in/ Flying out: Fly in and fly out are ways of saying „arrive and leave,‟ but are m o re
descriptive because the form of transport is expressed in the phrasal verb. Drive in and drive
out would refer to „arriv- ing‟ and „leaving‟ by car (or some other motor vehicle).
- ability (capacidad, habilidad): possession of the means or skill to do something.
- bad debt (deuda incobrable): a debt that cannot be recovered.
- be settled (to-) (colocado, arreglado): resolve or reach an agreement about.
- brother-in-law (cuñado): the brother of one's wife or husband.
- clerk (empleado, secretario): a person employed in an office or bank to keep records,
accounts, and undertake other routine administrative duties.
- come to a standstill (to-) (llegar a un punto muerto): come to a standstill. [for something] to
slow down and finally stop; to stop completely. (Usually refers to something that is
progressing, such as work, traffic, negotiations.) As the strike began, the production line
came to a standstill.
- convey (to-) (transmitir, comunicar): transport or carry to a place, transfer the title to
(property)
- duplicate: having two corresponding or identical parts.
- electrician (electricista): a person who installs and maintains electrical equipment.
- exchange (to-)(intercambiar, cambiar): an act of giving one thing and receiving another
(especially of the same kind) in return.
- give someone a hand (to-): to help.
- grandparent(s): a parent of one's father or mother; a grandmother or grandfather.
- instance (ejemplo, instancia): an example or single occurrence of something.
- investment: (inversión): the action or process of investing money for profit.
- irritation: the state of feeling annoyed, impatient, or slightly angry.
- junior (junior, joven, menor): the state of feeling annoyed, impatient, or slightly angry.
- keep afloat (to-): not sinking/ being at sea/ free of difficulties.
- leak (fuga, escape): a hole in a container or covering through which contents may
accidentally pass.
- look up (to-): (buscar, mirar para arriba): to try to find a particular piece of information
- migraine: (migraña, dolor de cabeza): a recurrent throbbing headache that typically affects
one side of the head and is often accompanied by nausea and disturbed vision.
- operate (to-) (funcionar, manejar): (of a person) control the functioning of (a machine,
process, or system).
- plug (enchufe, tapón): a piece of solid material fitting tightly into a hole and blocking it up.
- plumber (fontanero): a person who fits and repairs the pipes, fittings, and other apparatus
of water supply, sanitation, or heating systems.
- settle (to-): “The caribbean sounds fine to me, so that´s settled”, In this instance, „settled‟

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means a decision has been conclu- sively reached („We both like the idea of having a
holiday in the Caribbean, so let‟s go there‟). „Settle‟ conveys the idea of something moving
and finally stopping and coming to a stand - still (Snow falls and then settles on the ground).
„To settle‟ also means to make one‟s permanent home somewhere.
- Leave something in someone´s hands: is to let that person take responsibility for
something. We often say that we´ve left something up to somebody which the means the
same thing.
- settle up (to-): (saldar cuentas) When you settle up, you pay a bill or a debt.
- “I don´t follow you”: I don‟t follow you is often used in informal speech to mean „I don‟t
understand you‟ or „I don‟t understand what you‟re say- ing‟. You can also follow a line of
argument, which refers to the logic of an argument someone is putting forward.
- Be kidding: Are you kidding? is another way of saying „Are you joking?‟ If you tell someone
to stop kidding you are telling him/her to stop trying to deceive or trick you.
- canvas: (lona, lienzo): a strong, coarse unbleached cloth made from hemp, flax, or a similar
yarn, used to make items such as sails and tents and as a surface for oil painting.
- crook (ladrón, estafador/curva o curvar): a person who is dishonest or a criminal (informal),
/Bend: The definition of a crook is a bend in something. An example of a crook is a sharp
turn in a road or creek.
- dig (to-) / dig up (to-) (cavar, excavar): break up and move earth with a tool or machine, or
with hands, paws, snout, etc.
- dump (to-) (arrojar, deshacerse de): deposit or dispose of (rubbish, waste, or unwanted
material), typically in a careless or hurried way.
- e-mail: messages distributed by electronic means from one computer user to one or more
recipients via a network.
- extinguish (to-) (extinguir): put an end to; destroy.
- fast-moving: rapid in movement, action, or progress.
- figure out (to-): discover, solve.
- hand-held (mano): hold in a hand/ support or guide (someone) during a learning process or
a period of change.
- in no time (al instante, en un santiamén): a very short interval or period.
- industrial: a company whose main business is producing goods
- make inroads (to-) (hacer incursiones/influir en algo-alguien):The beginnings of progress;
penetration of a problem; initial steps/ to have an important effect or influence, "She had
made few inroads in convincing the committee to explore the issue without prejudice"If one
thing makes inroads into another, the first thing starts affecting or destroying.
- messenger (mensajero, correo): a person who carries a message or is employed to carry
messages.
- on-line: available through a system and especially a computer or telecommunications
system
- poison (to-): a substance with an inherent property that tends to destroy life or impair health
- reckless (temerario, atolondrado): heedless of danger or the consequences of one's
actions; rash or impetuous.
- staggering
- surf (to-) (asombroso, tambaleante): deeply shocking; astonishing.
- televise (to-) (televisar): record for or transmit by television.
- turn of the century: transition from one century to another.
- waste: (residuos, desechos): unwanted or unusable material, substances, or by-products.
- A load of rubbish: “sounds like a load of rubbish to me”. A load of rubbish is a common

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expression used to mean that something is „absurd‟, „poor quality‟, or „worthless‟. „A load‟ is
colloquial for „a lot‟. A similar expression would be a lot of non - sense.
- Track down: To „track down‟ means to find or hunt someone /something. The police use
tracking dogs to help them find missing peo- ple, drugs and other substances. A synonym is
to trace.
- antibiotic: a medicine (such as penicillin or its derivatives) that inhibits the growth of or
destroys microorganisms.
- anticlimax: the usually sudden transition in discourse from a significant idea to a trivial or
ludicrous idea
- anti-freeze (anticongelante): a liquid, typically one based on ethylene glycol, that can be
added to water to lower the freezing point, chiefly used in the radiator of a motor vehicle.
- anti-roll bar: (barra anti vuelco): a rubber-mounted bar fitted in the suspension of a vehicle
to increase its stability, especially when cornering.
- anti-social: unable to associate in a normal or friendly way with other people
- become acquainted with (to-) (familiarizado, informado): make someone aware of or
familiar with.
- broadcast (to-) (emisión, transmitir): transmit (a programme or some information) by radio
or television.
- broadcast clash (to-) : (choque de difusión): violent confrontation, a mismatch of colours, a
loud jarring sound, as of metal objects being struck together.
- confiscate (to-): appropriate
- convertible: able to be arranged in a different way and used for a different purpose.
- demonstration: an act of showing that something exists or is true by giving proof or
evidence.
- direct speech (discurso directo): the reporting of speech by repeating the actual words of a
speaker.
- essay: a short piece of writing on a particular subject.
- fit (to-): be of the right shape and size for.
- radiator : any of various devices (such as a series of pipes or tubes) for transferring heat
from a fluid within to an area or object outside.
- reported speech: (discurso indirecto): a speaker's words reported in subordinate clauses
governed by a reporting verb, with the required changes of person and tense.
- reporter (reportero, periodista): a person who makes authorized statements of law
decisions or legislative proceedings
- track (to-) (rastrear, avanzar): follow the trail or movements of (someone or something),
typically in order to find them or note their course.
- track down (to-): (rastrear)to find someone or something after a long search.
- Waste: The verb „to waste‟ means to misuse, „use without good pur- pose‟ or „use more of
something than is necessary‟. You can waste money and time or you can waste your words
or breath when you talk without making any impression on someone.
- be unemployed (to-) (estar desempleado): (of a person) without a paid job but available to
work.
- betrayal (traición, engaño): the action of betraying one's country, a group, or a person;
treachery.
- damn (condenar, maldecir): (in Christian belief) be condemned by God to suffer eternal
punishment in hell./criticize strongly
- detriment (detrimento, perjuicio): a cause of harm or damage.
- detrimental (perjudicial): tending to cause harm.

10
- disgraceful (vergonzoso, deshonesto): shockingly unacceptable.
- dismiss (to-) (despedir, descartar): order or allow to leave; send away.
- dismissal (despido, destitución): the act of ordering or allowing someone to leave.
- educate (to-) (educar): give intellectual, moral, and social instruction to (someone), typically
at a school or university.
- educational : (educativo): the act or process of imparting or acquiring general knowledge
- entertain (to-): (entretener, divertir): provide (someone) with amusement or enjoyment.
- focus on (to-) (enfocar, concentrar): adapt to the prevailing level of light and become able
to see clearly.
- fulfil (to-) (cumplir): achieve or realize (something desired, promised, or predicted).
- influence (to-): the power to have an effect on people or things
- misuse (to-) (abusar de): use (something) in the wrong way or for the wrong purpose.
- mythological (mitológico): relating to, based on, or appearing in myths or mythology.
- mythology (mitología): a collection of myths, especially one belonging to a particular
religious or cultural tradition.
- piece of advice: an opinion that someone offers you about what you should do.
- plug in (to-) (conectar, enchufar): to become connected to a piece of electrical equipment
or to the main electricity supply.
- portray (to-) (retratar, representar): describe (someone or something) in a particular way.
- role: the position or purpose that someone or something has in a situation.
- sitcom (comedia de enredo): a situation comedy.
- unhealthy: harmful.
- violence (violencia, crueldad): behaviour involving physical force intended to hurt, damage,
or kill someone or something.
- willing (complaciente, dispuesto a): ready, eager, or prepared to do something.
- willingness (complacencia): the quality or state of being prepared to do something;
readiness.
- Lost: The verb „to lose‟ means „no longer have‟. Many students of English commonly
misuse this verb when talking about „fail- u re to hit, catch, reach‟, etc. The correct verb to be
used on such occasions is „to miss‟. There f o re, you „miss a train‟ (not „lose a train‟); you
„miss a film‟, etc.
- Arrive: “I phone my aunt Alma after i arrived in San Francisco” The verb „to arrive‟ can be
followed by „at‟ or „in‟. You arrive at a small place (station, airport, village...) and you arrive in
a large place (city, country...). The preposition „to‟ is never used after „to arrive‟. As
synonyms, you can use „reach‟ and „get to‟; none of these three verbs takes a preposition
when they are followed by „home‟.
- account for (to-) (explicar, dar cuenta de ): consider or regard in a specified way.
- colloquialism (palabra familiar): a word or phrase that is not formal or literary and is used in
ordinary or familiar conversation.
- feel guilty (to-): culpable of or responsible for a specified wrongdoing.
- headline (titular, encabezamiento): words set at the head of a passage or page to introduce
or categorize.
- ignore (to-) (pasar por alto): refuse to take notice of or acknowledge; disregard
intentionally.
- invasion (acción de invadir): an occasion when an army or country uses force to enter.
- journalist (periodista): a person who writes for newspapers, magazines, or news websites
or prepares news to be broadcast.
- knock off (to-): stop work.

11
- lose one‟s temper (to-): to get angry.
- make it up (to-) (reconciliarse, hacer las paces): compensate for something lost, missed, or
deficient.
- orphanage: a home for children whose parents are dead or unable to care.
- publisher (editor): a company or person that prepares and issues books, journals, or music
for sale.
- resourceful (ingenioso, inventivo): having the ability to find quick and clever ways to
overcome difficulties.
- scandal: an action or event regarded as morally or legally wrong and causing general
public outrage.
- shares: a part or portion of a larger amount which is divided among a number of people, or
to which a number of people contribute.
- split up (to-) (partir, dividir en): an ending of a relationship or partnership; a separation.
- stormy (tempestuoso): (of weather) characterized by strong winds and usually rain,
thunder, lightning, or snow.
- sumptuous (suntuoso): splendid and expensive-looking.
- telephone directory: (directorio telefónico): a book listing the names, addresses, and
telephone numbers of the people in a particular area.
- Getting at: To be getting at‟ is a colloquial phrasal verb meaning „to be trying to say or
suggest‟. A m o re formal alternative would be What do you mean?
- Hire: The verb „to hire‟ means „to engage the services of someone or something in return
for payment‟. You can hire a boat, a con- cert hall, or a bicycle, for example and you can
also hire a per- son, but you „rent‟ a house or a flat (for a longer period of time).
- appearance: the way that someone or something looks.
- build: construct (something) by putting parts or material together.
- censored (censurado): examine (a book, film, etc.) officially and suppress unacceptable
parts of it.
- concert hall (sala de concierto): a large public building designed for the performance of
concerts.
- cubism (cubismo): an early 20th-century style and movement in art, especially painting, in
which perspective with a single viewpoint was abandoned and use was made of simple
geometric shapes, interlocking planes, and, later, collage.
- garbage (USA): (basura, desperdicio): rubbish or waste, especially domestic refuse.
- indoor (recinto cubierto o cerrado): happening, used, or existing inside a building
- inspiring (inspirador): encouraging, or making you feel you want to do something
- lifetime (vida, toda la vida): encouraging, or making you feel you want to do something
- manufacturer (fabricante, manufacturero): a person or company that makes goods for sale.
- masterpiece (obra maestra): a work of outstanding artistry, skill or workmanship.
- pretentious: (pretencioso, presuntuoso): attempting to impress by affecting greater
importance or merit than is actually possessed.
- pulley (polea, carrillo): a wheel with a grooved rim around which a cord passes, which acts
to change the direction of a force applied to the cord and is used to raise heavy weights.
- rubbish (UK): (basura, desperdicios): waste material; refuse or litter.
- schoolmate: a person who attends or attended the same school as oneself.
- survey (estudio, reconocimiento): look closely at or examine (someone or something).
- thorough: (completo,exhaustivo): complete with regard to every detail; not superficial or
partial.
- thoroughly (a fondo, completamente): very much; greatly.

12
- outdoor (al aire libre, fuera de casa): fond of the open air or open-air activities.
- overhear (oír, oír por casualidad): hear (someone or something) without meaning to or
without the knowledge of the speaker.
- To wire up:To wire up‟ means „to provide someone with a concealed microphone‟.
- backstage(entre bastidores, en los camerinos): in or to the area behind the stage in a
theatre, especially the wings or dressing rooms.
- box (theatre) (palco): is a small, separated seating area in the auditorium for a limited
number of people.
- box office (taquilla): used to refer to the commercial success of a film, play, or actor in
terms of the audience size or takings that they command.
- circle (theatre): Along with the Balcony, the Grand Circle is one of the top tiers of seating in
a theatre, usually found only in the West End's biggest venues.
- dressing room (camerino): a room in which actors or sports players change clothes before
and after their performance or game.
- foyer (vestíbulo de un teatro): a large open area just inside the entrance of a public building
such as a theatre or a hotel, where people can wait and meet each other.
- get changed (to-) (cambiarse): ] to become different, or to make someone or something
different
- seating (asiento, asientos): the seats with which a building or room is provided.
- preview (presentar, preestreno): an opportunity to view something before it is acquired or
becomes generally available.
- stalls: (establos, patio): a stand, booth, or compartment for the sale of goods in a market or
large covered area.
- contrast (contraste): difference between two or more things which is clear when you
compare them.
- display (monitor): to arrange something or a collection of things so that it can be seen by
the public.
- effect (efecto, hecho): a change which is a result or consequence of an action or other
cause.
- fireworks :a device containing gunpowder and other combustible chemicals which causes
spectacular effects and explosions when ignited, used for display or in celebrations.
- flat out: as fast or as hard as possible."the whole team is working flat out to satisfy
demand"/lying stretched out, especially asleep or in a state of exhaustion."he lay flat out,
breathing heavily"
- forthcoming (próximo, venidero): about to happen or appear.
- frantic (frenético, desenfrenado): distraught with fear, anxiety, or other emotion.
- gaze (to-): (mirada, contemplación): look steadily and intently, especially in admiration,
surprise, or thought.
- glance (to-) (vistazo): take a brief or hurried look.
- make up one‟s mind (to-): To make up one‟s mind‟ means „to come to a decision‟. It always
takes a possessive adjective which coincides in person and number with the subject of the
verb „to make‟. The parti- cle „up‟ can come before or after the object.
- peer (to-) (mirar): to look carefully or with difficult
- post code (UK): a short series of letters and numbers that is part of an address, and shows
exactly where a place
- snore (to-) (roncar): to breathe in a very noisy way while you are sleeping
- stare (to-) (mirada fija): look fixedly or vacantly at someone or something with one's eyes
wide open.

13
- switch (to-) (cambiar, agitar): change the position, direction, or focus of.
- tend to (to-) (tender, atender): go or move in a particular direction.
- viewing time (tiempo de visionado): the time of day when most people are watching
television and when advertising costs the most: The company announced it will cut back on
its expensive television advertising campaign which runs during peak viewing time.
- yearly: (anual, cada año): happening or produced once a year or every year.
- zip code (USA):such a code number, typically consisting of five digits, although often
expanded to nine.a system of code numbers assigned by the postal service to be used as
part of the mailing address: each code designates a delivery area.
- To let: “then we can let Elaine go back to New York”, The verb „to let‟ means „to allow‟ or „to
permit‟. It is followed by an infinitive without „to‟, whereas both „allow‟ and „permit‟ are
followed by the infinitive with „to‟. Beware—‟let‟ can also mean „hire‟ or „rent‟. It is common to
see houses with signs up saying house to let.
- be keen on (to-) (afiliado, entusiasta): having or showing eagerness or enthusiasm."a keen
gardener”.
- Beware! (Tener cuidado): be cautious and alert to risks or dangers.
- continuous (continuo): forming an unbroken whole; without interruption.
- continuously (continuamente): without interruption or gaps.
- depict (to-) (representar, describir): represent by a drawing, painting, or other art form.
- depiction (representación, descripción): the action of depicting something, especially in a
work of art.
- „Flat to let‟
- geometrical: characterized by or decorated with regular lines and shapes.
- geometry: the shape and relative arrangement of the parts of something.
- have to do with (to-): be connected with (someone or something) to the extent
specified."John's got nothing to do with that terrible murder"
- idiomatic:appropriate to the style of art or music associated with a particular period,
individual, or group.
- idiomatic (idiomático): using, containing, or denoting expressions that are natural to a
native speaker.
- expression: the action of making known one's thoughts or feelings.
- mail (correo, carta): letters and parcels sent by post.
- mail (to-): send (a letter or parcel) by post.
- night-life (vida nocturna): social activities or entertainment available at night in a town or
city.
- reckon (to-) (contar, calcular): establish by calculation.
- remark: say something as a comment; mention.
- remark (to-): regard with attention; notice.
- steady: (estable)(firme): firmly fixed, supported, or balanced; not shaking or moving.
- whereas (mientras): in contrast or comparison with the fact that.
- atlas: a book containing maps.
- bail: “They let me out on bail”, A person awaiting trial can be temporarily released from cus-
tody after paying a sum of money known as „bail‟.
- be worth (to-) (ser valioso): equivalent in value to the sum or item specified.
- biography (biografía): an account of someone's life written by someone else.
- bookworm (ratón de biblioteca):a person who enjoys reading.
- brief (breve): of short duration; not lasting for long.
- broaden (to-) (ampliar, ensanchar): become larger in distance from side to side; widen.

14
- custody (custodia): the protective care or guardianship of someone or something.
- degenerate (to-): decline or deteriorate physically, mentally, or morally.
- encyclopaedia: a book or set of books giving information on many subjects or on many
aspects of one subject and typically arranged alphabetically.
- existence (existencia, vida): the fact or state of living or having objective reality.
- home video: prerecorded videocassettes or videodiscs marketed for home viewing.
- manual: by the hand or hands rather than by an electrical or electronic device
- nation: a large body of people united by common descent, history, culture, or language,
inhabiting a particular country or territory.
- on bail: (fianza): the temporary release of an accused person awaiting trial, sometimes on
condition that a sum of money is lodged to guarantee their appearance in court."he has been
released on bail”.
- plot(parcela, trama): a plan made in secret by a group of people to do something illegal or
harmful.
- popular: relating to the general public.
- popularity: the state or condition of being liked, admired, or supported by many people.
- press: (prensa, presión): move or cause to move into a position of contact with something
by exerting continuous physical force.
- printing (impresión, imprenta): a single impression of a book.plural noun: printing.
- printing press (prensa): a machine for printing text or pictures from type or plates.
- readily (fácilmente de buena gana): without hesitation or reluctance; willingly.
- release (to-) (soltar, lanzar): allow or enable to escape from confinement; set free.
- sales rep (representante de ventas): someone who travels to different places trying to
persuade people to buy their company's products or service
- sell out (to-): (vender todo): an event for which all tickets are sold.
- spare time: time available for hobbies and other activities that you enjoy.
- sum (suma, cantidad): a particular amount of money.
- take after (to-) (parecerse, tomar despues): resemble (a parent or ancestor).
- tropical: of, relating to, occurring in, or suitable for use in the tropics.
- worth: “there is nothing worth watching on TV”, Worth‟ means „having certain value‟
(something without value is worthless). „Worth‟ can also refer to the price of some- thing:
That painting is worth $1,000.
- worthless (sin valor): having no real value or use.
- border: (borde, frontera): the edge or boundary of something, or the part near it.
- border guard (seguridad en la frontera): Border control means measures adopted by a
country to regulate and monitor its borders.
- brake (to-) (frenar): a device for slowing or stopping a moving vehicle, typically by applying
pressure to the wheels.
- comma: a punctuation mark (,) indicating a pause between parts of a sentence or
separating items in a list.
- go bankrupt (to-): to be unable to pay one's debts
- grocery store / grocer‟s: grocery store is a retail store that primarily sells food.
- hardened: having become or been made hard or harder/ very experienced in a particular
job or activity and therefore not easily upset by its more unpleasant aspects.
- jerk: “you stupid jerk”, Jerk‟ is slang for a „fool‟. It can also mean „a sudden push, pull, start
or stop‟, as in The thief jerked her handbag off her shoul - der. A similar verb / noun is „jolt‟,
as in The bus driver braked sharply and I was jolted out of my seat.
- Police: “the police are listening to everything we say”, The noun „police‟ is always used with

15
a plural verb. There are some other singular nouns commonly used with either singu- lar or
plural verbs, including „government‟, „staff‟, „family‟, „audience‟ and „team‟.
- jolt (to-): push or shake (someone or something) abruptly and roughly.
- leave out (to-) (dejar): To not include something or someone
- miserable: being in a pitiable state of distress or unhappiness.
- mysteriously:in a way that is difficult or impossible to understand, explain, or identify.
- pick (to-): recoger, escoger: detach and remove (a flower, fruit, or vegetable) from where it
is growing.
- scar: (cicatriz): a mark left on the skin or within body tissue where a wound, burn, or sore
has not healed completely and fibrous connective tissue has developed.
- specify (to-): state a fact or requirement clearly and precisely.
- sudden: occurring or done quickly and unexpectedly or without warning.
- upbringing: (educación, crianza): the treatment and instruction received by a child from its
parents throughout its childhood.
- well-off: (bien): wealthy/in a favourable situation or circumstances.
- assassin: a person who murders an important person for political or religious reasons.
- bogus (falso, fraudulento): not genuine or true (used in a disapproving manner when
deception has been attempted).
- blackmail (chantaje): a tribute anciently exacted on the Scottish border by plundering chiefs
in exchange for immunity from pillage.
- blackmail (to-): extortion or coercion by threats especially of public exposure or criminal
prosecution.
- blackmailer: a person who demands money or another benefit from someone in return for
not revealing compromising or damaging information about them.
- bribe (to-) (sobornar): dishonestly persuade (someone) to act in one's favour by a gift of
money or other inducement.
- burglary (robo con fractura): illegal entry of a building with intent to commit a crime,
especially theft.
- drug dealer: (: traficante de drogas)
- fake: not genuine; imitation or counterfeit.
- forgery (falsificación): the action of forging a copy or imitation of a document, signature,
banknote, or work of art.
- gun: a weapon incorporating a metal tube from which bullets, shells, or other missiles are
propelled by explosive force, typically making a characteristic loud, sharp noise.
- infamous : well known for some bad quality or deed.
- kidnapping: the action of abducting someone and holding them captive.
- mug (to-): (asalto): attack and rob (someone) in a public place.
- mugger (asaltador): a person who attacks and robs another in a public place.
- mugging: (asalto): an act of attacking and robbing someone in a public place.
- murder (to-): kill (someone) unlawfully and with premeditation.
- pistol (pistola): a small firearm designed to be held in one hand.
- rifle: a type of gun with a long barrel.
- shoplift (to-): steal goods from a shop while pretending to be a customer.
- shoplifter: steal goods from a shop while pretending to be a customer.
- smuggle (to-) (pasar contrabando): move (goods) illegally into or out of a country.
- smuggler (contrabandista): Smugglers are people who take goods into or out of a country
illegally.
- smuggling (contrabando): the illegal movement of goods into or out of a country.

16
- suicide : . the act of killing yourself intentionally.
- terrorise (to-) (aterrorizar): create and maintain a state of extreme fear and distress in
(someone); fill with terror.
- terrorism: (terrorismo): the unlawful use of violence and intimidation, especially against
civilians, in the pursuit of political aims.
- terrorist: a person who uses unlawful violence and intimidation.
- unreal: imaginary or illusory.
- vandal: a person who deliberately destroys or damages property belonging to others.
- vandalise (to-): deliberately destroy or damage (public or private property).
- vandalism: action involving deliberate destruction of or damage to public or private
property.
- appear (to-): (aparecer): come into sight; become visible or noticeable, especially without
apparent cause.
- attorney (USA): (abogado, procurador): a person, typically a lawyer, appointed to act for
another in business or legal matters.
- barely (apenas, escasamente): only just; almost not.
- be in one‟s right mind(to-): (estar cuerdo)In a healthy mental state.
- hearing: the faculty of perceiving sounds.
- justice: a judge or magistrate, in particular a judge of the Supreme Court of a country or
state
- law: (ley): the system of rules which a particular country or community recognizes as
regulating the actions of its members and which it may enforce by the imposition of
penalties.
- lead (to-) (conducir, llevar): cause (a person or animal) to go with one by holding them by
the hand, a halter, a rope, etc. while moving forward.
- lead a life of... (to-) : He can continue to lead a normal life" vs "He can continue to live a
normal life.
- rig (to-) (aparejar, falsificar, amañar): set up (equipment or a device or structure), typically
in a makeshift or hasty way.
- scarcely solicitor (UK): (un tipo de abogado)solicitor is a lawyer who gives legal advice,
prepares legal documents and cases, and represents clients in the lower courts of law.
- valuables(valores): a thing that is of great worth, especially a small item of personal
property.
- witness (testigo): a person who sees an event, typically a crime or accident, take place.
- Partner: “you are his partner in crime”, A „partner‟ is someone who joins someone else in
some com- mon activity, so that, in addition to a „partner in crime‟, you can have „a business
partner‟ or „a dance partner‟. A similar noun, mate, refers to a companion or to someone who
shares a place or an activity. You can have a room-mate, classmate, school mate or
playmate.
- Set someone up: “Mr. Money didn´t steal the diamonds-he ´s been set up”, To set
somebody up‟ means to manipulate facts and evidence to make an innocent person look
guilty. To manipulate a situ- ation in this way is to rig.
- absent (abstenerse): not present in a place, at an occasion, or as part of something.
- absent-minded (despistado): not present in a place, at an occasion, or as part of
something.
- behind bars (tras las rejas): in prison.
- capital punishment (pena capital, pena de muerte): the legally authorized killing of
someone as punishment for a crime.

17
- cater for (to-) (abastecer, proveer): provide people with food and drink at a social event or
other gathering.
- drive back (to-) :previous destination
- helping (ración, porción de comida): a portion of food served to one person at one time.
- jealousy (celos, envidia): resentment against a rival, a person enjoying success or
advantage, etc.
- law-abiding (respetuoso de la ley): obedient to the laws of society.
- loyalty (lealtad): the quality of being loyal.
- penal: involving punishment, as for crimes or offenses.
- penalty (pena, penalización): a punishment imposed for breaking a law, rule, or contract.
- pull down (to-) (derribar, bajar): to bring to a lower level : reduce./destroy
- quick-thinking (pensamiento rápido): having or showing an ability to think or react quickly
and effectively.
- red-handed: (con las manos en la masa)used to indicate that a person has been
discovered in or just after the act of doing something wrong or illegal.
- reform (reformar): make changes in (something, especially an institution or practice) in
order to improve it.
- royal (real): having the status of a king or queen or a member of their family.
- royalty (realeza): he people who belong to the family of a king and queen.
- safe: protected from or not exposed to danger or risk; not likely to be harmed or lost.
- safety(seguridad): the condition of being protected from or unlikely to cause danger, risk, or
injury.
- swallow (to-)(tragarse, engullir): cause or allow (something, especially food or drink) to
pass down the throat.
- thirst (sed): a feeling of needing or wanting to drink something.
- unfair (injusto, desleal): not based on or behaving according to the principles of equality
and justice.
- unjust: (injusto): ot based on or behaving according to what is morally right and fair.
- To fit: “how does he fit into all this?”, To fit‟ means „to be the right measure, size and shape
for‟. With clothes, it refers to the right size. To say that clothes look good on someone, we
use the verb „to suit‟, as in „That blouse really suits you!‟ „Fit for‟ means someone or
something is suit- ably qualified or appropriate for something.
- To stop somebody from: “we knew we hat to stop her from seeing him”, To stop somebody
from...‟ means „to prevent‟, „to hinder‟. „To stop‟, when followed by a gerund, means „to
discontinue an action‟.
- be willing to (to-) (complaciente, dispuesto a): eady, eager, or prepared to do something.
- broad daylight (en pleno día): uring the day when people and things can be easily
seen rather than at night The crime was committed in broad daylight.
- chain reaction (reacción en cadena): a chemical reaction or other process in which the
products themselves promote or spread the reaction.
- clumsy (torpe): awkward in movement or in handling things.
- erupt (to-) (estallar, entrar en erupción): break out suddenly and dramatically.
- eruption: a spot, rash, or other mark appearing suddenly on the skin.
- even number (número par): a whole number that is able to be divided by two into two equal
whole numbers.
- give back (to-) : (devolver): an agreement by workers to surrender benefits and conditions
previously agreed in return for new concessions or awards.

18
- goings on : (pasando): to happen: /to continue: /to move to the next thing or stage.
- lawn (cesped, pasto): an area of short, regularly mown grass in the garden of a house or
park.
- lawnmower (cortadora de cesped): a machine for cutting the grass on a lawn.
- let on (to-) (Revelar el secreto, cantar): reveal information./pretend.
- live up to (to-) (vivir con arreglo a): [live up to something] to be as good as what was
expected or promised.
- loud-mouth :a person who talks too much and who says unpleasant or stupid things.
- notice (to-) (observar, notar):become aware of.
- odd: Odd‟ can mean „not regular, habitual or fixed‟, but it can also mean „strange‟ or
„peculiar‟. It also has other meanings, as in Three is an odd number, meaning it is „not even‟
or „not divisible by two‟. Odd one out means something or someone „left over‟ or „spare‟.
- petty (bonito, lindo): attractive in a delicate way without being truly beautiful.
- power cut (corte de corriente): a temporary withdrawal or failure of an electrical power
supply.
- safe (seguro, a salvo): protected from or not exposed to danger or risk; not likely to be
harmed or lost.
- set off (to-) (compensar, partir): begin a journey.
- shortage (escasez, falta): a state or situation in which something needed cannot be
obtained in sufficient amounts.
- sub-human : of a lower order of being than humans.If you describe someone or their
situation as subhuman, you mean that they behave or live in a much worse way than human
beings normally do.
- suspect (to-) (sospechar, recelar): a person thought to be guilty of a crime or offence.
- theft(robo, hurto): the action or crime of stealing.
- wave(onda, ola): a long body of water curling into an arched form and breaking on the
shore./a sudden occurrence of or increase in a phenomenon, feeling, or emotion.
- Realise: “He realised someone had deposited a lot of money in the bank overnight”, The
verb „to realise‟ is a false friend in some languages. Another verb with a similar meaning is
„to notice‟, as in I noticed he was carrying a gun in his pocket which means „to realise
something from observation‟, implying a sense (sight, hearing, smell).

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Discourse markers

‟Discourse‟ is a term used to talk about large pieces of language—always longer than a
sentence. „Discourse markers‟ are expressions which show the structure of a discourse: a
conversation, a written essay, etc. They are used to connect what is about to be said and
what has been said before, to show the speaker‟s attitude to what is being said, or to show
what kind of conversation is taking place (persuading / referring to an earlier argument /
summarising). The following chart shows four different groups of discourse markers:
• Persuading or suggesting an argument that hasn‟t been taken into consideration:
after all / mind you / no doubt / anyway / in any case / I‟m afraid (used apologetically)
· Well, I think we should go to Hawaii for Christmas. After all, we haven‟t taken a holiday for
over a year.
• Alternatives for „but‟: to contrast what was said before:
however / nevertheless / all the same / yet / and yet
· English is quite an easy language to learn. All the same, it has some complicated areas,
like prepositions and phrasal verbs.
• Dismissing previous discourse: these expressions are ways of saying „what was said
before isn‟t really important‟:
anyway / anyhow
· Have you finished your English homework? No, I‟ve been reading a book. Anyway, it‟s not
due until next week.
• Summarising a conversation or a point in a conversation: The thing is / all in all / in a
nutshell
· It‟s no use being at the airport so early. The thing is, Jake‟s flight won‟t be arriving until after
9 p.m.

Chronological use of ‘until’ and ‘that’

When talking about a past action and its results, „until‟ and „that‟ can be used to say that a
second action was the result of a first action.
• When using „until‟ by itself the sentence construction is: noun + was/were (not) + participle
(second action) + until +
first action
· French words weren‟t incorporated into English local tongues until the Normans conquered
England.
or
noun + did (not) + infinitive (second action) + until + first action
· He didn‟t learn to speak Spanish until he moved to Mexico.
• When using „until/that‟ the sentence construction is: it + wasn‟t + until + first action + that +
second action
· It wasn‟t until the Normans conquered England that French words were incorporated into
local tongues.
· It wasn‟t until he moved to Mexico that he learned to speak Spanish.

Tenses: past simple/present perfect

The past simple is used:

20
• With „when‟: something happened and the action is now complete:
· When did you arrive? I arrived an hour ago.
· They left when it began to rain.
• For a past action (when the specific time or moment is mentioned):
· I went to France when I was 24 years old.
• For an action that took place during a period of time
that is now finished:
· They lived in that house for 6 years.
· I once met the president of Spain.
• For past habits:
· When I lived in France, I always had lunch at 12 a.m.
The present perfect is used:
• To describe actions or situations that started in the past but continue in the present:
· I have lost my pen. (I still can‟t find it / I haven‟t found it yet) • With „just‟, for recently
completed actions:
· I have just finished my English exam.

Remember that it is correct to use the simple past tense

with „just‟ in American English:
· I just finished my exam.
• With „yet‟, to say that something is expected to happen but still hasn‟t happened: Yet is only
used in questions (?) and negative sentences (-).
· We haven‟t had supper yet. (We are about to have supper)
· Havetheyarrivedyet?(Weareexpectingthemtoarrivesoon)
• With „already‟, to say that something has happened earlier than expected:
· You needn‟t go to the store—I‟ve already bought the milk. • With „How long...?‟, to refer to
an action and/or time
period that is still continuing:
· How long have you been studying French? For six years now.

Tenses: present perfect / present perfect continuous

The present perfect is used:
• When we are interested in the result of an action that has recently been completed.
· I‟ve cleaned the house. (The house is now clean.)
· Somebody has eaten all the biscuits! (The tin is empty.)
• To say how many times an action has been completed in a period of time up to the present.
· How many times have you been to Paris? (in your life / until now)
· I‟ve been there five times. (so far / until now)
• To say „how long‟ for a state that is still true.
· I‟ve known Bob since we were at school. · I‟ve had my car for 6 years.
The present perfect continuous is used:
• To express interest in an action itself. It isn‟t important whether the action has been
completed or not.
· My clothes are dirty because I‟ve been cleaning the house.
· Somebody has been eating biscuits—there are crumbs on the
floor!
• To say „how long‟ for an action that is still happening.

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· Sam has been watching TV all day.
· I‟ve been studying since three o‟clock.

Used to’
Used to + infinitive
This indicates that something happened regularly in the past but no longer happens.
(Obviously, there is no present form of this construction.)
· I used to play tennis once a week. (I don„t play tennis any longer.)
It can also refer to a past situation which no longer exists:
· We used to live in a large country house, but now we live in a flat in the city.
Didn‟t use to + infinitive
Did + (pro)noun use to + infinitive...? (question)
· Did you use to like watching cartoons when you were a child?
· No, I didn‟t use to like watching cartoons. I used to like reading fairy tales.
Note that „used‟ loses it final „d‟ in the negative and question forms.
a)beusedto+noun
b) be used to + gerund
To indicate that we are (or were) accustomed to something or to doing something. (Used in
both the past and present tenses.)
· I work in a nursery so I‟m used to little children.
· She‟s used to getting up early—she works the first shift at
the factory.

a) get used to + noun

b) get used to + gerund
This refers to the process of gradually growing or becoming accustomed to something or to
doing something. (Used both in the past and in the present.)
· Do you think Sandra is getting used to the American lifestyle?
· Well, she can‟t get used to having dinner at seven o‟clock at night.
· They were just getting used to the tropical climate when John was transferred to Alaska.
In these examples, „become‟ can be used instead of „get‟
· After a few weeks, she became used to working with computers.

Due to / thanks to
„Due to‟ means „as a result of‟. This preposition should come after the subject and verb, but
many people use it to begin a sentence, instead of using the correct option, ‟owing to‟, which
means „because of‟.
· The plane was delayed due to thick fog.
· Owing to thick fog, the plane was delayed.
- „Thanks to‟ also means „as a result of‟ or „owing to‟, but it adds a feeling of gratitude:
· Thanks to their help, we were able to finish painting the house at the weekend.

Talking about the future

The present simple
Is used in future contexts when talking about timetables, schedules, programmes and
itineraries:

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· Our flight to Dublin leaves tomorrow morning at 8.30 a.m. · What time does the play end? It
ends at 11.30 p.m.
The present continuous
Is used to talk about arrangements that you have made:
· What are you doing on Saturday? I‟m playing tennis with Jane.
· Let‟s meet for a drink this afternoon—I‟m finishing work early today.
Note: „going to‟ can be used here but does not sound as natural when we are talking about
arrangements.
- going to
Is used to say what we intend to do in the future:
· We are going to watch TV tonight.
· The Hamptons are going to move to Scotland.
- will
Is used when a decision is made at the moment of speaking:
· You‟ve left the light on. Sorry, I‟ll turn it off.
-will
Is often used with „think‟:
· I don‟t feel very well—I think I‟ll stay in this evening.
· My brother thinks he‟ll quit his job next year.
- will
Is often used to make offers:
· If you‟re still hungry, I‟ll fix you a sandwich.
· That shopping bag looks heavy—I‟ll help you with it.
- will
Is used when promising:
· I promise I‟ll bring you a souvenir from Thailand. · She promises she‟ll have the report
ready by noon.

Necessity / obligation / advice

Necessity
- „need to‟ + infinitive („active‟ sentence)
· My brother‟s overweight—he needs to go on a diet. (It‟s necessary to produce the desired
result)
- „need‟ + -ing („passive‟ sentence)
· My hair needs cutting—it‟s getting too long. (The need is subjective)
The above form can also be expressed as need to be + past participle:
· My hair needs to be cut.
- „need for‟ + noun (a requirement, often expressing
insufficient supply)
· There‟saneedforbetterqualitymanagementinthiscompany. (The current level of
management is sub-standard)
- „needn‟t‟ + verb (refers to an unnecessary action)
· We needn‟t book our holiday yet—it‟s still six months away. (There is no immediate
necessity)
- „needn‟t‟ + perfect tense
(an unnecessary action which was nevertheless performed - possibly involving a waste of

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time and/or money)
· Youneedn‟thaveboughtthatbook—lcouldhavelentittoyou.
shouldn‟t have‟ is similar to the above, but it implies criticism on the speaker‟s part:
· They shouldn‟t have given me such an expensive present! (I feel uncomfortable about it)

Obligation
(Both „must‟ and „have to‟ imply obligation)
- „must‟ is only used in the present and future tenses and usually expresses the speaker‟s
own feelings or opinions:
· Mother to her child: „You must put on your jersey before you go out.‟
- „must‟ is considered more emphatic than „have to‟:
· The doctor told him that he must give up smoking.
-„mustn‟t‟ indicates prohibition:
· You mustn‟t park on the pavement. (You are not allowed to by law)
Both „must‟ and „mustn‟t‟ are used rather than „have to‟ in written orders (signs, instructions
manuals, etc.)
- „have to‟ can be used in all tenses and usually expresses facts rather that feelings or
opinions.
· Child to a friend: „I have to eat my vegetables or I don‟t get any dessert.‟
- „don‟t have to‟ (an unnecessary action = needn‟t)
· I don‟t have to get up early because my work only starts at 2 p.m.

Advice—
- „Should‟ and „shouldn‟t‟
are used to give advice or make a recommendation (there is no strong necessity or
obligation, as with „must‟ or „have to‟):
· The Council should provide more parking spaces in the centre.
· You look tired—you should get more exercise.
· They shouldn‟t allow their children to play in the street—
it‟s very dangerous.
· You shouldn‟t be so rude to the Robertsons.

- „Should‟ can also be used to express „contingency‟: one event may take place if
another one does (this construction is only used with a future meaning):
· If the pain should return, take two more pills. or
· Should the pain return, take two more pills.
However, this use of „should‟ is formal and usually written. The spoken form is more
often:
· If the pain returns, take two more pills.

Adjectives
A number of adjectives are formed by either: the present participle
-ing
or the past participle
-ed (for regular verbs)
· Present participle adjectives are active, meaning “having this effect”.

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e.g. thrilling, boring, amusing.
· Did you enjoy the film? Yes, I thought it was quite amusing. Really? I thought it was very
boring.
• Past participle adjectives are passive, meaning „affected in this way‟.
e.g. thrilled, bored, amused.
· She was thrilled about winning the lottery.

Adverbs of time and frequency

- Adverbs of time are used to say w h e n. Examples include: still, just, yet, already.

- Adverbs of frequency are used to say how often. They include:

ever, never, always, sometimes, usually, often

- Adverbs of time or frequency occupy the following position in a sentence:

• In simple tenses, most of these adverbs go before the verb.
· I always eat breakfast.
· They just arrived. (American English)
· They still live in Brighton.
• In simple tenses, most of these adverbs go after the verb „to be „.
· Jane is never at home.
· Peter is already in his second year of medical practice.
· Tina isn‟t always on time, but she usually tries to be
punctual.
• In compound tenses, most of these adverbs go after the first auxiliary verb.
· He doesn‟t usually drive to work.
· I can never find my keys.
· Have you ever been to the theatre in London?
- yet
Is used in negative and interrogative sentences and is normally placed after the verb
or verb + object in the present perfect.
· Have you written to Fred yet?
No, I haven‟t written to him yet. I‟m going to write tomorrow.

- still
Goes before the first auxiliary verb in compound sentences (except in questions)
· I still can‟t find my keys.
· I still haven‟t written to Paul.
· Do you still watch those boring TV programmes? · Have you still got that pink dress
I like so much?

- often
Can be placed after the verb or verb + object but requires „very‟ or „quite‟ immediately
before it.
· I go jogging quite often.
· We haven‟t gone to the cinema very often this year.

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 -
- sometimes and usually
Can be placed at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of a sentence.
· Sometimes I like to have tea for breakfast, but I usually have coffee.
· I sometimes like to have tea for breakfast, but I have coffee usually.
- always
Is only found at the beginning of a sentence when used with an imperative.
· Always wear your seat belt.
- just
Can be placed at the end of a sentence, but only if it precedes „now‟.
· Sarah has gone to the library just now.

Uses of ‘better’

- As you know, better is the comparative form of „good‟ when comparing two things:
· Richard is good at maths, but Susan is better.
or
· Susan is better than Richard at maths.
- Other uses of better:
• As a comparative adjective when saying that someone is recovering or has
recovered from an illness, accident, shock, etc., and can be used with words like
„quite‟, „much‟ and „completely‟ to express the degree.
· How‟s Steven?
He‟s completely better now.

- had better
Is another way of saying „ought to‟ or „should.‟ It is only used in the present and future
tenses and is followed by the „bare‟ infinitive (without „to‟).
· We had better take our shopping to the cash desk because the store‟s closing.
• In the negative form, „better ‟ comes before not.
· You‟d better not spend so much time on the Intemet—our
last phone bill was enormous!
• In the question form, „had better ‟ is expressed in a negative construction.
· Hadn‟t you better call home and let your family know that you‟ll be late?
• In the United States, „had‟ is sometimes dropped.
· You better study harder if you want to pass your exams.

Expressing ability
Present tenses
• Simple
can + verb (affirmative)
can‟t + verb (negative)
· Can you speak Russian? No, I can‟t.
Another form of can‟t is cannot („can‟ + „not‟). It is usually only used in written English or, in
conversation, for greater emphasis.
· Belinda—can you go to the bank for me?

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No, I simply cannot. I told you I‟ve got a meeting just now!

am/are/is able to + verb (affirmative) am/are/is not able to + verb (negative)

This form is used in more formal language.

· They aren‟t able to get us in at the Royal Hotel.
· Is she able to operate the machine?
After a modal verb, be able to must be used instead of can.
· The clerk said they might be able to help us exchange our
money.

• Present perfect
be able to + verb
This is the only form that can be used in the present perfect.
·Joe hasn‟t been able to play sport since his accident.
·Thanks to a government grant, Wendy and Francis have been able to study abroad this
year.

- Conditional
· could + verb
I could pick you up at the airport.
I could make duplicate photos if you want a copy. · Could you give me a hand with this
piano?
• Requests
could
Is more polite than can when making a request. However, can is often used in informal
speech between friends, etc.
· Could you call back this afternoon? Mr Smith is away from the office at the moment.
Past tenses
• Simple
could and was/were able to
Are equally used to express ability in the past.
· Our daughter could walk when she was seven months old.
· Frank was able to read when he was four years old.
was/were able to is required when expressing ability + a particular action:
· Although he lost thousands of pounds on a bad investment, he was able to keep his
business afloat.
N.B. This rule does not apply in the negative, when the action hasn‟t taken place, and with
verbs of the senses („see‟, „hear‟, etc.).
· I could was able to hear their laughter from a cross the street.
· Sam couldn‟t/wasn‟t able to pay last month‟s rent

Perfect infinitive
could + have is used when...
...the action has not taken place
· We could have met you at the airport. Why didn‟t you ask me to pick you up?
...it is not known whether the action occurred

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· Where‟s my science book? I don‟t know, but Sarah could have taken it. She was looking at
it last night.
...or to show irritation.
· Well, she could have asked me to lend it to her instead of taking it without asking.

• Past perfect
had been able to
Is the only form that can be used in this tense.
· She said she hadn‟t been able to concentrate on her studies since she had begun to have
migraines.

• Conditional
had been able to
Is placed in the „if clause‟ and usually could in the „perfect conditional clause‟.
· If we had been able to get a loan, we could have bought a car.

• Future
shall / will be able to
Is the only future form for expressing ability. The negative forms are shan‟t / won„t be able to.
· He will be able to graduate early.
· They won‟t be able to come for Christmas.

Past tenses
Simple past
In the simple past tense, „-ed‟ is added to the end of regular verbs. (Irregular verbs must be
learnt by heart.)
• Regular
· We walked for about an hour and then stopped to have a picnic.
• Irregular
· They ran to the truck to get their share of food.

• Negative form Did not (didn‟t) + infinitive

· I told you I did not want pets in this flat!
· She didn‟t turn up for the meeting as expected.
• Question form
Did + subject + infinitive
· Did they manage to get tickets for the concert?
The simple past is used to talk about completed actions in the past—the time may be given:
· He travelled to Paris last month.
or not mentioned (but the action clearly takes place at a specific time):
· How did you find their address in the end?

Past continuous
This tense is formed by the past tense of the verb „to be‟ („was‟ / „were‟) plus „-ing‟ (a
gerund).

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· It was raining when I left home this morning.

• Negative form
was not / were not (wasn‟t / weren‟t) + „-ing‟
· They weren‟t doing anything when I dropped in to see them.

• Question form
was / were + subject + „-ing‟
· Were you reading in bed when the earthquake struck?
This tense is used for a continuous action in progress—a
second, momentary action often interrupts the first one.
· A brick fell on his head as he was walking past the new building.
· I was having a bath when the telephone rang.

Past perfect
This tense is constructed with „had‟ + past participle
· They had reached the shelter before the storm broke.
• Negative form
had not (hadn‟t) + past participle
· She hadn‟t finished her exam when the bell rang.
• Question form
had + subject + past participle
· Had they visited the area before the volcano erupted?
The past perfect is usually combined with the past simple to talk about two actions that
happen at different times in the past. The earlier action is expressed in the past perfect,
while the more recent action is in the past simple:
· When I got home, I realised I had left my keys in the office. (First I left the keys and then I
realised...).

Some verbs related to the sense of sight

- gaze
= to look long and steadily
· The children gazed at the firework display.

- glance
= to give a quick look
· She collected the post and glanced through the letters.

- look
= to turn one‟s eyes in a particular direction, making an effort to see
· I didn‟t see the accident happen—I was looking the other way.

- peer
= to look very carefully or searchingly

29
 · He peered round the room, but the cat was nowhere to be seen.

- see
= to use your eyes
· A blind person is someone who can‟t see.

- stare
= to look fixedly, focusing one‟s attention
· Stop staring at that girl—she‟ll get annoyed in the end!

- watch
= to look at some activity
· He used to sit on the road bridge and watch the traffic go by.

Phrasal verbs

- come across
= to meet someone or find something unexpectedly
· When I was cleaning my room I came across the book that you lent me last year.

- get back
= to return / to recover something
· They got back from holiday last week.
· I lent my computer to Jake and I still haven‟t got it back
from him.

- get in touch with

= to make contact with someone
· Mary got in touch with me when she came to London.
- look up to
= show respect to or admire someone
· Billy really looks up to his older sister—he thinks she‟s wonderful.
• Phrasal verbs using „settle‟:

- settle down
= to cease moving about / to settle into a secure or regular lifestyle
· Joan‟s company has transferred her to Seattle. She‟s bought a house and seems to
be settling down quite well in America.

- settle on
= to choose / to decide on
· I heard that you‟ve finally bought a new car. Which one did you settle on?

- settle up
= to pay one‟s debts
· Jerry has to settle up with his bank manager before he can get a new loan.

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- knock off
= to finish work
· I usually knock off at six, but tonight I have to do overtime.
- carry on
= to continue doing something
· I intend to carry on the family tradition until my dying day.

- give (someone) away

= to betray someone
· He said he was French but his accent gave him away.
- look up
= to look for some piece of information (address, telephone number, word...)
· I must look up his phone number in the directory.
- split up
= to break off a marriage or relationship with another person
· She was very upset when her parents split up.
- take up
= to become interested in and spend time doing something
· He took up gardening when he retired.
- track down
= to search or hunt for someone or something
· The police are tracking down the prisoners that got away yesterday.

- break down
= to lose one‟s self-control
· She broke down when she was told about the accident.

- get on with
= to continue with something you have started
· I know you are tired but you ought to get on with your homework.

- hold on
= to wait for a while
· Hold on a moment—I‟ll go and fetch the dictionary.

- take after
= to resemble a family member in appearance or character
· Susan takes after her aunt—she‟s got the same red hair and blue eyes.

- turn out
= to have a particular result
· I met a man on the train who turned out to be my new boss.
- give back = to restore / to return
· Could I borrow your lawnmower? I‟ll give it back to you
tomorrow.

- live up to = to put one‟s faith, principles, etc. into practice / to reach the standards
expected of one

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 · Her father had always taught her to live up to her promises.

- set off = to start a series of events

· The bread shortage set off a wave of strikes across the country.

- speak up (about) = to give one‟s opinion without fear or hesitation / to reveal

· After his release, he spoke up about the sub-human conditions in prison.

Transitive phrasal verbs

A transitive phrasal verb is one that takes an object. This object can occupy two different
positions:
• When the object is a noun, it usually comes after the phrasal verb
· He‟s going to give up smoking.
· I looked up the word in the dictionary.
However, with some phrasal verbs, the noun object can also be placed between the verb
and the „short word‟:
· I looked the word up in the dictionary.
• When the object is a pronoun, it usually comes between the verb and the „short word‟:
· Fill up my glass. (but) Fill it up.
· Take off your shoes. (but) Take them off.
• Prepositional verbs do not admit this possibility
· I‟m looking for my glasses. (or) I‟m looking for them.
• Generally speaking, most phrasal verbs containing the words „up‟, „down‟, „in‟, „out‟, „away‟,
„off‟ and „on‟ can have the noun object in any position.
· He gave away all his clothes. (or) He gave all his clothes away.
· He turned down the gas. (or) He turned the gas down.
But if the object is a pronoun, it must come after the verb:
· He turned it down. (not) He turned down it.
· He gave them away. (not) He gave away them.

The passive voice

The active voice tells us what someone or something does. The passive voice tells us what
happens to someone or something. It is used in the following situations:
• When the person who performs the action is obvious or implied:
· The fire was finally extinguished. (By the fire brigade)
· The criminal has been caught and arrested. (By the police)
• When it is not known who performed the action:
· My God! My car has been stolen. (I don‟t know who stole it)
• When we are concerned with the action but not the person who performed it:
· The street was being dug up again. (By a street maintenance company)
• When the pronoun one is the subject of an action verb:
· That excuse is heard all the time. (= One hears that excuse
all the time)
• When „people‟ are the subject of the same sentence in the active tense:
· He is thought to be a real crook. (= People think he is a real crook)
N.B. When you include the subject of an active sentence in the passive, it comes after the

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past participle + by.
· This canvas was painted by Dali.

Passive voice construction

- Present simple passive am/is/are + past participle.

· Every year a staggering number of deaths are caused by drunk drivers.

- Present continuous passive am/is/are being + past participle.

· Don‟t look behind you, but I think we are being followed.
- Present perfect passive have/has been + past participle
· Tonight‟s tennis match has been cancelled due to heavy rain.
· Have you ever been arrested?

- Past simple passive was/were + past participle.

· This theatre was built at the turn of the century.

- Past continuous passive was/were being + past participle.

· The Statue of Liberty was being painted when we were in New York so we couldn‟t visit it.

Reported speech
Reported speech usually refers to the past. However, when we are talking about something
that is still true, the verb is used in the present tense.

The verbs „say‟ and „tell‟ are most often used in reported speech.
- Say
• Mike said... (the person Mike is talking to is not mentioned)
· Bill said (that) his mother was in hospital.
• Mike said... to John („to‟ introduces the other person)
· Dan said „hello‟ to me when he arrived.
• ‟Say‟ is used to introduce direct questions but not reported questions. For reported
questions we must use „ask‟.
· They said: „Do you want us to help you move?‟
· They asked if we wanted them to help us move.
- Tell
• Mike told John... (the person Mike is talking to is mentioned)
· Sheila told me that her mother was in hospital.
In informal speech, „that‟ is often omitted.
· Sheila told me her mother was in hospital.

· when used for giving orders, „tell‟ is followed by ‟to‟ + verb

· He told the students to write an essay.

Other verbs can be used for reported speech:

Explain
Ask

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Enquire
· I explained to my boss that the police had confiscated my camera.
· She asked her mother why she couldn‟t go out with her friends.
· They enquired whether the museum would be open all day.

Reported speech (continued)

Reported speech involves describing in our own words what somebody else has said or is
saying. When the reporting verb is in the past tense, the verbal tenses of the direct speech
(the actual words) change as follows:
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Present simple ->Past simple
Present continuous -> Past continuous.
Present Perfect-> Past perfect.
Past simple -> Past perfect.
Future -> Conditional

However, if what was said in the past is still true in the present, it is not always necessary to
change the verb tenses, although they can be changed.
· He said: „New York is more interesting than Washington.‟
· He said that New York is / was more interesting than
Washington.
· He said: „I want to study biology when I finish high school.‟
· He said that he wants / wanted to study biology when he
finishes / finished high school.

Wish

The verb „wish‟ is used to say that we would like things to be different from what they are.
Depending on the situation, „wish‟ can be followed by different tenses:
- wish + past simple
To express regret about something that is not possible at the moment of speaking:
· I wish I had his telephone number. (Unfortunately, I don‟t have it now.)
- wish + past perfect
To express regret about something that cannot be fulfilled because the event has already
taken place:
· I wish I hadn‟t eaten so much—I feel terrible.
-wish + would.
Normally used when complaining:
· I wish he wouldn‟t phone so often! or when we would like a change:
· I wish we would go skiing at Christmas instead of staying at home.

If only
This expression is similar to „wish‟. It is usually followed by the past simple or past perfect to
suggest a strong wish or regret:

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· If only I‟d known you were coming! I would have picked you up at the airport.
· If only he could find a job. He‟s so depressed.

It can also be followed by „would‟ to complain:

· If only she wouldn‟t smoke in this room!

Word formation

- The suffix „-al‟ can be added to verbs to form nouns. Functionally, it implies „action‟:
refuse → refusal dismiss → dismissal betray → betrayal

- It can be added to nouns to form adjectives:

crime → criminal
music → musical mythology → mythological editor → editorial

Word formation
The suffix „-ity‟ or „-ty‟ is added to adjectives to form abstract nouns. It means „state‟ or
„quality‟ and is equivalent to the suffix „-ness‟.

honest → honesty
safe → safety
loyal → loyalty
real→ reality
· Honesty is always the best policy.
· Safety is a priority for airline companies.
· The reality is that this government has done nothing for the
poor.

It’s time...
This expression can be followed by different structures:
- it‟s time + to + infinitive
· It‟s time to start working.
- it‟s time + for + object pronoun + to + infinitive
· It‟s time for you to leave—otherwise, you‟ll miss the train. In both structures, the meaning of
„it‟s time‟ is: „the precise
moment has come to do something‟.
- it‟s time + past simple (past subjunctive)
· It‟s time we left—it‟s getting late.
Although in this case „it‟s time‟ is followed by a past tense, the time reference is present or
future, not past. You can also say „It‟s about time‟ or „It‟s high time‟.
· What‟s all that noise? It‟s high time the children were in bed!

Prepositional phrases

- in order to (the purpose or intention behind something)

· In order to be a painter, you first have to learn the skills.

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 - in addition to (meaning „as well (as)‟, „too‟)
· In addition to maths and science, you can study sculpture, painting and drama.

- on behalf of („in the name of‟ or „as representative of‟)

· I negotiated the deal on behalf of our manufacturers.

- by means of („through‟,„with the help of‟)

· The piano was lifted by means of a pulley system.

Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word or group of words that link two or more sentences. They can be
grouped according to what they express.

- Addition
and / also / too / as well as
to add further information to what is being said:
· As well as being an excellent cook, he looks after the children and the garden.
- besides / not only... but also... / as well
to reinforce what has already been said:
· Not only did she keep on watching the match, but she also turned the volume right
up.
When using „not only‟, the subject and verb switch places— that is, the word order is
like a question.

- Cause and effect

so / therefore / consequently / because / that‟s why to give reasons:
· Juli stared at me as if I was from another planet, so I tried talking to Winnie instead.

- Contrast
but / yet / even so to contrast ideas:
· This car is really expensive. Even so, it‟s so nice I think I‟ll buy it!

The definite article - use and omission

Use
The definite article (the) must be used in the following cases:
• When we speak about things we consider unique, because there is only one:
· The ancients thought the earth was flat.
• When everybody knows what object we are talking about:
· Close the door and turn the heating on—I‟m a bit cold.
• Before an adjective to talk about a category or class of people:
· The English read more than any other nation.
In this case, we can either say „the English‟ or „English
people‟ (the noun is plural).
Omission
The definite article is not used:
• Before uncountable nouns, when speaking in general terms:
· Coffee is grown in tropical areas.

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• Before abstract or concept nouns, when we are speaking generally:
· My father won‟t put up with laziness.
However, if we speak about something specific, we must use the definite article:
· The coffee you brought from Colombia is delicious.

Idiomatic expressions with ‘have’

- have a look = to look

· Let‟s have a look at your new dress... It really suits you!
- have a good time = to enjoy oneself
· Did you have a good time at the theatre?

- have (something / nothing) to do with = to be connected to

· His nervous breakdown has a lot to do with his wife‟s death.
- have an argument = to disagree or quarrel
· Those two can never agree about anything! Right now they‟re having an argument
about who ought to be making dinner.

- have a word with = to speak to

· John‟s teacher asked to have a word with me about his poor exam results.

Relative clauses
A relative clause is a subordinate clause linked to a main one by means of a relative
pronoun.
[main clause + relative pronoun + subordinate clause] The relative pronouns are:

who / that / whom → to talk about people

which / that →to talk about things
where → to talk about places
whose →to express possession (it takes the place of the possessive adjective).

We can differentiate between two types of relative clauses: defining (or restrictive) and non-
defining (or non restrictive):
• A defining relative clause says which or what kind of person or thing the speaker is
referring to:
· The man who spoke to you is my boss.
· The hotel where we stayed wasn‟t very comfortable.
· The boy whose parents died in the fire was adopted by a
well-off family.
If we remove the relative clause from the sentence, we do not know which man, hotel or boy
we are referring to.

The relative pronouns who / whom / that / which can be omitted if they are the object of the
verb, but they must be used if they are the subject of the relative clause:
· The man (who / whom / that) you saw is my boss.

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· The company (which / that) he was hired by has gone
bankrupt.
· The man who spoke to you is my boss. (here, „who‟ cannot
be left out).
• A non-defining relative clause gives extra information (it does not specify which person,
place or thing we are talking about). In this type of sentence, the relative pronoun „that‟
cannot be used, while the rest of the relative pronouns cannot be left out. In addition, the
relative clause must be separated from the main clause by a comma.
· My uncle, who lives in Canada, is visiting us next summer.
· Barcelona, which held the Olympic Games in 1992, has
grown a lot since the event.
· Matthew, whose father is the store owner, is an expert on
computers.

Personal pronouns
The subject pronouns (I, you, he, she it, we, you, they) are usually the subject of a sentence:
· He‟s leading a life of crime. He‟ll end up in prison. The object pronouns (me, you, him, her,
it, us, you, them)
can be:
• The direct object of a verb:
· I met them on my way to the station. · Peter saw you in town.
• The indirect object of a verb:
· My mother gave me a gold watch for my birthday—the
insurance company paid her a lot of money for her car. • They can also be the object of a
preposition:
· My neighbours never speak to me.
· The Browns don‟t want to come with us.
Reflexive pronouns
These pronouns (myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves)
are used as the object of a verb when the subject and the object of this verb are the same
person:
· The girl is too young to dress herself.
· He blamed himself for the accident.

Reflexive pronouns can also be used to emphasize a noun or a pronoun:

· The children made the cake themselves.
· The Minister himself visited the disaster area.

Indefinite pronouns
These pronouns are the compound forms of some, any and no, (combined with body, one,
thing and where).
Compounds with some are used:
• With affirmative verbs:
· I saw somebody hiding round the corner.
• In questions where the expected answer is „yes‟:

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· Is this somebody‟s hat?
• In offers and requests:
· Would you like something to drink? · Can someone help me?
Compounds with any are used
• With negative verbs:
· We didn‟t go anywhere on the weekend.
· With negative particles such as hardly, barely, scarcely, without:
· There was hardly anybody at the meeting.
• With questions, except when they are requests or
offers:
· Did you find anywhere to sit at the concert?
• After „if‟ and „whether‟:
· If you need anything, don‟t hesitate to ask for it.
· I don‟t know whether anything has been done about it.

Compounds with no are used

• With affirmative verbs, to express a negative idea:
· She has nobody to go out with.
• When they are the subject of a verb. (In this case, compounds with any are normally not
possible.)
· Nobody has seen him since last Tuesday.

Expressing reason, result and purpose

Reason
The conjunctions „as‟, „because‟ and „since‟ can be used to explain the reason for an action
or situation.
· Since / As I was feeling quite tired, I went to bed.
· I went to bed because I was feeling quite tired.
Result
The conjunction most commonly used to join two clauses is „so‟.
· I was quite tired, so I went to bed. Purpose
Purpose is usually described with an infinitive when the subject of both clauses is the same.
· She went to the kitchen to ask for another helping.
When the subject in each clause is different, we use the conjunctions „so that‟ or „in order
that‟. The first is more common, especially in an informal style. They can be followed by a
present or future tense with a future meaning:
· I‟m turning the volume down so that the neighbours don‟t complain about the noise.

When referring to the past, „would‟, „should‟ and„could‟ are normally used:
· The receptionist gave the guest a map so that he wouldn‟t get lost in the city.

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