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A TREATISE ON ZOOLOGY
A
TREATISE ON ZOOLOGY
EDITED BY
E. RAY LANKESTER
M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.
HONORARY FELLOW OF EXETER COLLEGE, OXFORD ; CORRESPONDENT OF THE INSTITUTE
OF FRANCE ; DIRECTOR OF THE NATDRAL HISTORY DEPARTMENTS
OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM
P A R T III
THE ECHINODERMA
BY
F. A. BATHEE, M.A.
ASSISTANT IN THE GEOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM
ASSISTED BY
J. W. GREGORY, D.Sc.
LATE ASSISTANT IN THE GEOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM
PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE
AND
E. S. GOODRICH, M.A.
ALDRICHIAN DEMONSTRATOR OF ANATOMY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD
Reprint A.ASHER & CO. Amsterdam 1964

A
TREATISE ON ZOOLOGY
EDITED BY
E. RAY LANKESTER
M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.
HONORARY FELLOW OF EXETER COLLEGE, OXFORD ; CORRESPONDENT OF THE INSTITUTE
OF FRANCE ', DIRECTOR OF THE NATURAL HISTORY DEPARTMENTS
OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM
PART III
THE ECHINODERMA
BY
F. A. BATHER, M.A.
ASSISTANT IN THE GEOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM
ASSISTED BY
J. W. GREGORY. D.Sc.
LATE ASSISTANT IN THE GEOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM
PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE
AND
E. S. GOODRICH, M.A.
ALDRICHIAN DEMONSTRATOR OF ANATOMY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD
LONDON
A D A M & CHARLES BLACK
1900
Exclusive Agents for U.S.A.
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PREFACE
T H E present volume is the " Third Part" in order of a com-
prehensive treatise on Zoology, which has been for some time
in preparation under m y editorship. In this treatise each
of the larger groups of the Animal Kingdom is to be described
by a separate author; whilst, as far as possible, uniformity
in method and scope of treatment is aimed at. The authors
are, for the most part, graduates 'of the University of Oxford,
though it m a y not be possible to maintain this limitation in
future sections of the work.
The general aim of the treatise is to give a systematic
exposition of the characters of the classes and orders of the
Animal Kingdom, with a citation in due place of the families
and chief genera included in the groups discussed. The work
is addressed to the serious student of Zoology. To a large
extent the illustrations are original. A main purpose of the
Editor has been that the work shall be an independent and
trustworthy presentation, by means of the systematic survey,
or taxonomic method, of the main facts and conclusions of
Zoology, or, to speak more precisely, of Animal Morphography.
The treatise will be completed in ten parts of the size of
the present one. It will at once be apparent that this
limitation necessitates brevity in treatment which, however,
will not, it is believed, be found inconsistent with the fulfil-
ment of the scope proposed or with the utility of the work
vi PREFACE
to students. The immediate publication of the following

parts m a y be expected :—
Part I. Introduction and the Protozoa.

Part II. General Discussion of the Metazoa—The Pori-
fera — The Hydromedusae — The Scypho-
medusae—The Anthozoa—The Ctenophora.
Part III. The Echinoderma (the present volume).
Part IV. The Mesozoa—The Platyhelmia—The Nemer-
tini.
These parts will be issued, without reference to logical

sequence, as soon as they are ready for the press. In accord-
ance with this procedure, which to some extent evades the
injustice of making an author, whose work isfinished,wait
for publication until other more tardy writers have completed
their tasks, the present volume, which is Part III, is the first
to make its appearance.
The following authors have undertaken portions of the
work:—Professor Poulton, F.R.S., M.A. Oxon.; Professor
Weldon, F.R.S., M.A. Oxon.; Professor Benham, D.Sc, M.A.
Oxon.; Mr. G. C. Bourne, M.A. Oxon.; Mr. G. H . Fowler,
M.A. Oxon.; Professor Minchin, M.A. Oxon.; Mr. F. A. Bather,
M.A.Oxon.; Professor J. W . Gregory, D.Sc; and M r . E. S.
Goodrich, M.A. Oxon.
E. RAY LANKESTER.
February 1900.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER VIII
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OP THE ECHINODERMA l
CHAPTER IX
T H E PELMATOZOA—CYSTIDEA. 38
CHAPTER X
T H E PELMATOZOA—BLASTOIDEA 78
CHAPTER XI
T H E PELMATOZOA—CRINOIDEA 94
CHAPTER XII
T H E PELMATOZOA—EDRIOASTEROIDEA 205
CHAPTER XIII
T H E ELEUTHEROZOA—HOLOTHURIOIDEA 217
CHAPTER XIV
T H E ELEDTHEROZOA—STELLEROIDEA 237
CHAPTER XV
T H E ELEUTHEROZOA—ECHINOIDEA 282
INDEX
TABULAR STATEMENT S H O W I N G T H E SYSTEMATIC
POSITION OF T H E ECHINODERMA.
ANIMALIA.
G R A D E I. PROTOZOA.
„ II. METAZOA.
B R A N C H A. B R A N C H B.
PARAZOA. ENTEROZOA.
GRADE I. (of the Enterozoa).

ENTEROCOELA = COELENTERA.
GRADE II. (of the* Enterozoa).

COELOMOCOELA = COELOMATA.
PHYLA (of the Coelomocoela).

ECHINODERMA, MOLLUSCA, APPENDICULATA,
PLATYHELMIA, VERTEBRATA, etc.
CHAPTER VIII.
THE ECHINODERMA.1
PHYLUM ECHINODERMA.
GRADE A. PELMATOZOA.
CLASS I. CYSTIDEA.
„ II. BLASTOIDEA.
„ III. CllINOIDEA.
„ IV. EDRIOASTEROIDEA.
GRADE B. ELEUTHEROZOA.
CLASS I. HOLOTHURIOIDEA.
„ II. STELLEROIDEA.
„ III. ECHINOIDEA.
General Features.—This is one of the best characterised and
most distinct Phyla of the Animal Kingdom. Nearly all the living
animals included in it, such as the sea-urchin (Echinoid), starfish
(Asteroid), brittle-star (Ophiuroid), sea-cucumber (Holothurian),
sea-lily (stalked Crinoid), or feather-star (free Crinoid), can readily
be distinguished through their possession of a radial symmetry, in
which the numberfiveis dominant, of a sub-epidermic skeleton com-
posed of calcium carbonate, with a characteristic micro-structure
resembling trellis-work, and of a system of sacs, canals, and tubes
that carry water through the body, especially by means of five
radial canals from which small branches called podia are given off to
the exterior. T h e extinct forms k n o w n as Blastoidea and Edrio-
asteroidea appear to have had a similar organisation; and the same
statement m a y b e m a d e of most of the Cystidea, another extinct class.
It is true that there are recent forms in which the quinqueradial
symmetry or pentamerism is obscure; but, on the whole, it is so
marked a feature that the early zoologists, and notably Cuvier,
placed the Echinoderma together with the Coelentera in a sub-
1
By F. A. Bather, M.A.
ECHINODERMA—GENERAL DESCRIPTION
kingdom Radiata. The presence of a gut distinct from the body-

cavity (coelom) is alone enough to mark the superiority of Echino-
derm organisation, as was first insisted on by Leuckart. The
resemblance of certain Holothurians to the Gephyrea is but super-
ficial and secondary; the above-mentioned characters form sufficient
distinction.
Examples of the Classes.—Within the Echinoderma is great
diversity of organisation. Between the worm-like, semi-gelatinous
Holothurian, Synapta, living in the m u d of the shore, and the
stalked Pentacrinus of the depths of the sea, or the brittle-star of
the rock-pools, there might well seem an impassable barrier.
Taking typical examples of the various classes, let us note the
more obvious differences. In an ordinary Holothurian (e.g. Holo-
thuria, Cucumaria, Fig. IV. 4, p. 231) the body is cucumber-shaped,
with a mouth at one end and an anus at the other; round the
mouth is a ring-canal of the water-vascular system, and from it
are given offfiveradial canals, running below the surface of the
flexible integument and sending podia to the exterior; two of the
avenues (ambulacra) of podia run along that surface of the body
which is away from the ground and may be called " dorsal"; the
" ventral" surface, containing the other three ambulacra, is often
flattened to form a kind of walking sole. A Holothurian has no
arms or projecting rays, but its mouth is surrounded by a circlet
of tentacles, often branched, retractile at will, and serving to collect
food. A Regular Sea-urchin (e.g. Echinus, Cidaris, Figs. VII., XVII.
pp. 290, 303) resembles a Holothurian in being without projecting
rays; but it is more spherical in shape, with a rigid test, and
moves with its mouth towards the sea-floor, and with its anus at
the opposite pole of the body. In a Heart-urchin (e.g. Spatangus,
Fig. X L V p. 324), which moves through and swallows m u d and
sand, the body has become obliquely elongate, i.e. with the long axis
at an angle of 36° to the position it occupies in a Holothurian ; the
mouth has moved a little forward, and the anus" has moved down
from the top of the body to its lower surface, so that both mouth
and anus lie on the under surface, at either end of the long axis.
In Echmoids, the radial water-vessels are beneath the test ("hypo-
thecal") and stretch from the oral to the anal pole. In a Starfish
the mouth is in the centre of the under surface, while the anus is
almost in the centre of the upper surface, but is absent in a few
forms; the body, encased in a yielding theca, is either markedly
pentagonal in outline or star-shaped ; in the latter case a central
disc m a y b e distinguished from the "arms." The number of
arms varies fromfive(e.g. Asterias rubens, Figs. L, IV pp. 240,242)to
over forty (e.g. Heliaster). The radial water-vessels, one to each arm,
lie in a groove on the oral surface (« epithecal") and are fringed
by podia, which do not pass on to the aboral surface at all. A n
ECHINODERMA—GENERAL DESCRIPTION 3
Ophiuroid (Fig. XIII. p. 261) resembles a starfish in which there is a

sharp distinction between arms and disc; the mouth is on the
under surface, but there is no anus. Whereas the arms of a star-
fish are merely extensions of the body, containing the generative
glands and processes from the stomach, those of an Ophiuroid con-
tain only blood-vessels, water-vessels, and nerves, and,, being
themselves used as locomotor organs, have a stout internal skeleton
of separate ossicles, worked on one another by well-developed
muscles, but have less developed podia; they are nearly always
five, and unbranched except in Astrophytidae (Fig. X X X I I . p. 277).
As is explained on p. 238, however, no sharp line can be drawn
between Asteroid and Ophiuroid structure. A Crinoid (Fig. III.
p. 98) differs markedly from all the forms just mentioned, in that
the mouth faces upwards, or away from the sea-floor; the anus
is also on the upper surface. This position is connected with the
fixed habit of the Crinoids, which are attached temporarily or
permanently to the sea-floor by their aboral surface, usually
through a jointed stem. This fixed state of existence is corre-
lated with the development of a jointed process ("arm" or
brachium) from each radius of the rigid theca. The arms are
often forked many times; they contain extensions of the nervous,
blood-vascular, water-vascular, and generative systems, and have a
ventral groove lined with cilia which sweep currents of water to the
mouth. The Blastoids (Fig. IV- p. 82) may be roughly described
as Crinoids without brachia, but with food-grooves on the oral
surface of the theca, fringed with jointed skeletal processes
(brachiola). The Cystidea, like the Crinoids, arefixed,with mouth
and anus on the upper surface; the relations of their food-grooves
and water-canals vary greatly ; in some of the older ones (Fig. II.
p. 44) radial symmetry does not seem to have affected even these
organs, still less, therefore, any other organs of the body. The
Edrioasteroidea (Fig. VI. p. 209) are sessile, with upwardly directed
mouth and anus, withfivefood-grooves radiating from the mouth,
sometimes on to the aboral surface, as in Echinoids, and apparently
with hypothecal water-canals, also as in Echinoids, at any rate
with some portions of the water-vessels penetrating the test along
the ambulacra.
Phylogeny and Ontogeny.—The combined evidence of com-
parative anatomy, embryology, and palaeontology indicates that
the Echinoderma owe most of their obvious characters, such as
radiate symmetry, the ambulacra, and the coil of the gut, to their
having passed through a " pelmatozoic " stage, i.e. a stage in which
the animal was attached by a part of its body wall, in which the
mouth, and to a less extent the other apertures, faced upwards,
while there was a tendency to the radiate (pentamerous) exten-
sion of food-grooves with accompanying organs (see Chapter IX.,
4 ECHINODERMA—GENERAL DESCRIPTION
" Pelmatozoa " ) . Setting aside these characters, the origin of which
m a y be traced in individual development, and selecting those
c o m m o n to the early stages of all Echinoderms, zoologists have im-
agined a phylogenetic
stage, the two-sided or
Dipleurula stage (Fig.
I.), more or less re-
peated in the Dipleurula
larvae of recent Echino-
0^1 he: derms (Fig. II.). T h e
F m . I. animal was marine. Its
Diagrammatic reconstruction of the imagined Dipleurula long axis was antero-
ancestor. Anterior end on left of drawing ; organs of left posterior and parallel
side towards observer, and with stronger outline than those
of right side. For description and lettering, see adjoining to the sea-floor. T h e
text. mouth (0) was anterior
and ventral; the anus (As) posterior or postero-ventral. T h e
two were joined by an uncoiled gut, perhaps with a stomachal
enlargement in the middle. O n either side of this lay the coelom,
formed by constriction from the larval stomach or archenteron, in
other words, an " enterocoel"; it was divided into a right and left
anterior portion (a.c), and a right and left posterior portion (r.p.c
and l.p.c). Each anterior vesicle was connected with the exterior
by a canal, opening at a dorsal pore (M) on each side the median
line, sometimes, perhaps, fusing into one. These canals were in-
directly connected (s.c) with posterior offshoots from the anterior
coelom, the right and left hydrocoels (r.hc and l.hc). Gonads
developed from the coelomic endothelium. T h e ectodermal
epithelium was probably ciliated, and a portion of it in the " pre-
oral lobe" (p.l) was differentiated as a sense organ, with longer
cilia and underlying nerve-centre (ri), from which two gangliated
'A 5
FIG. II.
nerves ran back below the ventral surface. In the mesoblastic

connective tissue, derived by the migration of cells, there was a
tendency to the secretion of crystalline calcium carbonate. Except
for the latter character, the Dipleurula agrees in essentials with

the larva of Enteropneusta, which was described by Joh. Muller
(1850) as an Echinoderm larva, under the name Tornaria
(Fig. II. 4).
The simplest larval form among recent Ecbinoderms, that of
the Holothurians, k n o w n as Auricularia (Fig. II. 2, and Fig. III.),
differs from the Dipleurula in being bent upon its ventral surface,
so that the mouth lies in the middle of the concavity so formed,
while in front of it is a " preoral lobe," and behind it is a similar
prominence, in the middle of which, on the ventral surface, is the
anus; the cilia are restricted to a band immediately surrounding
the mouth, and a band that
passes in front of the mouth,
then round the edge of the
ventral concavity, and across
in front of the anus. In
subsequent development the
ciliated ring becomes very
sinuous, and when the Auri-
c\-f
-CL j}
wSs^yJ
\ hp
- 4 he
cularia assumes a barrel
shape, before changing into
c
^\ 11/xf !pVp-
\j "\ 1
oe-\-.
(\ n
the Holothurian, the ring k%
r c / Ms,• \Sy % /
r* X^ • . .
atrophies in sixteen places, p x \ V-/|- -'; *1

and the separate pieces unite
°4J c\
ff
\ J) JI
/ - ijf
'• Iipe
'• 1
in such a w a y as to form r, a \
\c^ t
five rings like hoops round :
the barrel. In this stage the
mouth has again passed u p
\S
'
v~~ '-\^f)
to the anterior pole, and the

FllJ. III.
anus d o w n to the posterior.
Aurtcularta of Synupta, Uie ventral surl'ace ami
This form is called the Pupa left side facing tlie obmtrver (after Swnon). 0,
(Fig. I. 8, p. 219). m o u t h ; oe, oesopliagus; at, stoiaarli; r, rectum ;
T h e only free larval form hp, hydropore; he, liydrouoe); r and Ipc, right
and left posterior coelom; n, nervous band; sj>,
that is k n o w n a m o n g Pel- spicule in form of wheel; c, ciliated bands, viz.
matozoa is that of the highly — 1 , preoral; 2, adoral; 3, circumoral; and 4,
specialised free-moving Crinoid,anal,Antedon. x 25.
It resembles the Holo-
thurian Pupa in general shape (Fig. IV.), and in the possession of
five ciliated bands (cc), probably derived in a similar manner;
but since the early stages have been pressed out of the develop-
ment, this cannot be considered proven. Here, moreover, there
remains a ventral concavity, through which the definitive mouth
breaks (0); there is no anus at this stage. Anteriorly is a tuft
of long cilia.
Most Asteroidea have a larva k n o w n as Bipinnaria (Fig. II.
3, and Fig. VI. 10), which passes through an Auricularia stage.
B y a meeting of the sinuosities of the ciliated ring anteriorly,
there is formed a preoral ring which separates from the rest.

The ventral depression runs up on either side the preoral area,
and eventually surrounds it and its ciliated ring. In the region
of the ciliated rings the body stretches out pro-
cesses, which are symmetrically paired, except the
frontal process, which bears the preoral ring. In
some species this process splits into three branches
and the cilia disappear; such a form is called
Brachiolaria.
A still further development is the Pluteus
larva (Fig. II. 1, and Fig. V.) of Ophiuroids
cc and Echinoids, characterised by the decrease of
the preoral area and the increase of the anal area;
Fid. IV. paired processes extend forward, and an unpaired
Larva of Antedon process stretches backward from the posterior end
end^wiS?' Apreorai °* t n e a n a l a r e a'>these processes are usually very
lobe (Pi), uppermost, long and supported by spicules, but movable.
Two, arising from the posterior and lateral region
of the ciliated ring, are pronounced in Ophiuroids but absent in
Echinoids.
The development of the larval form
from the ovum is effected in much the
same way in all known Echinoderma
(Fig. VI.). The segmentation of the
ovum is total and quite or almost equal
(Fig. VI. 2). A coeloblastula is formed
with a segmentation cavity, and with a
wall of a single cell-layer, thicker in
one region (Fig. VI. 3). This region
is invaginated, forming the archenteron
of a gastrula (Fig. VI. 4). At about
the same time the thickened region,
now the end wall of the archenteron,
proliferates endoderm cells, some of
FIG. V.
which wander into the segmentation
Pluteus of a Heart-urchin, from
cavity, where they may be joined by a ventral side (after Lang). 0, mouth;
lesser number from other parts of the As, anus.
gastrula wall (ectoderm), and so form mesenchyme, from which
mesoderm tissue is ultimately developed (Fig. VI. 5). The
archenteron occupies but a small part of the segmentation cavity,
its lumen is usually narrow, and the external opening forms a
small blastopore, which in Antedon soon closes. Both endoderm
and ectoderm are usually ciliated from the beginning ; but in
Antedon cilia appear only on the ectoderm after gastrulation.
The larva becomes bilaterally symmetrical by dorso-ventral
compression and the formation of a ventral concavity. The inner
i.e. anterior, end of the archenteron becomes constricted off from

the rest of the archenteron to form the " coelom" (Fig. VI. 6).
The coelom sends backward a process on each side in the dorsal
region ; the hinder parts of these become constricted off as a
" right and left posterior coelom," which almost meet posteriorly;
the remainder forms the " anterior coelom " (Fig. VI. 7). A t the
1 4 7 8 10
Fio. VI.
Early stages of Echinoderm ontogeny. 1, 2, 3, the Echinoid Echinocyamus (after Theel).
4, 5, 6, the Crinoid Antedon (after Seeliger). 7, 8, 11, the Asteroid Asterina (after
MacBride). 9 (after Bury). 10 (after G. W . Field). 1, o v u m in mucilaginous coat; vitelline
membrane (v) beginning to separate ; s, spermatozoa, one of which is entering the yolk (xl30).
2, segmenting o v u m seen from above, 2 hrs. 20 min. after fertilisation. 3, blastula in
longitudinal section, 13 hrs. after fertilisation, c, cilia; sc, segmentation cavity (x200). 4,
gastrula, in section, 16 hrs.; ae, archenteron ; bp, blastopore (x73). 5, the same, 26 hrs., with
mesenchyme (ras) developing from endoderm. Letters as before (x88). 6, 48 hrs., with
blastopore closed, and archenteron constricted into ac anterior, mesenteron, and ec posterior
enterocoel (x88). 7, longitudinal section showing extension of right and left posterior
coeloms (rpc, tpc) from anterior coelom around larval stomach (st), (x60). 8, further stage,
showing rpc and Ipa separated from ac, and lobes of the rudimentary left hydrocoel (ftc), ( x60).
9, dorsal view of a Bipinnaria. oe, oesophagus ; hp, hydropore ; y, " blood-vascular space,
Bury, perhaps rudiment of right hydrocoel. Other letters as before (x50). 10, Bipinnarut
of Asterias, four days old. ec, ciliated band; m, mesenchymatous musclefibres(x73). 11,
diagram showing relations of stone canal (stc) and pore canal (pc) to left hydrocoel (the) and
anterior coelom (ac).
hinder end of the anterior coelom, on both the right and left side,
there is a small outgrowth, the " right and left hydrocoel" (Fig.
VI. 8); that on the left is, as it happens, much more developed,
but the presence of a right hydrocoel has been proved by Metsch-
nikoff (1869) and MacBride (1896), (y in Fig. VI. 9). Near
the median dorsal line, above the hinder end of the anterior
coelom, a perforation arises in a thickening of the ectoderm,
forming the "hydropore"and the "pore canal"; while, in no connec-

tion with this, a groove arises along the hinder wall of the anterior
coelom, and develops into a canal connecting the left hydrocoel
with the anterior coelom, and called "stone canal," because its homo-
logue in recent adult Echinoderms develops spicules in its walls
(Fig. V I . 11). MacBride (1896) has observed larvae of Astervm
gibbosa, in which there were a hydropore and stone canal on the
right, and some in which both right and left pores were present.
The latter arrangement occurs also temporarily in the Bipinnaria
of Asterias (Field, 1892, Fig. VI. 10), and is that which w e suppose
to have obtained in the Dipleurula.
O n the ventral side, at the anterior end of the body, a mouth
is produced by invagination, and leads into the remaining part of
the archenteron, which becomes modified into a larval stomach and
a short rectum curved ventralwards and opening at the blastopore.
The part of the larva in front of the mouth is called " the preoral
lobe," and a portion of it becomes a sense organ, usually ciliated,
with a development of nerve tissue (Fig. VI. 9, 1 0 ; Fig. I.).
It must not be supposed that a Dipleurula larva of this simple
type actually exists. In each class it presents some modification,
the outward appearances of which have already been described.
Moreover, the internal structures vary in the order of their
development and in persistence. E n o u g h is c o m m o n to the
various types to show that the Dipleurula larva is no phantasm, and
to suggest very strongly that it represents an ancestral Dipleurula
stage, differing but slightly if at all from the ancestral Tornaria,
and being one of the lowest of all animals with a coelom. T h e
hydrocoels and their indirect exterior openings have been compared,
perhaps not very judiciously, with the excretory nephridia of
higher Coelomata. T h e possible connection of Tornaria with the
ancestral Chordata gives additional interest to the resemblance
between stereom formation and bone formation (see p. 29), and
to the invagination of a primitively superficial nervous system in
the two groups.
Between adult Echinoderms and other groups of the Animal
Kingdom no comparisons are possible. F r o m this stage onward
the Echinoderm follows a path of its own. B y a remarkable
metamorphosis, varying in its details but presenting some c o m m o n
features in the different classes, the almost bilaterally symmetric
larva is transformed into the almost radially symmetric adult.
This metamorphosis undoubtedly represents the changes that took
place in the early history of the classes; and the extraordinary
difficulties of interpretation are due to the enormous compression
of that history, the elimination in some cases of unnecessary
stages, and the unequal acceleration of others. T h e clue is offered
by the older fossils, which, as explained under Cystidea, forcibly
ECHINODERMA—GENERAL DESCRIPTION Q
suggest that all Echinoderma are descended from sessile ancestors

(necessarily representing a stage subsequent to the Dipleurula), and
that the oldest a m o n g these had not acquired radial symmetry, that
being, it would appear, a consequence of fixation. Fixation was
retained more or less completely by Cystidea, Blastoidea, Crinoidea,
and Edrioasteroidea; but among the other classes it is only the
Stelleroidea that n o w preserve traces of it in their ontogeny.
T h e passage from the Dipleurula to the fixed stage is best
studied in Antedon (Bury, 1 8 8 8 ; and Seeliger, 1893); but even
here changes that, in phylogeny, must have succeeded fixation
n o w precede it, and actually precede the free-swimming stage of the
larva. Fixation takes place by a modified portion of the preoral
lobe (p.l), as also in Stelleroidea.
T h e phylogenetic result of this was
the passage of the mouth (0) to
the posterior end of the Dipleurula,
which was n o w directed upwards
(Fig. VII.). W i t h the mouth went
the hydrocoel. T h e attachment ap-
pears to have been towards the right
side, for thus only can w e account for
the fact that the structures on the
left of the Dipleurula increased at the
expense of those on the right. It
was therefore the left hydrocoel (l.hc)
and stone canal (s.c) that moved
upwards with the mouth, while those FIG. VII.
Diagrammatic reconstruction of the
on the right disappeared. The
imagined primitive Pelmatozoic ances-
nervous structures of the anterior tor. Compare carefully with Fig. I.
end remained there or, possibly, and with adjoining text".
atrophied. T h e forward portion of the anterior coelom (a.c) shared
in the construction and elongation of this region; but its hinder
portion was dragged u p along with the hydropore (M) and formed
the " parietal canal" (par), so called because it lies along the outer
wall of the larva. T h e left posterior coelom (l.p.c) of the Dipleurula
was caught in between the oesophagus and the stomach, and so
passed upwards, towards what w e m a y n o w call the oral pole of
the fixed stage; while the right posterior coelom (r.p.c) was pushed
downwards by the stomach pressing to the right and thus came
to lie nearer the aboral pole. T h e blastopore is early closed in
the ontogeny of Antedon, but w e infer from the position of the
larval rectum that in phylogeny the anus (As) did not m o v e
upwards so rapidly as the mouth. T h e effect of these changes
was a torsion of all the structures in the upper part of the
body. T h e gut was thrown not into a simple loop, but into a
dextral coil. T h e pressure of the oesophagus against the hydrocoel
not merely pulled it up, but pressed it into a horseshoe curve,

with the opening directed to the anal side. T h e left posterior
coelom was curved in like manner. T h e further elongation of the
fixed aboral end involved lobes of the right posterior coelom
and initiated their downward extension,firston the right side of
the anterior coelom, then gradually curving round it. This torsion
and shifting of internal organs m a y be compared with the simpler
case of streptoneurous Gastropoda.
Careful study of the two diagrams, representing the Dipleurula
(Fig. I.), and the primitive Pelmatozoan or fixed stage (Fig. VII.),
Fio. VIII.
Sections of Antedon larva, semi-diagrammatic (1-4 after Seeliger, x85). (5, 6 after Bury).
1, longitudinal section with preoral lobe turned downwards, the reverse of Fig. iv.; the anterior
coelom extends into this, as well as upwards into the parietal canal. 2, transverse section in
the neighbourhood of the hydropore, showing the parietal canal leading to it; two lobes of the
hydrocoel and the lower end of the stomach are seen to be at the same level as right posterior
coelom and lower end of vestibule. 3, part of a longitudinal section in the same direction as
Fig. 1, but passing through the hydropore and the Ave primitive lobes of the hydrocoel not
yet connected therewith; between the two is a small extension of left posterior coelom; adjoining
sections show that the hydrocoel is still horseshoe-shaped, but will eventually close'along the
gap between lobes 1 and 5 to form the hydrocircus. 4, transverse section at a slightly more
orad level than in 2, and in an older larva; the vestibule is here closed over • note the
mesenteries between right and left posterior coeloms. 5, transverse section of an older larva
in which the vestibule has passed right u p to the oral pole, and a rectum (?•) has formed •
between this and the stomach is seen the rudiment of the axial organ; the parietal canal
remains, but the stone canal n o w opens into it (X125). 6, median longitudinal section the
vestibule still open, columnals forming around extensions of right posterior and anterior
coeloms ; left posterior coelom is seen above the stomach as a lobe of the hydrocoel (xl20\
Explanation of letters—ac, anterior coelom; ax, axial organ ; cc, ciliated bands • coL
columnals ; he, hydrocoel; l.pc, left posterior coelom ; nn, nerves ; p, hydropore • var Darietal
canal; r, rectum; r.pc, right posterior coelom; st, stomach ; st.c, stone canal; v' vestibule.
will enable the student to appreciate tne peculiar position of the
internal structures in the Antedon larva, of which a few sections
are here given for comparison (Fig. VIII.). The structure is far
more complicated than in Fig. VII., owing to extensions from
the coelomic cavities. In the earlier sections the hydrocoel is still
ECHINODERMA—GENERAL DESCRIPTION n
on the aboral side of the right posterior coelom; indeed, the mouth
itself is not at the future oral pole, for the larval mouth closed
early, and the place where it was became arched over by lips
of ectoderm, which formed a "vestibule" (v). This vestibule it
is that gradually moves u p ; a fresh mouth ultimately breaks
through into it, and the lips again unfold at the n e w oral pole.
T h e connection of the anterior coelom, through the parietal canal
and the hydropore, with the exterior, persists (cf. Fig. VIII. 1 and
3 ) ; the hydrocoel opens into the parietal canal by the stone
canal at a later period (Fig. VIII. 5).
There is reason to believe that some of the early Cystidea
(Amphoridea, p. 43) had an internal structure scarcely more
advanced than Fig. VII. But the fixed stage had further effects.
T h e most notable was the prolongation of ciliated and tentacu-
liferous grooves from the mouth, accompanied by processes from
the hydrocoel. A t first there were three such radial extensions :
anterior, right, and left, since the
presence of anus and hydropore, and
the absence of hydrocoel on the posterior
side prevented extensions in that direc-
tion (Fig. IX.). T h efiverays, so char-
acteristic of Echinoderma, were produced
by the forking of the right and left
rays. It was only at a later date, w h e n
the hydrocoel had grown into a ring
round the oesophagus, that thefiverays
could proceed equally from this ring. FIG. IX.
The division of the rays into a pair The pentamerism of Echino-
enclosing anus and madreporite, and derma contrasted with a regular
k n o w n as the bivium, and the three pentamerism. p, mouth; As, anus;
between them is the madreporite.
others (anterior, right ant. and left 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are the rays of an
ant.), k n o w n as the trivium, is opposed imaginary perfect pentamerism, of
to this fundamental structure. It must which 1 and 5 are the bivium, 2,
3, 4, the trivium. i, ii, iii, iv, v are
further be noted that this bilateral thefiverays of a Pelmatozoan.
symmetry of the rays has nothing to do with the bilateral nature
of the Dipleurula.
While these changes were in progress the formation of stereom
continued. A t first there were only spicules deposited in the
mesenchyme (see Fig. II. 1, and Fig. III). These enlarged and
fused into plates, which eventually became so large as to abut
on one another. These plates were arranged in the mesoderm
beneath the ectoderm. A n account of their arrangement and
structure will be found under Amphoridea (p. 45). Through
the fixation below and the radiation of the hydrocoel and food-
grooves above, these plates gradually came to lie in definite
positions and to assume a definite number, shape, and size. T h e
ontogeny of Antedon suggests their division into two groups

(Fig. X ) : one formed around the upper, oral coelom (l.pc,
i.e. the left posterior coelom of the Di-
pleurula), which gradually encireled the
oesophagus; the other around the lower,
aboral, or apical coelom (r.pc, i.e. the right
posterior coelom of the Dipleurula). The
former set were affected by radiate sym-
r.pc metry before the others, and in Antedon
larya are represented by five large plates,
the " orals " (0). The latter set form the
plates of the aboral side of the adult
Echinoderm. In a Pelmatozoan they form
the dorsal cup (B and IB) and the ossicles
of the stem (col) when that organ is pre-
sent.
W e have now traced the history of
the Echinoderma up to a form fixed
aborally, and with rays, normally five in
Skeletal development in An- number, proceeding from the mouth and
tedon larva (after Seeliger). p,
hydropore ; fp, fixing plate of underlying the hydrocoel ring or hydro-
stem, " dorso - central " ; for circus. These rays involved other of the
other letters, see adjoining text.
x 66.
internal organs, notably portions of the
oral and aboral coelom, and accompanying them was a develop-
ment of epithelial nerves and a circumoral nerve ring. The
dividing wall between the right and left posterior coeloms, the
dorsal mesentery of the Dipleurula, now lies horizontally or
transverse to the long axis. A new vertical mesentery, both
above and below, is formed by the tissue separating the in-
curved ends of the oral and apical coeloms respectively. O n
the inner walls of these coeloms, adjoining this mesentery, is a
thickening of the endothelium (ax in Fig. VIII. 5), to form event-
ually a strand passing up to the main axis through the coil of the
gut, and known as the " axial cord." This, in the adult, originates
the gonads, which seem atfirstto have been expelled through an
aperture in the body wall between mouth and anus, as seen in
Holothurians and some Cystidea. Subsequently this becomes
involved in the radiate symmetry.
The phylogenetic stage thus reconstructed on the evidence of
embryology and palaeontology corresponds on the whole to the
stage imagined by Semon (1888), and named by him Pentactata
(five-rayed). The question arises : H o w far does this represent the
ancestor of all Echinoderms 1 There can be no doubt that this
actually was a stage in the history of the fixed Echinoderms
(Pelmatozoa); that it was also a stage in that of the free Echino-
derms (Eleutherozoa), is coming more and more to be the opinion
of zoologists. The development of Asterina indicates the possible

relation between those two groups. Here MacBride (1896) has
shown that the larva is early attached by the preoral lobe, and
that it bends over on this so as to bring the mouth downwards.
The internal structures do not, however, undergo that complete
translation and torsion which occur in the Crinoid. Traces of it
are seen in the greater development of the left hydrocoel and left
posterior coelom. Fig. X L attempts to show what would happen
in the case of a primitive Pentactaza that bent over in this way;
while the mouth passed down, the anus and hydropore would tend
to remain on the upper surface, where they could best fulfil their
functions. In the present ontogeny of the Asteroid, the develop-
ment is direct from the Dipleurula to this stage, the intermediate
steps imagined for the phylogeny being omitted as unnecessary.
Fia. XI.
Change from Pentactcea to Stelleroid type. 0, mouth ; As, anus ; M, madreporite ; r.p.c
and l.p.c, right and left posterior coelom; IM, left hydrocoel; s.c, stone canal; pi, preoral
lobe ; ax, axial sinus, remains of anterior coelom.
But to those phylogenetic steps are due the peculiar positions
assumed by the left hydrocoel and left posterior coelom, as well
as the radial folding which they undergo. Study of Fig. XI.
will elucidate the complicated internal arrangement of the develop-
ing Asterina. Further flexure causes the ends of the curved
hydrocoel to grow around the stalk, which thus deceptively appears
to spring from the oral surface, not from the aboral as in Crinoids.
Subsequently the stalk atrophies, and the young starfish is a free-
moving form, with mouth on the sea-floor, with anus and madre-
porite directed upwards, and with the beginnings of five arms
containing extensions of the left hydrocoel, of the oral coelom
(derived from 1. post, coelom), and of the stomach (Fig. XII.).
During development the larval mouth and anus are closed, and
break through again in their adult positions; this points to a
migration of those openings during phylogeny, which migration
cannot well be repeated in ontogeny.
A vast amount of discussion has taken place over the question
whether the plates of the Crinoid calyxfindhomologues in other
Echinoderma. T h e orals on the one side are supposed by some

(e.g. Loven, P. H . Carpenter, Sladen) to be represented by some-
what similarly situated plates in Stelleroidea (" buccal shields of
Ophiuroids, " odontophores" of Asteroids), and by a circumoral
calcareous ring in Holothurians. T h e plates of the dorsal cup
have been homologised with plates very similar in shape and
arrangement that are often to be observed in Stelleroidea, notably
on the aboral side of the compact body of Ophiuroids, and with two
circlets of plates at the aboral pole of Echinoids. It has been
supposed that all Echinoderma primitively possessed a definite
calycinal system, thus composed: a central aboral plate (" dorso-
central"), five plates surrounding this ("basals," "genitals" of
Echinoids), five plates following on these and alternating with
them ("radials," "terminals" of Asteroids, "oculars " of Echinoids);
these together formed the " apical system," and to them was some-
times added a circlet below, and alternating with, the basals (" intra-
nasals " ) : five orals, alternated with the radials, and to these P.
H . Carpenter once added an " oro-central," the correlative of the
dorso-central. T h e oro-central is a discredited myth. T h e dorso-
central is a plate at the distal end of the Crinoid stem, i.e. in the
preoral lobe (fp in Fig. X . ) ; there is no proof that it ever formed
part of an apical system, and it cannot be considered either homo-
genetic or homoplastic with the aboral central plate sometimes seen
in Stelleroidea. A s for the basals and radials
of the Crinoid, they are, as stated above,
formed around the right posterior coelom;
this also is the position of their supposed
homologues in Asterina (Fig. X n . ) , and
MacBride's argument that their relations
to the stem are different, does not seem
fatal to the above theory. W h a t is fatal
is the conclusion to which the evidence of
F I G . XII.
fossils forces us—that the free Echinoderms,
Dorsal, i.e. aboral, view of if they arose from stalked forms at all,
Asterina gibbosa, ten days old indubitably did so ages before a calycinal
(after Ludwig). Shows preoral
lobe (p.l) n o w on oral side ;
system had been evolved. E v e n a m o n g
rudiments offivearms marked stalked forms it appears that regular apical
byfiveterminal plates (T); al- systems arose independently in different
ternating with these are five
basals (/<); and at C is the lines of descent. If, however, it be im-
so - called dorso - central; M, possible to regard the apical systems of
madreporite. xand
Echinoidea 56. Stelleroidea as homogenetic with that of Crinoidea
there can be no objection to the statement that similar plates are
developed in a similar position with regard to the fundamental
anatomy, under the influence of somewhat similar causes.
The Asteroids were probably the last group to branch off from
the fixed Echinoderms. Hence it is that they retain m a n y features
of the Pentactcea, together with epithelial nerves on thefloorof

the arm-grooves, as in Pelmatozoa. The Ophiuroids are, fas
explained under Stelleroidea, scarcely to be distinguished from
Asteroids. Whether they branched off at an earlier date or no is
uncertain; at any rate, they have progressed farther from the
Pentactaia type, in so far as the radial nerves have sunk below
the surface and are covered by " epineural canals," which probably
represent closed food-grooves (Fig. XIII. 1 and 2).
FIG. XIII.
Sections across ambulacra of—1, Asteroid ; 2, Ophiuroid ; 3, Echinoid ; 4, Holothurian.
amb, ambulacral ossicle; amp, ampulla; b, radial blood-vessel; cm, circular muscles; d.s,
ventral scute; e, radial epineural canal; Im, longitudinal muscles ; l.s, lateral scute ; m, muscles ;
n, radial nerve of superficial oral system ; »2, radial nerves of deeper oral system ; p, podium;
ph, pseudhaemal canal; v.o, vertebral ossicle ; w, radial canal of the water-vascular system.
The development of Echinoidea has been studied by J. Muller

(1852), Agassiz (1864), Metschnikoff (1869), Bury (1889), and
many others. The results are summarised by Theel in his admir-
able account of the development of JEchinocyamus pusillus (1892).
U p to the stage corresponding to the Dipleurula no important
divergences are manifest. The peculiarities of the ensuing meta-
morphosis appear due to the extreme development of a free-
swimming Pluteus (Fig. XIV.). At an early stage there is an
invagination (am) of the ectoderm on the left side between the
bases of the ventral and dorsal posterior processes of the Pluteus.
The inner end of this sac grows towards the left hydrocoel,
while its opening nearly or quite closes (Fig. X V 1). The five
primitive lobes of the hydrocoel grow up into thefloorof this
sac (Fig. X V . 2), which thus serves as a kind of amnion in which
the young sea-urchin is formed (Fig. X V . 3), until the size of the
FIG. XIV.
Pluteus of Eehinocyumus (after Theel).
About 75 times nat. size.
Explanation of letters to Figs.
XIV. and XV.—a.c, anterior coelom ;
a.d, anterior dorsal arm; am, am-
niotic invagination; a.v, anterior
ventral a r m ; he, hydrocoel; hp,
hydropore ; l.p.c, left posterior
coelom ; 0, mouth ; oe, oesophagus ;
p, podia; pd, posterior dorsal arm ;
p.v, posterior ventral arm; r.p.c,
right posterior coelom ; s, spines of
Echinoid ; sp, spicules of Pluteus;
sp\ the same being absorbed; st,
stomach.
Development of Echinocyamus (after Theel). 1, portion of a Pluteus rather more ri»v»inn»i

than in Fig XIV. ; the ectodermic invagination has grown in t o w a r t S f t ? J S f t S m w f i c K
now separating into a posterior portion and a hydrocoel. 2, portion of a Pluteus: ahni'it twii,»
days old, showing the lobes of the hydrocoel growing into tlfe amnion. C t S sa,n1 C 0 S e r
ably more advanced ; spines begin to develop and the amnion is connected with tiVo «vii •
4, a Pluteus forty-five days old, with spines and podia of the young u r c l d n D r Z u d ^ t£Tn'
iZ%zJt$iozrs urchin>bearing onits

*"* there, " ai,,s ° { ^âsKgsrSi
growing tube feet and spines causes it to break through the outer
wall (Fig. X V 4). While this takes place the spicular skeleton of
the Pluteus is absorbed, and the body of the Pluteus shrinks u p to
a sac on the aboral side of the young Echinoid (Fig. X V 5). T h e
hydropore from thefirstopens on the dorsal surface, which becomes
the aboral side. T h e right posterior coelom is also under here,
as in Stelleroids. T h e larval stomach becomes that of the adult,
but a fresh mouth is formed in the centre of the hydrocircus,
while the anus is a fresh formation at the aboral pole.
It is easy to understand that, with this amniotic development
in the body of the larva, most of the traces of the Pentactcea
3tage have disappeared. There is, however, evidence of a preoral
lobe, while the coil of the intestine and the radiate structure of
the hydrocoel, nerves, and gonads, bear witness to antecedent
phylogenetic changes. O n those changes light is thrown by
palaeontology, which teaches us that the primitive Echinoid had a
spheroidal body, with muscular, flexible walls, in which irregular
plates were developed; the mouth was at the centre of the lower
surface; the anus on the upper surface, and near it the madre-
porite (the successor of the hydropore). Combining with the
evidence from fossils that from comparative anatomy, w e infer
that the gut had a simple dextral coil; that the oesophagus was
surrounded by three rings—water-vascular, blood-vascular, and
nervous; and that from each ring five branches passed u p the
inside of the body wall to the aboral pole; that branches from the
radial water-vessels passed, between the plates in the body wall,
to the exterior, and became suckers assisting locomotion, the
complete structures being ambulacra; that gonads were five,
unpaired, and interradially disposed in the body cavity. Such a
form had lost the stem of the Pentactcea, and had never possessed
an apical system of plates. It had, however, already developed
food-grooves, with nerves and ambulacral vessels, while there must
have been some radiate arrangement of the gonads. T h e sinking of
the nerves and closure of the food-grooves forming epineural canals
(Fig. XIII. 3) probably took place as w e suppose it to have done
in Ophiuroids. A m o n g Pelmatozoa, the Edrioasteroidea (p. 205)
present a structure removed from that of the primitive Echinoid
in little but the upward position of the mouth and (probably) the
madreporite, and the functional food-grooves; the notable point about
the latter is the presence of openings between the flooring-plates,
apparently for the passage of processes from the radial water-vessels.
T h e peculiarities in the structure and development of the
Holothurians m a y perhaps be ascribed to their having in m a n y
respects regressed from the Pelmatozoic towards the Dipleurula
type (Fig. XVI.). Thus the mouth has again come to lie at one
end of the body, while the anus is at the other. W i t h the mouth
2
has gone the genital pore; and the madreporite, though uncon-
nected with the ex-
terior in the adult of
most n o w living, must
have moved towards
this end also. But
there is an important
difference between this
and the Dipleurula in
the coil of the gut, and
FlG XVI
- - the vastly altered rela-
Diagrammatic reconstruction of the imagined primitive y,n.r,a nf +Vio nr»olr»mi/>
Holothurian type, for comparison with Figs. I., VII., and mon° OI tue
CUtJlunilG
XI. 0, mouth ; As, anus ; M, hydropore ; l.hc, left hydro- cavities w i t h their in-
coel; g, genital opening.
tervening mesenteries.
The arrangement indicates that the mouth, hydrocoel, madre-
porite, and associated organs of a Pentactma gradually moved
anteriorly away from the anus, thus coming nearer to the
stem (preoral lobe of larva) and lengthening the gut by another
half-coil. W h e n the fixed existence was given u p and the
food-grooves closed in, leaving the external podia from the
water-vessels, then the rays were able to extend equally in all
directions from mouth to anus. T h e anterior ray and the two
adjoining rays had thus come to be on that side of the elongate
body which was directed towards the sea-floor, and to this they
clung, or on it they crawled, by suckers
which developed on the podia, which
thus became "tube-feet." T h e left and
right posterior rays ran along the upper
surface of the body, forming the bivium
of the Holothurian, homologous with the
bivium of the Pelmatozoa, as shown by
the position of the hydropore.
The view has been held that the
Synaptidae, with their simple structure
and straight antero-posterior gut, repre-
sent the simplest and most ancestral
Echinoderms. But if the above account
be correct, this simplicity is only ap- Fio. XVII.
parent, and is the result of regressive „Penta^tuia stage of synapta (after
changes. Such is the view that now & ^ r ^ ^ . ! < A J S &
finds general favour. The Pentactula V^S&jfi^&S^.
stage (Fig. XVII.), in the development m> ^ng'tuînai muscles; sk, cai-
^t a J -i.1. A • J T i • careous spicules, x 36.
of Synapta, with five mterradial circum-
oral tentacles, slightly curved gut, and aboral anus, is therefore
not the modern ontogenetic representative of the phylogenetic
Pentactaia, as S e m o n supposed.
Further, if our present theory be correct, w e must suppose that

the larval history of the Holothurians has been exceedingly com-
pressed ; so that, to take but one point, the development of the
straight larval gut into the coiled gut of the adult takes place, not
by migration of the mouth and associated organs, but by lengthen-
ing and twisting of the gut itself. It is noteworthy that the two
lateral radii of the trivium with their nerves and muscles and tube-
feet, as well as the oral tentacles to which they eventually give rise,
develop m u c h more slowly than the three other radii. Those are
the three radii which are assumed in the above account to be
homologous with the original three radii of the primitive Pel-
matozoan (cf. Fig. IX.).
It therefore appears that the Holothurian stock branched off
from the Pelmatozoa before complete pentamerous symmetry of
the hydrocoel and associated organs had arisen, before any definite
calycinal system had developed, while the gonads were still a
simple strand opening to the exterior by a single posterior gono-
pore. T h e diminution of the skeletal elements did not favour
their preservation as fossils. Their spicules indeed are found in
the rocks from at least the Carboniferous downward, but if w e
except the problematic Sphaerites, Quenstedt (1852, non Dufts), no
fossil Holothurian is known. T h e class was perhaps an early
offshoot from the Edrioasteroidea. This theory explains h o w it is
that the Holothurians are primitive in so m a n y characters, although
the most specialised in others; they are primitive as regards
Pelmatozoic structure, specialised as regards Eleutherozoic,
Symmetries.—The radial symmetry due to the fixed phylo-
genetic stage is usually pentamerous. Hexamerous symmetry
was independently acquired by some Cystidea. Variation from
pentamerism m a y arise suddenly (discontinuous meristic variation
of Bateson), producing hexamerous or tetramerous individuals, or
species, or genera, according as the sport becomes fixed. There
m a y also be a duplication, or further multiplication of radii, as in
the ten-rayed Promachocrinus, or an intercalation during growth, as
in the many-rayed Labidiaster ; this is a different thing from the
branching of a radius, such as occurs in Crinoids, Astrophytidae,
and elsewhere. Again there m a y be variation by gradual atrophy
of one or more radii, as in Calceocrinidae, and some heart-urchins
and Holothurians. In spite of these variations, it is generally
possible to divide the body of an Echinoderm, by planes passing
through the ambulacra from the long or main axis, into approximately
corresponding portions, " antimeres," normally five. These planes
m a r k the radii, or better perradii, since the terms ray and radius
have been used loosely. Organs bisected by them are "perradial";
such are invariably the main ambulacral vessels, the arms of
Stelleroidea and brachia of Crinoidea, with their included organs.
Half-way between the perradial planes are the planes marking the
interradii. Organs bisected by these are " interradial" ; such are
the interambulacral areas of the test, the oral plates of Crinoidea,
the gonads of Echinoidea. Between the perradii and interradii
are adradii, a term little used in practice ; thecal plates adjoin-
ing the ambulacrals are called " adambulacral." In a regular
pentamerous Echinoderm an interradius is opposite to a perradius,
and an adradius opposite to an adradius.
All Echinoderms have a bilateral symmetry. Primitively the
plane of symmetry, the sagittal plane, is determined by the mouth
(anterior), the anus (posterior), and the hydropore (dorsal). But,
in thefirstplace, this sagittal plane, w h e n clearly shown, is not
the same as the sagittal plane of the Dipleurula. In Pelmatozoa
it certainly is not; in Holothurians it only approximates to it.
Secondly, in Echinoidea and some Cystidea, and in such Asteroidea
as have an anus, the plane passing through the vertical axis and
the madreporite (M plane) is not the same as that passing through
the vertical axis and the anus (anal plane). Thirdly, the rela-
tions of the anal plane to the M plane and to the radii m a y vary
even within a single class, e.g. Echinoidea and Cystidea. Conse-
quently the selection of any one plane as a plane of orientation
for the different classes is arbitrary. Also it is convenient. W e
take then the M plane and note that the hydropore lies in an in-
terradius with a radius opposite to it (Fig. X V I I L ) . That radius w e
denote by A. T h e n placing the animal with its mouth upwards
and going round the test in the direction of the watch-hand (i.e.
dextrally), w e denote the other radii in order, B, C, D, E. The
hydropore lies in interradius CD. In a developing Holothurian,
or in such Holothurians as retain an external madreporite (Fig.
X V I I L 3), the anus and mouth both lie in the M plane, forming
the poles of the long axis, while radius A bisects the ventral
surface; this therefore is the sagittal plane of bilateral symmetry,
and Cuenot, 1891, calls it the " Holothurian plane." In a Crinoid
(Fig. X V I I L 1), anus, mouth, and aboral pole, all lie in the M
plane, which here also is the sagittal plane ; but the anus, in inter-
radius CD, never marks the aboral pole of the main axis, though
it m a y usurp the place of the mouth at the upper pole. M a n y
Cystids, and apparently the Blastoids, have a similar orientation.
Other Cystids differ in that the anus lies to left or to right of
the hydropore, while the relation of the radii to the M plane
is not clearly defined. In Echinocystis (p. 301), which probably
represents the relations in the primitive Echinoid, the symmetry
remains as in Pelmatozoa; while the mouth is at one pole of the
main axis, the anus lies in or near the M plane, which is therefore
the sagittal plane, but the madreporite is near to the aboral pole
In later Echinoids the case is altered (Fig. X V I I L 4 ) ; thefirststep
appears to have been the passage of the anus to the aboral pole,
the madreporite remaining eccentric and marking interradius CD;
whether this CD is identical with CD of Echinocystis, is another
question; then the anus moved away from the pole in the direc-
tion of radius B, so that the anal plane made an angle of 72° with
the M plane. This new plane (interradius DE, radius B) is termed
by Cuenot the "Echinid plane"; Loven (1884) has shown that
the plates of the five interradii in Echinoidea are disposed sym-
metrically with reference to this plane. The sagittal plane of many
FIG. XVIII.
Planes of symmetry in Echinoderma (partly after Cuenot). \, Crinoid; 2, jroid;
3, Holothurian; 4, Regular Echinoid; 5, Irregular Echinoid. As, anus; M, plane passing
through niadreporite ; Ech, Echinid plane ; L, Loven's plane. For other letters, see adjoining
text.
other sea-urchins, notably the heart-urchins and their allies (Fig.
XVIII. 5), i.e. the plane passing through mouth, anus, and apical
pole, corresponds with neither the M plane nor the Echinid plane,
but passes through radius D and interradius AB; Cuenot calls it
" Loven's plane." The bivium (AB) and trivium (C, D, E) of a
heart-urchin are therefore in no way identical with those parts in
a Holothurian, a Crinoid, or a Stelleroid. In those starfish that
have an anus (Fig. XVIII. 2), that organ, as shown by Ludwig, is
in interradius BC; this with the vertical axis marks the " Asterid
plane " of Cuenot. It is scarcely worth while to describe yet other

divergences of the sagittal plane from the M plane, such as occur
in Cystidea and Blastoidea. All of them are due to the imposi-
tion of a tertiary bilateral symmetry, obscuring the previously
existing secondary bilateralism that had already replaced the
bilateralism of the Dipleurula.
Cavities and their Contents.—The cavities into which the
thecal cavity is divided by the ontogenetic changes above described,
are :—(1) Gut and appendages, derived from the archenteron, with
mouth and anus in part produced by invagination. (2) Coelomic
cavities: (a) the ambulacral system, derived from the left hydro-
coel ; (b) the main body-cavity derived chiefly from left posterior
coelom, which in Pelmatozoa, Stelleroidea, and Echinoidea becomes
mainly adoral; (c) the aboral body-cavity of Pelmatozoa (with
1 columnal extensions), of Stelleroidea,
and of Echinoidea; (d) the axial
sinus of the same three classes,
derived from the anterior coelom,
running down into the stem in Pel-
matozoa, indirectly connected with
the hydrocoel through the stone
canal, and containing "the axial
organ" (p. 23); (e) a perieso-
phageal sinus, sometimes subdivided,
is completely or incompletely sepa-
rated from (b), especially in Holo-
thurioidea, Echinoidea, and Ophi-
uroidea.
The coelomic cavities are lined
by pavement endothelium, usually
ciliated, and sometimes further pro-
vided with special ciliated or flagel-
lated organs which keep the con-
3 tainedfluidin motion (e.g. "urns"
FIG. XIX.
of Synaptidae (Fig. V. 4, p. 233);
Corpuscles of the coelomicfluid.1 and
2 from the Echinoid, Echinus sphaera "ciliated cups" of Crinoid arms,
^ g ^ ^ & r t i S i S ^ especially pinnules; free flagellate
ment, perhaps respiratory. 2, amoeboid cells of Echinoidea). T h e fluid is
white corpuscle with reticular pseudo- „• ,-i_ 4.1 r , . , """*
podia. 3, from the Ophiuroid, Ophiactis Similar tO that I O U n d in the lacunar
virens (after Foettinger) ; corpuscles of " h l o n i l v o o n n l n - „~„± » •., •
various shapes, with red colour supposed uwuu-VdSCUiar s y s t e m ; it IS Sea-
dueto haemoglobin. 4 and 5 from the water, n e r h a n s talrfln in f>i,.^~U *l»~
Holothurian, Thyonella gemmata (after v v < ™ 0 1 > F o l u d P S i a K 6 n m t n r O U g h the
Howell). 4, white corpuscle. 5, oval, madreporite, containiner a variahlft
nucleate, biconvex corpuscle, coloured Qrnn„ni. „t M. • *» il <*«"'
dIIluunl 0I
red by haemoglobin. All much magnified. a l b u m e n in Solution
, especially in the lacunar system!
and sometimes slightly yellowish or reddish. In itfloatvarious
bodies, viz. (a) amoebocytes (Fig. XIX. 1, 2, 4) capable of wandering
through all the tissues, including the skeletal, and containing re-
fnngent granules, proteids, fat, and a yellow pigment called "echino-
chrome" (MacMunn, 1885); they seem to be specialised as bearers
of reserve food, as calcigenous cells (p. 28), as phagocytes, and
as bearers to the exterior of waste products often pigmented
(Durham, 1891, St. Hilaire, 1897); (b) red corpuscles with haemo-
globin (Foettinger, 1880), non^nucleate, but vacuolate or granular
in water-vessels of Ophiuroids (Fig. XIX. 3), nucleate in various
coelomic cavities of Holothurians (Howell, 1886; Cuenot, 1891,
Fig. XIX. 5); the respiratory nature of these is demonstrated by
their containing haemoglobin.
Whatever may be the homologies of the hydrocoel, there is,
physiologically speaking, no nephridial or other excretory system
in Echinoderma. The function is probably performed by the
wandering cells just mentioned.
The Axial Organ has had many functions ascribed to it, as
shown by its various names : Heart (Tiedemann), Pseudo-heart,
Central Blood-plexus (Ludwig), Glandular or Chromatogen organ
(Hamann), L y m p h Gland, Madreporic Gland (Koehler), Collateral
or Plastidogen organ (Perrier), Ovoid Gland (Perrier, Cuenot, and
others), Genital stolon, Plexiform Gland or Dorsal organ (P. H.
Carpenter), Kidney (P. and F. Sarasin). The Sarasins (1888)
give a good account of the literature ; later notes of value are by
Cuenot (1891) and Durham (1891). Generally it is a brownish,
finely lobed, often pear-shaped body, showing under low magnification
a complicated arrangement of tissue strands (Fig. X X . 1). It does
not occur in Holothurioidea. In the other classes it is developed
in the axial sinus by irregular growth of endothelium, which forms
canal-like strands separated from one another by spaces derived
from the axial sinus; these latter are therefore primitively
connected with the water-vessels and madreporite through the
stone canal. Strands growing out at an early age from the central
plexus become the gonads, but the connection may be lost in later
life. In association with the genital strands are also radiating
" haemal strands," not true blood-vessels, but serving for the
transmission of nutrient cells. Such cells, as well as pigmented,
excretory amoebocytes, are found in quantity in and about the
axial organ. In Pelmatozoa the axial organ, surrounded by the
axial sinus and the lobes of the chambered organ, stretches right
down the stem (Fig. X X . 2). The position of the axial sinus with
regard to the gut suggests that nutrientfluidpasses by osmosis into
the axial organ, which thus serves as a kind of distributor, but there
is no evidence of pulsatile pump-action, i.e. it is no heart. The
evidence of new cell-formation is too slight to warrant the idea
that the axial organ is a factory of amoebocytes. There is still room
for study of this peculiar body, especially through experiment.
The Genital Organs throw light on the axial organ, since it

exists only in those classes in which the gonads are affected by
radiate symmetry, and not in the Holothurians. It follows that
the axial organ was a secondary development. Ontogenetically
the genital strands bud off from one end of it, where a ring is
formed, and with the extensions of these go also extensions of the

axial sinus (Fig. X X I ) . The single gonad of the Holothurioidea
connected with the dorsal mesentery, appears therefore to be the
homologue of the axial sinus and organ rather than of any one of
the interradial gonads of the other classes. T h e gonads, therefore
ECHINODERMA—GENERAL DESCRIP TION
are of endothelial origin. There appears, however, as shown by

H a m a n n , to be a migration of the actual sexual cells; and the
view of Cuenot that these are primarily amoebocytes derived
from the axial organ suggests their possible mesodermic nature.
Compare the migration of sexual cells deiived from the ectoderm
in Hydroids. T h e growth and minute structure of the o v u m have
been described by Crety (1894), of the spermatozoon by Field
(1895); both authors refer to preceding literature. N o striking
peculiarity is presented by Echinoderm gonads (cf. Fig. VI. 1).
FIG. XXI.
Diagrams showing relations of pseudhaemal and water-vascular systems and axial organ in
Asterias rubens (after Chadwick). 2 is x 50. ab.h, aboral haemal ring ; ax, axial organ ; ax.p,
axial perihaemal canal; bm, buccal membrane; g, genital strands; gh, absorbent haemal strands
leading from the gut-wall; hr, circumoral haemal ring ; hp, inner perihaemal canal (cf. Fig.
XXII.); I, blood lacunae; M, madreporite; n, nerve ring; op, outer perihaemal canal; rw,
radial water-vessel; rh, radial haemal strands ; st, stomach with folded wall; st.c, stone canal;
wr, circumoral water-ring.
The sexes are nearly always separate, and fertilisation takes place
in the water.
The Haemal Systems of Echinoderma are of two types, which
m a y coexist, but of which one usually predominates. Neither is a
true vascular system, but each consists of a series of smaller lacunae
(spaces without definite walls) or larger sinuses, sometimes appear-
ing as closed, but probably always having some communication,
however minute or indirect, with the other cavities of the body.
T h efluidin these spaces differs from the ordinary coelomicfluidonly
in containing more albumen, and has, likewise, no definite circula-
tion. T h e systems are: (a) Pseudhaemal, consisting of a ring
placed between the ring and radial nerves of the oral system
above, and the ring and canals of the water-system below. This
system is dominant, perhaps the only one, in Stelleroidea, where
it communicates with the general body-cavity and the axial sinus;
it is present in Echinoidea and Holothurioidea, in which classes it
is said to be closed; it is so m u c h reduced in the Crinoidea that
its existence is denied by some authors. In Asteroidea (Figs. X X L ,
XXII.) the ring is divided into an outer and an inner ring by an
oblique septum, from each angle of which a vertical septum passes
d o w n each radial canal. Formerly the system was supposed to
develop as a cleft in the mesenchyme, and therefore was called the
" schizocoelic system "; MacBride (1896) has shown that in Asterina
the inner ring is an outgrowth from the axial sinus, while each of
thefivecompartments of the outer ring and canals arises separately
as an outgrowth of the coelom, the outgrowth in the madreporic
interradius being derived from the anterior coelom, the rest from
the left posterior coelom. (b) Lacunar,
present in all classes except perhaps
Stelleroidea, and developed as lacunae
or small spaces in the connective tissue,
and therefore mesodermal (Fig. X X L ) .
It is differentiated into a network in the
wall of the gut, absorbing therefrom the
nutrient fluid, which is carried by a
main trunk on each side of the gut to a
circumoral ring; from this run radial
FIG. XXII. canals, below the pseudhaemal canals
Diagram of the pseudhaemal when present, and above the water-
system of Asterina (after MacBride).
Seen from above: M marks the M
vessels, while it is connected with net-
plane; in and ex, inner and outer works on the surface of both gonads and
divisions of the perihaemal ring ; a,axial organ. T h e lacunar system of the
the one arising from the anterior
coelom; ax, axial sinus, passing Stelleroidea differs in the absence of an
towards, but not opening into, the absorbent network, and is, says Cuenot,
aboral perihaemal ring; r.hc, right a derivative of the axial organ, and
hydrocoele ; g, genital strands.
therefore endodermal, i.e. it is only the pseudhaemal system greatly
extended.
Eespiration takes place through all exposed processes of the
ambulacral system, and through the body wall where thin enough,
as in some Holothurians. Specialised outgrowths or foldings of
the latter are : the " external gills " of Echinoidea, outgrowths of
the circumoesophageal sinus; the papulae of Asteroids, containing
diverticula of the body cavity; the bursae of Ophiuroids; the "pectini-
rhombs" of some Cystids; the " hydrospires" of Blastoids and
some Crinoids. Eespiration is also effected by water entering the
alimentary canal, whether through mouth or anus; in the latter
case it is again expelled. Special structures connected herewith
are: the " respiratory trees," which occur in some Holothurians

as outgrowths from the cloaca; the anal tube of Crinoids, which
in some Palaeozoic forms was large and with folded walls, forming
the so-called " ventral sac "; the " accessory intestine " of Echinoids,
a kind of by-pass, permitting water to flow through without
interfering with the digestive process going on in the main gut.
Lymph-glands.—The amoebocytes are formed in specialised
glandular regions of both haemal and ambulacral systems. Of
the former nature are the radial and pharyngeal vesicles of Kegular
Echinoids,firstdescribed by Prouho (1888); the greater part of the
3 6 7 8 11 12 14
FIG. XXIII.
Echinoderm histology. 1, fundamental fibrous substance, with nuclei and an embryonic
cell, from Echinaster sepositus. 2, stellate embryonic mesenchyme cells of Asterias glacialis.
3, gelatinous connective tissue of Spatangus purpureus (x 200). 4, elasticfibresof connective
tissue from Asterias glacialis. 5,fibresfrom stalk of a pedicellaria of same. 6, muscle-fibre
of same. 7, muscle-fibre from a spine attachment of Toxopneustes lividus (x 200). 8, muscle-
fibre from jaw pyramid of same ( x 250). 9, muscle-fibres from gut of Sphaerechinus esculentus
(x 175). 10, transverse section through a muscle-bundle of Asthenosoma wrens; s, sheath of
connective tissue from which proceed septa that limit the smaller divisions. 11, stroma
continued asfibrilsacross a suture in Spatangus purpureus, the stereom of the ossicles
dissolved away. 12, transversely striate muscle -fibres of Echinus acutus. 13, dorsal ligament
of arm of Antedon (x 125). 14, interarticular substance of Isocrinus asteria. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6 (after
Cuenot). 3,1, 8, 9 (after Hoffmann). 10 (after P. and F. Sarasin). 11, 12 (after Hamann).
13 (after W . B. Carpenter). 14 (after Joh. Miiller).
Stelleroid lacunar system, just mentioned; and the "spongy organ"
of Crinoids in the oral ring. Connected with the ambulacral system
are the " Polian vesicles " found in most Echinoderms other than
Crinoids, and the "Tiedemann's bodies" of Asteroidea (p. 243).
The primitive Mesenchyme cells, derived chiefly by migration
from the endoderm, partly from the ectoderm, have a large nucleus
and indistinct, often amoeboid, cytoplasm. From them are developed
connective and muscular fibres, amoebocytes and calcigenous cells,
and intercellular, gelatinous, and fibrous substances. The muscle-fibre
(Fig. XXIII. 6-9) derived from a single cell is smooth and straight,
clearly defined at the ends, with a lateral nucleus. A few striated

muscle-fibres are k n o w n in Echinoidea (Geddes and Beddard, 1 8 8 1 ;
H a m a n n , 1887). A semi-muscular, hyaline tissue of wavy, nucleated
fibrils is peculiar to Crinoidea, and is called " ligament tissue."
There are also muscles of endothelial origin. Connective tissue
fibrils are nucleate and vary in length and shape; there are also
rounded or.stellate cells (Fig. XXIII. 4, 2). Intercellular substance,
secreted by mesenchyme cells, often attains great thickness in
the integument; it m a y remain a soft jelly, or become tough as
indiarubber, or m a y split up into interlacing fibrils; it usually
contains amoebocytes and ordinary connective tissue cells ; it forms
also interarticular substance (Fig.. XXIII. 14), elastic ligament,
FIG. X X I V .
Stereom formation. 1, from the hinder portion of a Pluteus of Echinus miliaris. s, one of
the large supporting rods of the Pluteus; c, a three-pronged spicule surrounded by a group of
calcigenous cells, which derive their lime through a meshwork of pseudopodia and cells (a),
from the rods of the Pluteus and from their broken ends, which are seen just below c. 2. 3,
earliest stages of a spicule of Echinocyamus, surrounded by calcigenous cells. 4, infrabasal of
an Antedon larva forty-eight hours old (x 230). 5, regular stereom from the outer part of the
cup of HoUrpus (x 56). 6, portion of horizontal section of Holopus cup, showing relation of
irregular (i) and regular (r) stereom (x 15). 1-3 (after Theel). 4 (after Secliger). 5, 6 (after
P. H . Carpenter).
and the walls of internal organs. Parallel structures are found in
the cartilage of Vertebrata.
The formation of a calcareous skeleton by the mesoderm was
as pronounced in the oldest k n o w n Echinoderms as it is to-day,
indeed, more so. T o the prickly skin, so commonly a result of
this, is due the n a m e of the phylum (exôs, a hedgehog; Sepfia, skin).
Amoeboid cells in the mesenchyme have the power of fusing by
pseudopodia into plasmodia or into reticular tissue (Fig. X X I V ) .
W h e r e the pseudopodia meet and fuse, the protoplasm secretes
a small calcareous spicule (intracellular, Thêl; extracellular,
Semon), which gradually increases in size along the lines of the
pseudopodia. Such spicules meet and fuse by their processes,
thus building u p a hard tissue ("stereom"), with a structure that
in section appears reticular, but really is more like a beam-and-
rafter-work. As, in the growing Echinoderm, the protoplasmic
reticulum becomes a more definite stroma, so the pattern of the

stereom acquires definiteness, and varies in the different parts of
an individual, as well as in different species. In the course of
ages the spicules of the adult have themselves come to acquire
definite shapes characteristic of species, and this is notably the
case with the complicated "wheels," "anchors," and "tables" of
Holothurians (Figs. II. 3, 6; V. 6, 7, pp. 222, 2 3 3 ) ; but, as Stewart
and Bell have shown, also applies to the spicules of the thecal
cavity in sea-urchins. T h e spicules of the theca usually fuse into
plates, those of the appendages (brachia, stem, etc.) into ossicles.
There is no real distinction; but it is often the case that the
reticulum of the ossicles runs in straighter lines, while that of the
plates is a more open mesh-work; this is due to the definite
arrangement of the connectingfibresof the stroma in the append-
ages, and w h e n this is definite in the theca the result, as w e shall
see under Cystidea (p. 42), is the same. Attempts to use this
as an important character in distinguishing brachials from radials
(p. 112), or a dorso-central from columnals, have no secure
foundation. T h e stereom is absorbed by cells similar in outward
appearance to those which deposit it, and the calcareous salts are
transmitted by communicating pseudopodia from the absorbent to
fresh depositing cells. Thus the spicules of the Echinoid Pluteus
form, a reserve for the growing urchin ; thus, too, the anal plate
of the growing Antedon is absorbed, and its material used by the
increasing radials. Theel, to whose observations (1892-96) m u c h
of this knowledge is due, compares the reticular tissue, the
osteoblasts, the osteoclasts, and the " Howship's foveolae " formed
by the latter, of Vertebrata with the similar structures in Echino-
derma. Bone in itsfirststages, especially that formed in connec-
tive tissue, is marvellously like Echinoderm stereom, and is like-
wise of mesodermic origin. But, whereas bone is an extracellular
formation, it is probable that the spicules of Echinoderms, like
those of Sponges, are intracellular. T h e otoliths of some
Holothurians and the biscuit spicules of others (see p. 224) are
distinctly intracellular formations. Bone, moreover, is phos-
phate, not carbonate, of lime, and does not retain the markedly
crystalline character always possessed by Echinoderm stereom,
even w h e n highly complicated. Each skeletal element of an
Echinoderm acts as a crystallographic individual, polarising light
and cleaving along the planes characteristic of calcite. In fossils
the cleavage is often emphasised by an infilling of the spaces with
secondary calcite which has axes identical with those of the original
crystal. According to S e m o n (1887), every skeletal element begins
as a tetrahedron, usually in the form of a trifid spine with branches at
an angle of 120° T h e formation of similar spicules in sponges has
been studied by Minchin (1898, see Part II., Chapter on Porifera).
The epiblast develops into an ectoderm, ciliated in whole or

part. In the adult this often becomes merged in the mesoderm
so as to be indistinguishable; in Ophiuroids it is for the most part
calcified by the immigration of calcigenous cells; in Asteroids and
Echinoids it remains with its cilia; in Crinoids it remains on the
tegmen of some forms, and in the ventral grooves, where it is
ciliated ; in Holothurioidea it is very variable, being best preserved
in Synaptidae. F r o m the epithelium is derived the superficial
" oral nervous system," composed of the circumoral ring and
radial nerves. In Asteroidea and Crinoidea this remains on the
surface, but in the other classes it sinks below, while the grooves in
FIG. X X V .
Eyes of Echinoderms. 1, the end of a ray in young Asteroid, t, terminal tentacle; p, podia ;
e, eye-spot. 2, section across the eye-spot in Asterias, showing seven eye-cups, en, endo-
thelium of perradial water-vessel; cf, connective tissue fibres; nn, nerve below epithelium.
3, section across an eye-cup (after Cuenot). cil, cilia; cut, transparent cutis, below which
are the pigmented and retinal cells. 4, diagram of eye-spot of Diadema setosum, modified
from Sarasin. The eye-spot, with its hexagonal elements, is surrounded by the pigmented
integument, composed of a glandular, columnar epithelium (cp) which merges into the cornea
(cor) above, and the eye-cups below ; each cup is coated at its base with pigment (pg), and rests
on a nervous layer (>m), below which is again pigment. Connective tissuefibrils(cf) pass
through this in places.
which the nerves originally lay are closed over them, forming
" epineural canals " (Fig. XIII.).
T w o other nervous systems are formed in Echinoderma: (a)
the " deeper oral nervous system " from the mesoderm, underlying
and roughly following the course of the superficial system; said
to be absent in Crinoids, but is probably represented by their
" sub-epithelial system "; present in all other Echinoderms except
those Echinoids that have no masticatory apparatus; it chiefly
innervates the muscles in the oral side of the body wall; (b) the
" apical nervous system," most pronounced in Crinoids, and derived
from the endothelium of the axial sinus; it is believed to occur in
all other classes except Holothurioidea; it innervates the dorsal
musculature of the test and appendages.
Sense-organs are but slightly developed. They are tactile,

visual, and auditory or orienting. Tactile organs are furnished
by the ambulacral appendages, the spines, and the pedicellariae.
T h e chief a m o n g the ambulacral appendages is the " terminal
tentacle," the unpaired end of the perradial water-canal, differ-
entiated only in Stelleroidea and Echinoidea (Fig. X X V . 1). In
Asteroids it is coated with columnar epithelium bearing long cilia
and innervated by the radial nerve; in Ophiuroids this nerve,
which is sub-epithelial in the arm, becomes epithelial in the
tentacle; in Echinoidea the terminal tentacle is a sensory papilla
penetrating the pore in the "radial" or "ocular" plate of the
apical system. T h e remaining ambulacral appendages, the podia,
whether sucking feet, as in Echinoidea, Holothurians, and Asteroids,
or tentacles, as in Ophiuroids and Crinoids, are highly sensitive, and
sometimes have special developments. Thus, on the adoral side
of the oral tentacles of Synaptidae are two rows of papillae, of
which the tip is concave and ciliated; these are called " sensory
buds," and supposed to be organs of smell or taste. Again, the
podia of Crinoids have small papillose projections, each papilla
armed with three stiff but fine hairs. Similar papillae, sometimes
more developed, occur in some Ophiuroids and Echinoids. Spines
occur chiefly in Echinoids, less pro-
nounced in Stelleroids, and rarely in
Crinoids and Blastoids. N o t all spines
are sensory. T h e smaller spines of Cidar-
oida, surrounding the larger spines and
the main openings of the theca, are
covered with ciliated epithelium, and
bear tactile hairs at the tip; the minute
spines (clavulae) on the fascioles of Spat-
angidae (see p. 319) likewise have a
ciliated integument, probably with sen-
sory cells. T h e club-shaped spines of
some Ophiuroids are covered with a pg
glandular and sensory epithelium. Pedi- FIG. X X V I .
cellariae occur' in all Echinoids, some A single cup of Fig. X X V . 4,
Asteroids, and a few Ophiuroids; they are reconstructed from the evidence
of Sarasin. Outside is a ciliated
small, forceps-like appendages derived cuticle, covering the transparent
from spines (see p. 287). All are covered cellular cornea ; below is a refrac-
with a glandular, sensory epithelium, tive body (ref), possibly a vacuo-
late and multinucleate cell; the
which in the "glandular pedicellariae" nuclei (ns) lie in strands of proto-
of some Echinoids develops special tactile plasm ; outside the base of the
cup is a layer of anastomosing
prominences. Visual organs are k n o w n pigment cells, which pass up from
only in all Asteroids, a few Echinoids, and the pigment layer below through
Synapta, but other (probably all) Echinoderms the are
ganglionated
sensitive (gg) tonervous
light
layer.
owing, perhaps, to the action of the pigment-bearing amoebocytes
In Asteroids (Fig. X X V 1) an eye-spot (e) lies at the base of each

terminal tentacle (t) on its aboral side. This spot is a red cushion
in which are m a n y conical cups, each representing an eye (Fig.
X X V . 2). The wall of each cup is formed of pigment cells and
interspersed unpigmented retinal cells (Fig. X X V 3). T h e
Echinoid Diadema setosum has a black integument with numerous
spots which, owing to interference of light, appear blue. Each
blue spot, as proved by P. and F. Sarasin (1887), is a com-
pound eye (Fig. X X V 4). The structure of a single element is
shown in Fig. X X V I . Supposed auditory organs ("Baur's
vesicles" or otocysts) have been described only in some Holo-
thurians, e.g. Synapta (see Fig. X V I I . oc; also p. 234 and Fig. V . 5
on p. 233). The sphaeridia of Echinoids (see p. 288) are sup-
posed to be organs of orientation, or of taste and smell (Loven),
or for appreciating chemical changes in the water (Ayers, 1885).
They occur only on the oral side of the theca, and w h e n the
animal is in the natural position they hang d o w n like the clapper
of a bell; but when the animal is tilted, each sphaeridium presses
against the nerve cushion surrounding its stalk.
Distinctive Characters of Phylum and Classes.—The foregoing
account has introduced the fundamental features of Echinoderm
morphology, laying stress on characters c o m m o n to the whole
Phylum rather than on those that distinguish the various classes.
It has, however, tended to show the inner meaning of those out-
ward distinctions between the chief types with which the chapter
opened, and the student m a y perhaps have realised that "the
homologies within the Echinoderm stock" are, as S e m o n has in-
sisted, often more apparent than real. In drawing u p a definition
of the Phylum that shall include the most primitive forms of fixed
Echinoderms known, one cannot utilise most of the characters
usually thus employed in systematic treatises, since they are
secondary, homoplastic acquisitions, often with no true homology.
It is, for instance, not sure that all Echinoderms have a radiate
symmetry, even an obscured one. It is true that all recent
Echinoderms have a lacunar, haemal system; but that system in
Stelleroidea is not homologous with the one in Crinoidea. It is
highly probable that all animals to which the n a m e " Echinoderm "
could have been applicable since the beginning have had a portion
or portions of the anterior coelom specialised as a hydrocoel; but
this is different from the questionable assertion that all Echino-
derms have an ambulacral system.
O n the other hand, in any attempt to limit the several classes,
respect should be paid to deep-seated structures illustrative of past
history and genetic affinity rather than to the obvious but super-
ficial differentiations that characterise the representatives n o w
living. W e have to m a k e our classificatory partitions run back
as far as possible. Since the factor determining the lines of

evolution appears to have been position with regard to the sea-
floor, ^this must no longer be contemned as " mere difference of
habit." T h e first Echinoderms were not necessarily fixed, but
fixation probably affected all representatives of the Phylum at an
early period and produced gradual changes, thefirstbeing the migra-
tion of the mouth and left hydrocoel to the upper pole. Those
forms in which the oral pole remained uppermost, whether actual
fixation by the aboral pole persisted or no, are to be distinguished
from those in which the oral pole again shifted, accompanied by loss
of fixation. Leuckart's term Pelmatozoa (1848), though primarily
connoting the actual or potential possession of a stalk, has come
into general use for the former group. The term Statozoa, pro-
posed by Bell (1891), implies absence of locomotion, and is
therefore not so great an improvement as to compel its adoption.
T h e term Crinoidea was extended by Koemer (1851) to include
all Pelmatozoa, but such extension does violence to the intentions
of J. S. Miller, the coiner of the n a m e (1821). T h e forms with
oral pole uppermost may, it is true, be divided into classes; but,
as maintained by Huxley and R a y Lankester, their genetic con-
nection is so evident that it should be recognised by the establish-
ment of a Sub-phylum, to which w e shall continue to apply the
n a m e Pelmatozoa. T h e included classes, as hereafter explained,
are the Cystidea, Blastoidea, Crinoidea, and Edrioasteroidea. The
remaining classes of Echinoderma have been placed together by
P. H . Carpenter and others as Echinozoa, but m a y more con-
veniently be spoken of as Eleutherozoa (a term originally used by
Bell in a sense excluding Holothurians). Their genetic connec-
tion, however, is only that due to descent from the Pelmatozoa;
even if all Eleutherozoa descended from one class of Pelmatozoa,
they did so at widely differing periods. T h e Holothurians must
have cast loose before the genital organs had been affected by radial
symmetry, and are thus, as well as by the horizontal position of
the oro-anal axis and the retention of the M plane as sagittal,
sharply distinguished from Echinoidea and Stelleroidea. T h e two
classes last mentioned were with some reason opposed by
Leuckart to Pelmatozoa and Holothurioidea (or Scytodermata,
as he called the latter) as Actinozoa ; but they differ in important
features. If Cuenot's interpretation of the lacunar systems be
correct, it seems as though the Echinoidea branched off before
radial symmetry had greatly affected the coelomic lacunar system
derived from the axial sinus; similarly the digestive system
retained its coiled and non-radiate arrangement; moreover, the
sinking of the ambulacral water-vessels and nerves below the test
here diverged further from the Pelmatozoic type than is the case
in Asteroidea. T h e extension of the ambulacra nearly to the
3
aboral pole in Echinoidea and the development of a special

terminal plate at the end of each ray in Stelleroidea afford
features of m u c h diagnostic value, but of less morphological im-
portance. English writers have usually regarded the Asteroidea
and Ophiuroidea as well-defined classes. T h e normal forms are
in fact markedly separate, but the evidence of ontogeny, as well
as the existence of connecting links now, and the approxima-
tion of the two groups in Palaeozoic time, renders this view
difficult of acceptance, so that they are here combined in a class
Stelleroidea.
Diagnosis of Echinoderma.—Metazoa, coelomata, triptoblastica,
living in salt or brackish water, with a primitive bilateral sym-
metry still manifest in the right and left divisions of the anterior
and posterior coelom; with a hydrocoel primitively developed from
each half of the anterior coelom, and connected with the exterior
by a water-pore; with stereom composed of crystalline carbonate
of lime deposited by special amoebocytes in the meshes of a
mesodermal reticulum or stroma, chiefly in the integument (absent
only in the highly modified Pelagothuria, p. 230, and, according to
Koehler, in the Holothurians Stichopus pollens and S. torvus); with
gonads derived from the endothelium, apparently of the anterior
coelom; total segmentation of the o v u m produces a coeloblastula
and gastrula by invagination; mesenchyme is formed in the seg-
mentation cavity by migration of cells, chiefly from the hypoblast.
K n o w n Echinoderma show the following features (imagined to
be due to an ancestral Pelmatozoic stage):—Increase in the
coelomic cavities of the left side and atrophy of those on the right;
the dextral coil of the gut, recognisable in all classes, though
often greatly obscured; an incomplete secondary bilateralism
about the plane including the main axis and the water-pore or its
successor, the madreporite, often obscured by one or other of
various tertiary bilateralisms; the development of the hydrocoel
into a circumoral, arcuate or ring canal, the hydrocircus; except
in the small (but increasing) number of k n o w n cases in which care
of the brood has secondarily arisen, development is through a
free-swimming, bilaterally symmetrical, ciliated larva, of which
in m a n y cases only a portion is transformed into the adult
Echinoderm.
All living, and most extinct, Echinoderms show the following
features (almost certainly due to an ancestral Pelmatozoic stage):
— A n incomplete radial symmetry, of which five is usually the
dominant number, is superimposed on the secondary bilateralism,
Owing to the outgrowth from the peristome of one unpaired and two
paired ciliated grooves; these have a floor of nervous epithelium,
and are accompanied by subjacent radial canals from the hydro-
circus, giving off lateral podia and thus forming ambulacra, and by
a pseudhaemal system of canals apparently growing out from

coelomic cavities.
All living Echinoderms have a lacunar, haemal system of
diverse origin. This, the ambulacral system, and the coelomic
cavities contain afluidholding albumen in solution and carrying
numerous amoebocytes, which are developed in special lymph-
glands and are capable of wandering through all tissues.
The Echinoderma may be divided into seven Classes, the
mutual relations of which are roughly represented in the annexed
table.
( CYSTIDEA EDRIOASTEROIDEA
PELMATOZOA < BLASTOIDEA

HOLOTHURIOIDEA
I
(ELEUTHEROZOA)
\ CRINOIDEA - ECHINOIDEA
— STELLEROIDEA
GUIDE TO LITERATURE OF ECHINODERMA GENERALLY.
In selecting from the large mass of writings, preference has been given to the
more recent, especially those giving summaries or bibliographies. Works alluded
to in the text m a y also be found by reference to the Zoological Record and the
Zoologischcn Jahresberichten (Naples).
1. Agassiz, A. 1882. (Echinodermata Bibliography.) Bull. Mus.
Comp. Zool. Harvard, vol. x. pp. 109-134.
2. 1883. (Selections from Embryological Monographs—II. Echinoder-
mata.) M e m . Mus. C o m p . Zool. Harvard, vol. ix. (2), pp. 1-45, pis. i.-xv.
3. Bell, F. J. 1891. (On the Arrangement and Interrelations of the Classes
of the Echinodermata.) Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 6, vol. viii. pp. 206-
215.
4. Buetschli, 0. 1892. (Versuch der Ableitung des Echinoderms aus einer bi-
lateralen Urform.) Zeitsch. wiss. Zool., vol. liii. Suppl. pp. 136-159, pi. ix.
5. Bury, H. 1888. (The Early Stages in the Development of Antedon rosacea.)
Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, vol. clxxix. (1888), B., pp. 257-300, pis.
xlii.-xlvii.
Q. 1889. (Studies in the Embryology of the Echinoderms.) Quart.
Journ. Micr. Sci., N.S. vol. xxix. pp. 409-449, pis. xxxvh.-xxxix.
7, 1895. (The Metamorphosis of Echinoderms.) Quart. Journ. Micr.
Sci., N.S. vol. xxxviii. pp. 45-135, pis. iii.-ix.
8. Carpenter, P. H. 1878-85, -87. (Notes on Echinoderm Morphology—i.)
Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., N.S. vol. xviii. pp. 351-383 ; (ii.) vol. xix. pp.
176-206; (iii.) vol. xx. pp. 321-329; (iv.) vol. xxi. pp. 169-193, pis. xi.,
xii. ; (v.) vol. xxii. pp. 371-386 ; (vi.) vol. xxiii. pp. 597-616 ; (vii.) vol.
xxiv. pp. 1-23, pi. i. ; (viii.) vol. xxiv. pp. 319-327 ; (ix.) vol. xxv. Suppl.
pp. 139-155 ; (x.) vol. xxvii. pp. 379-391 ; (xi.) vol. xxviii. pp. 303-317.
9. Crety C. 1894. (Contribuzione alia conoscenza dell' ovo ovarico.) Ric. Lab.
A n a t R o m a , vol. iv. pp. 261-281, pi. xiv. [Contains Bibliography.]
10. Cuenot, L. 1891. (Etudes morphologiques sur les Echinodermes.) Arch.
Biol., vol. xi. (1891), pp. 313-680, pis. xxiv.-xxxi. [Gives good Biblio-
graphy.]
11, Durham, H. E. 1891. (On Wandering Cells in Echinoderms, etc., more

especially with regard to Excretory Functions.) Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.,
N.S. vol. xxxiii. pp. 81-121, pi. i.
12. Field, G. W. 1892. (The Larva of Asterias vulgaris.) Quart. Journ. Micr.
Sci., N.S. vol. xxxiv. pp. 105-128, pis. xiuVxv.
13. 1895. (On the Morphology and Physiology of the Echinoderm
Spermatozoon.) Journ. Morph., vol. xi. pp. 235-270, pis. xv.-xvi.
14. Foettinger, A. 1880. (Sur l'existence de l'hemoglobine chez les Echino-
dermes.) Arch. Biol., vol. i. pp. 405-413, pi. xvii.
15. Geddes, P. 1880. (Observations sur le fluide perivisceral des oursins.)
Arch. Zool. Exper., vol. viii. pp. 483-496, pis. xxxvii.-xxxviii.
16, and Beddard, F. E. 1882. (On the Histology of the Pedicellariae and
the Musples of Echinus sphaera, Forbes.) Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb., vol.
xxx. pp. 383-395, pis. xix.-xxi.
17. Hamann, O. 1883-89. (Beitrage zur Histologic der Echinodermen, Heft
1.) Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., vol. xxxix. pp. 145-190 and 309-333, pis. x.-xii.
and xx.-xxii. (Heft 2), pp. iv. and 126, pis. i.-vii.f 8vo, Jena, 1885. (Heft
3), Jena. Zeitschr., vol. xxi. pp. 87-266, pis. vi.-xviii. (Heft 4), Jena.
Zeitschr., vol. xxiii. pp. 233-388, pis. xii.-xxiii.
18. Howell, W. H. 1886. (Note on the Presence of Haemoglobin in the
Echinoderms.) Stud. Biol. Lab. Johns Hopkins, vol. iii. pp. 289-291,
pi. xviii.
19, Lang, A. 1896. Text-book of Comparative Anatomy, translated by H. M .
and M . Bernard, Part II. pp. 284-560, 8vo, London. [Contains a good
classified Bibliography.]
20. Leuekart, C. G. F. B. 1848. Ueber die Morphologie und die Verwandt-
schaftsvorhaltnisse der wirbellosen Thiere, etc., 8vo, pp. viii. and 180,
Braunschweig.
21. Ludvrig, H, 1880. (Ueber den primaren Steinkanal der Crinoiden nebst vergl. -
anatom. Bemerkungen ueber die Echinodermen ueberhaupt.) Zeitschr.
wiss. Zool., vol. xxxiv. pp. 310-332, pis. xii., xiii.
22. MacBride, E. W. 1896. (The Development of Asterina gibbosa.) Quart.
Journ. Micr. Soc, N.S. xxxviii. pp. 339-411, pis. xviii.-xxix.
23. MacMunn, C. A. 1885. (On the Chromatology of the Blood of some Inverte-
brates.) Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., N.S. vol. xxv. pp. 469-490, pis. xxxiii.,
xxxiv.
24. Metschnikoff, E. 1869. (Studien uber die Entwickelung der Echinodermen und
Nemertinen.) M e m . Acad. Sci. St. Petersb., ser. 7, vol. xiv. No. 8, 73 pp.
12 pis.
25. 1885. (Ueber die Bildung der Wanderzellen bei Asterien und Echiniden.)
Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., vol. xlii. pp. 656-673, pis. xxv.-xxvi.
25a. Mortensen, T. 1898. (Die Echinodermen-larven der Plankton-Expedition
nebst einer systematischen Revision der bisher bekannten Echinodermen-
larven. ) Ergebnisse der Plankton-Expedition der Humboldt-Stiftung, vol.
ii. part J, 120 pp., 9 pis., and 1 map. Also published in Danish, as doctoral
thesis, 1897; and in Vidensk.Meddel. for 1898. [Gives agood Bibliography.]
26. Mailer, Joh. 1848. (Ueber die Larven und die Metamorphose der Ophiuren
und Seeigel.) Abh. k. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, Phys. Kl. 1846, pp. 273-312.
7 pis.
27. 1849. (Ueb. L. und M . d. Echinodermen), op. cit. 1848, pp. 75-109,
5 pis.
28. Miiller, Joh. 1850. (Ueb. L. und M . d. Holothurien und Asterien), op.
cit. 1849, pp. 35-72, 7 pis.
29# 1852
- (Ueb. L. und M . d. Echinodermen), op. cit. 1850, pp. 37-86, 9 pis.
30, 1852
- (Ueber die Ophiurcnlarven des Adriatischen Meeres), op. cit.
1851, pp. 33-62, 8 pis.
31 1853
• - (Ueber den allgemeinen Plan in der Entwickelung der Echino-
dermen), op. cit. 1852, pp. 25-65, 8 pis.
32 1854
- - (Ueber den Ban der Echinodermen), op. cit. 1853, pp. 123-219,
9 pis.
33 1855
- - (Ueber die Gattungen der Seeigellarven), op. cit. 1854, pp. 1-55,
9 pis.
34. Suramin, P. B. ami C. F. 1887; (Die Augen und das Integument der Diadem.
atiden.) Ergebnisse naturw. Forsch. auf Ceylon, Bd. I. Heft 1, 4to,
Wiesbaden.
35. 1888. (Ueber die Anatomie der Echinothuriden und die Phylogenie
der Echinodermen), torn. cit. Heft 3.
36. Secltgcr, 0. 1893. (Studien zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Crinoiden.
Antedon rosacea.) Zool. Jahib., Abth. f. Morph., vol. vi. pp. 161-444, pis.
xii.-xx. [Gives Bibliography of Antedon embryology.]
37. Scmon, B. 1888. (Die Entwickelung der Synapta digitata und die
Stammesgescliichte der Echinodermen.) Jena. Zeitschr., vol. xxii., N.F.
xv., pp. 175-309, pis. vi.-xii.
38. —'—• 1889. (Die Homologien innerhalb des Echinodermenstammes.) Morph.
Jahrb., vol. xv. (2), pp. 253^307.
39. Sladen, W. P. 1884. (On the Homologies of the Primary Larval Plates in
the test of Brachiate Echinoderms.) Quart. Journ. Micro. Sci., N.S. vol.
xxiv. pp. 24-42, pi. i.
40. Thtel,H. 1892. (On the Development of Echinocyamuspiisilhi3[0.F-Miiller]).
Nova Acta R. Soc. Sci. Upsala, Ser. III. pp. 1-57, pis. i.-ix. [Summarises
previous writings.]
41. — - 1894. (Notes on the Formation and Absorption of the Skeleton in the
Echinoderms.) Svensk. Vet. Akad. Fbrhandl., 1894 (8), pp. 345-354.
42. 1896. (Remarks on the Activity of Amoeboid Cells in the Echinoderms.)
Festskrift for Lilljeborg, pp. 49-58, pi. iil., Upsala.
See also Nos. 27, 64, 95, 96, in Literature of Pelmatozoa (p. 211); Nos. 25,
32, 41, in Literature of Stelleroidea (p. 279); and Nos. 36, 39, 62, in Literature
of Echinoidea (p. 328).
r
C H A P T E R IX.
THE PELMATOZOA—CYSTIDEA.1
GRADE A. PELMATOZOA, LEUCKART (1848)

( = C R I N O I D E A , sensu lato Auctt.).
CLASS I. CYSTIDEA.
„ II. BLASTOIDEA.
„ III. CRINOIDEA.
„ IV. EDRIOASTEROIDEA.
ECHINODERMA with the viscera enclosed in a calcified and plated

theca, of which the oral surface is uppermost, and which is usually
attached, either temporarily or permanently, by the aboral surface.
Food brought to the mouth by a subvective system of ciliated
grooves, radiating from the mouth either between the plates of the
theca (endothecal), or over the theca (epithecal), or along processes
from the theca (exothecal: arms, pinnules, etc.), or, in part, and
as a secondary development, below the theca (hypothecal). Anus
usually in the upper or oral half of the theca, and never aboral.
A n aborally placed motor nerve-centre gives off branches to the
stroma connecting the various plates of the theca and of its
brachial, anal, and columnar extensions, and thus co-ordinates the
movements of the whole skeleton. The circumoesophageal water-
ring communicates indirectly with the exterior; the podia, when
present, are respiratory, not locomotor, in function.
The origin and meaning of many of these characters have
already been discussed in the general section. T h e origin of
others will be traced in following the history of the Grade; and
many of them will be more fully discussed under Crinoidea, in
which class alone are they adequately known.
The classes of Pelmatozoa here adopted are of very unequal
1
By F. A. Bather, M.A. Since the majority of Pelmatozoa, being of extinct
types, present peculiar difficulties, the student unfamiliar with Echinoderm structure
is recommended to begin either with the description of a simple Crinoid (ChaDter X I )
or that of a Starfish (Chapter XIV.). * '"
THE CYSTIDEA 39
value; and to place them either in a line or side by side does not
represent their phylogenetic relations. Such, probably, would be
better shown by placing a primitive class, Amphoridea, at the
base and deducing from it several lines of descent, viz. Edrioas-
teroidea, Anomalocystida, Aporita, Rhombifera, and Diploporita.
F r o m the Edrioasteroid line, w e m a y suppose, there sprang first
Holothurians, then Stelleroidea, then Echinoidea, while the line
itself still survived in more specialised forms to the close of the
Carboniferous period. The Diploporite line ought properly to
include the Blastoidea ; and from it probably there arose, as a fresh
development with a n e w lease of life, the important class,
Crinoidea. T h e other lines were unsuccessful and none survived
the Silurian. But to m a k e the classification coincide absolutely
with this history, which after all is not yet proven, would be to
reject names and classes that have held the field for more than
half a century in favour of n e w and unaccepted terms. Old
names, therefore, have been retained so far as possible. T h e
diversity of existing opinion, however, m a y serve as excuse for a
few novelties. Such are the use of Haeckel's Amphoridea, in an
emended sense; the resuscitation of Edrioasteroidea ; the emenda-
tion of the Rhombifera, Aporita, and Diploporita, and of the
included families, which, w h e n not new, are rarely used in the
sense of the original proposer; the extension of the Blastoidea,
and their division into Proto- and Eu-blastoidea; a considerable
revision of the accepted classification of Eublastoidea; and a
recasting of the classification of Crinoidea.
CLASS I. CYSTIDEA, VON BUCH (1844).

Order 1. Amphoridea.
„ 2. Rhombifera.
„ 3. Aporita.
„ 4. Diploporita.
Pelmatozoa in which radial polymeric symmetry of the theca

is developed either not at all or not in complete correlation with
the radial symmetry of the ambulacra (such as obtains in Blastoidea
and Crinoidea); in which extensions of the food-grooves are
exothecal or epithecal or both combined, but neither endothecal
nor pierced by podia (as in Edrioasteroidea).
T h e earlier and more primitive Cystidea represent the pelma-
tozoic stage through which the Echinoderm race passed, on its
w a y from the Dipleurula to the various classes. They shed light
not only on the origin of those classes, but on the still more
ancient ancestor of the Phylum. T h e remarkable adaptability of
the Echinoderm type, the m o d e of origin of m a n y ergans, and the
40 THE CYSTIDEA
biological phenomena of homoplasy and convergence, can also be

studied in this class.
T h e Cystidea were first separated from other Echinoderms,
under that name, by L. v. Buch in 1844 and 1845. His definition
laid stress on the fixed condition, the irregularity of the thecal
plates, and the absence of arms like those of Crinoidea. Sub-
sequent discoveries of stemless cystids, of cystids with radial
symmetry in the theca, and of arm-like structures in most cystids,
have m a d e the letter of this definition untenable; but its spirit
holds good. T h e difficulty that this class has presented to
systematists is chiefly due to these factors : (1) T h e rarity and ill-
preservation of these old Palaeozoic fossils; (2) the ancestral
nature of the group and the consequent existence of links between
it and other groups; (3) the wrongful ascription to the Cystidea
of various genera (e.g. Porocrinus, Stephanocrinus, Hypocrinus,
Echinocystis); (4) the extraordinary diversity of structure in the
class, a feature c o m m o n to most groups at their origin, and pro-
ductive in this case of m a n y lines of development, only a few of
which have become so severed from the rest as to be regarded as
independent classes (e.g. Blastoidea and Crinoidea, distinguished
by all; Edrioasteroidea, distinguished by a few ; Anomalocystidae,
not distinguished, but quite as separate); (5) the rapid develop-
ment of the class, from the exceedingly simple Aristocystis to such
highly specialised forms as Lepadocrinus, Caryocrinus, and Mesocystis.
Hence the diagnosis cannot be elaborate, and must be mainly
negative.
Most of the classifications hitherto proposed have been based
upon one set of characters; thus Zittel's (1879) adaptation from
Johannes Miiller (1854) is according to the structure of the thecal
plates (Aporitidae, Diploporitidae, Rhombiferi); Barrande's
division (1887), not intended as taxonomic, is according to the
number of openings in the theca. A far better arrangement is
that initiated by Pictet (1857), extended by Bronn (1859), and
modified by Dujardin and Hupe" (1862); this, however, is rather
a key to genera than a classification into orders and families.
Attempts have also been m a d e (e.g. Forbes, 184« ; and.Neumayr,
1889) to determine the lines leading from the Cystidea to other
classes; and on such principles Stein'mann (1888) founded his
classification into Eucystoidea, Cystechinoidea, Cystasteroidea, and
Cystocrinoidea. A classification on true phylogenetic principles
wasfirstpublished by Haeckel (1896), w h o only failed from want
of acquaintance with the facts of Cystid structure. T h e classifi-
cation in this text-book attempts to express the actual lines of
descent as inferred from an independent study of the fossils.
T he main lines of descent are these. T h e starting-point is a
simple, many-plated, sac-like form (e.g. Aristocystis, Fig. II. p. 44),
THE CYSTIDEA 4i
in which neither ciliated food-grooves, though perhaps present,

nor radial ambulacral vessels, have left any trace on the skeleton,
in which the porous structure of the stereom is indefinite, and in
which no stem is differentiated. Modifications of this soon
appeared in m a n y directions. In one direction arose an antero-
posterior flattening of the theca and the extension of food-grooves
along two lateral articulated spines, with a peculiar and character-
istic arrangement of stereom; this was accompanied by develop-
ment of a stem (Anomalocystidae, pp. 49, 52, Figs. XI.-XIIL). In
another direction was an extension of the theca downwards to
form a stem, and upwards from the mouth to form a single jointed
process for the support of a ciliated groove (Dendrocystidae,
p. 47, Fig. IX.). Neither Anomalocystidae nor Dendrocystidae
proceeded very far, and they m a y conveniently be grouped with
Aristocystidae and a few other primitive forms into an order,
A M P H O R I D E A , distinguished from the rest chiefly by absence of
radial symmetry in food-grooves and ambulacra.
A very different modification was that which produced a theca
flattened horizontally, with five ciliated grooves passing from the
mouth between its plates (" endothecab"), and protected by distinct
covering-plates; ambulacral vessels lay beneath or within the
grooves, and podia from them passed between the adjacent thecal
plates. So different is this type from those of other Echinoderma,
that such forms have here been separated as a class, E D R I O -
A S T E R O I D E A (Chapter XII.).
Returning to the primitive Amphoridea, w e find a difficulty in
distinguishing some of them from their immediate descendants,
owing to the very slight traces left on the theca by the originating
extensions of the food-grooves. Those forms in which such traces
are perceptible m a y almost from the outset be grouped under two
heads. O n e group includes those in which the grooves wander
outwards from the mouth over the thecal plates, which gradually
become arranged regularly on either side of the grooves, while still
further extensions ascend from the " epithecal" grooves on small
"exothecal" processes called " brachioles." In the other group
the grooves do not tend so m u c h to stretch over the theca as to be
raised away from it on relatively larger brachioles, arising in
the immediate neighbourhood of the mouth.
A t the same time, a difference manifests itself in the structure
of the thecal plates. F r o m the indefinite relations of stereom and
stroma noticed in earlier Amphoridea arise two types of structure
.'Fig. L ) . T h e canals traversing the stereom, more or less per-
pendicularly to the thecal surface, either cease to be simple
(" haplopores ") and become connected in pairs (" diplopores ") still
perpendicular to the surface; or they come to lie parallel to the sur-
face and at right angles to the sutures. In the latter case w e m a y
42 THE CYSTIDEA
suppose that the canals represent stroma strands continuous

across the sutures; those crossing any one suture come to occupy
a rhombic area bisected by the suture-line, and, since, in weathered
plates, there appear to be pores at the ends of these canals, the
areas have been called " pore-rhombs " (Poren-rauten, see Fig. XV.,
Echinosphaera, and XVI., Orocystis). There also takes place a gradual
Fio. 1.
Structure of the test in Aristocystidae. 1, plate of Aristocystis boliemicus showing haplopores,
some of which are connected by a horse-shoe canal, x 4 ; 2, portion of same farther enlarged ; 8,
portions of surface of other specimens, gradually leading u p to such a structure as in 4, a plate
of Caliz SedgvticM, with diplopores; 5, a diplopore of rather different form ; 6, section of a
diplopore ; the hypostereom is shown, but the epistereom, if there were any, is removed: 7 a
natural replacement (by infiltration of mineral matter) of the original stroma-strands and
sutures in plates of Calix (?), the stereom dissolved away ; 8, plates of Aristocystis in similar
condition showing vertical strands (=haplopores) in the middle, aud radiating strands at the
sutures. Allfiguresenlarged. (1, 2, 3, and 8 after Bavrande; 4 and 7 after Rouault.)
increase in the area, and a decrease in the number, of the thecal
plates relative to the size of the theca; perhaps the folds that
often radiate from the umbo of each plate are connected with this
for they must have strengthened the plates, like the folds in cor-
rugated iron or pasteboard. These folds may coexist with diplo-
pores or with pore-rhombs; but they are clearly more adapted to
the latter structure, and often seem to merge with it and accentuate
THE CYSTIDEA 43
it. Thus is evolved a highly specialised type of stereom-folding
known as a " pectini-rhomb." N o w , although it is difficult to
separate all the forms at thefirstparting of the ways, it is soon
seen that diplopores are almost confined to the genera with
epithecal extensions of the subvective system, while those with only
exothecal extensions are characterised by pore-rhombs or pectini-
rhombs. There is therefore justification for the old divisions
D I P L O P O R I T A and R H O M B I F E R A , as orders, in a restricted sense.
The Diploporita (p. 70) show a gradually increasing regularity
of structure in the food-grooves, and in their relations to the
theca, leading almost imperceptibly to the Blastoidea. So much
is this the case that it seems well to separate from the Cystidea
certain forms in which "the radial polymeric symmetry" is "in
complete correlation with the radial symmetry of the ambulacra "
(see definition, p. 39), and to refer them to the Blastoids as an
order Protoblastoidea (p. 79). The only alternative is to make
the Blastoids an order of the Cystidea.
In many of the Rhombifera (p. 52) a peculiar modification of
the food-grooves takes place, in that they are continued over the
theca, not directly on the thecal plates themselves, but by a
proliferation of plates from the mouth region. The grooves thus
formed have been termed " recumbent arms " or " pseudambulacra,"
and are fringed with brachioles. This type of ambulacral structure
was independently developed in this order more than once; but it
is most common in the group of genera characterised by pectini-
rhombs and by pentamerism in the. theca (family Glyptocystidae,
p. 58). A group with pore-rhombs highly developed inside the
theca, and with hexamerous symmetry, is distinguished as the
family Caryocrinidae (p. 65). In it the food-grooves tend to be
enclosed by thecal plates (" hypothecal").
The orders already mentioned do not include all genera that
come under the terms of our definition of Cystidea. From early
forms of Rhombiferi, or perhaps even directly from Amphoridea,
there arose a small group in which neither diplopores nor pore-
rhombs were developed, at all events to the same extent, but the
number of thecal plates was greatly lessened and exothecal
brachioles were developed. The best known of these is Cryptocrinus
(p. 69). One might adopt A P O R I T A (sens, str.) as an ordinal name.
ORDER 1. Amphoridea, Haeckel (1896, pars).

Primitive Cystidea in which radial symmetry has affected
neither food-grooves, nor thecal plates, nor, probably, nerves,
ambulacral vessels, nor gonads.
Haeckel included under this name rather more forms than are
here referred to it, and separated them from the Cystidea as a
44 THE CYSTIDEA
primitive class of Echinoderma, comparable to the Pentactula

stage passed through in the development of all their descendants.
T h e more characteristic and undoubted Amphoridea, however,
represent only a stage in the development of the Echinoderm type
and not a divergence; they are too intimately connected with
more specialised Cystidea to warrant separation as a class. It
should also be remembered that, though such a stage as this
probably was actually passed through, still forms are liable to be
referred here, owing to our ignorance of their true structure.
FAMILY 1. ARISTOCYSTIDAE. Amphoridea without extension of food-

grooves, epithecally, endothecally, or on exothecal skeletal processes;
Theca composed of numerous plates without regular arrangement or
specialised structure. N o stem. Genera—Aristocystis, Barrande (1887),
Ordovician, Bohemia (Fig. II.), is in many respects the simplest Echino-
derm known. The ovoid
theca is composed of 150-
200 plates, of no definite
shape or arrangement, but
with a tendency in the nar-
rower, aboral half of the
theca to form transverse rows
of elongate hexagons. The
animal usuallyfixeditself to
some solid body by a portion
of the theca at or near the
lower pole (B). At the upper
pole is the mouth (0), a
wide slit in the transversal
plane, with slightly raised
Aristocystis bohemicus. 1, side view; 2, oral view, edges. About a third of the
both £ nat. size ; 3, base, showing impression of Gastro- way down the theca is the
pod shell, x§. The lettering is explained in the adjoin- round anal opening (As), 6-8
ing text. (All adapted from Barrande.)
m m . in diameter, closed by
six or seven triangular plates, meeting in the centre, and known as
"the valvular pyramid." Between mouth and anus, and usually a
little to the left, are two smaller openings—a transverse slit (M)
close to the mouth; and a round pore (G) close to the anus. Of these M
is regarded by P. H. Carpenter (1891) as the hydropore, and G as the
gonopore, a view accepted by Haeckel (1896) and adopted here. There is
no trace of calcified arms or brachioles, whether jointed or solid, nor even
of epithecal or hypothecal extensions from the hydrocoel ring or from the
mouth. The hydrophores palm&s described by Barrande, and supposed by
Neumayr (1889) and P. H. Carpenter (1891) to be subtegminal ambulacra,
are really epithecal food-grooves, and have not Been proved to belong to
this genus. The plates of the theca are thick, especially at its lower end)
they are said by Barrande to be composed of three layers (Fig. III.):
(e) outer, thin, smooth, and solid ; (m) middle, thick, pierced by irregular
canals, more or less at right angles to the outer surface; (h) inner, thin,
THE CYSTIDEA 45
passing u p into the suture lines and into the ends of the canals, smooth
on its inner surface. Doubt has been cast on the existence of these three
layers, but examination of well-preserved specimens suggests the follow-
ing interpretation : — ( m ) is homologous with the " mesostereom " of all
Echinoderms, its plates were deposited in a stroma of connective tissue,
and presented not only large meshes, but continuous larger canals for
the passage of strands of stroma, and perhaps of lacunar blood-vessels :
the stroma was thus continuous throughout each plate, and strands often
passed over the outer surface, uniting the larger strands and sometimes
producing the grooves bent in horse-shoe, as at 2 in Fig. I. ; (e) is not
Section of test in Aristocystis, in the region

of a suture (s). Shows epistereom (e), meso-
stereoiu (HI), and hypostereom (h). m is pierced
by haplopores which are .joined above at 2, 2.
(Original diagram, magnified about 10 diam.)
Fio. IV. Fin. V.

Calix Sedgwicli, from a recon- A transverse section of a plate of Calix Murchisoni,
struction by Rouault ; about the stroma-strands replaced by infilling matrix, the
nat. size. stereom dissolved away, x 6 diam. (After Rouault.)
a truly calcified epistereom, but probably represents a hard epidermis ;

there is little doubt that some structure did actually cover the outer ends
of the canals ; (h) represents the inner layer of the integument, which
towards the margins of each plate was often differentiated into elastic or
muscular strands, uniting adjacent plates and giving flexibility to the
theca; if calcified, this layer would be homologous with the "hypo-
stereom" of m a n y Crinoids, but, as in the case of (e), there is only
preserved to us the space which it occupied, filled with subsequent
infiltration or with iron oxide precipitated during the decomposition of
the organic matter. T h e primitive features of Aristocystis are then :
indefinite shape of theca, indefinite arrangement of plates, undifferentiated
46 THE CYSTIDEA
structure of stereom, absence of stem and of definite base of attachment,

absence of arms, absence of ambulacra, a single and independent gonopore
as in Holothurians. Calix, Eouault (1851-78 ; syn. Craterina, Barr. pars,
1887), Ordovician, France and Bohemia (Fig. IV.). T h e theca is a bowl
or vase of very thick plates, with an oral covering of very thin ones
rarely preserved. There is usually a marked hollow at the lower end,
FIG. VI.
1, Calix bnhemica, from the side ; towards the base the pores are covered by a smooth epi-
dermis. 2, C. excavata, the tegmen. Both nat. size. (After Barrande.)
but C. Sedgwicki, Rouault's type-species, has a short, stem-like promi-

nence (St). T h e canals in the plates tend to definiteness of arrangement,
especially at the lower end, where they seem to radiate from the hollow.
The connection of the canals at their outer ends, to form pairs, is often
marked (Fig. V.). All these characters are exaggerations of some already
noted in Aristocystis. T h e tenuity of the upper surface, and its conse-
quent disappearance in most specimens, have
permitted the recognition of only one aperture,
which is pentagonal, and probably represents the
anal pyramid (Fig. VI. 2). Specimens with hydro-
phores palmees have been referred to this genus,
but belong to (p. 73) Diploporita. Pilocystis,
Lapillocystis, and Acanthocystis, Cambrian, and
Baculocystis, Ordovician, Bohemia, all described
by Barrande, are probably referable to this order
if not to this family. Lodanella, Kayser (1885),
Lowest Devonian, Germany, though called a
sponge, is very like Calix. Deutocystis, Barr.
(1887), Ordovician, Bohemia (Fig. VII.), is dis-
tinguished from Aristocystis by the greater irregu-
larity in size of the thecal plates (comparable to
Fio. vn. the arrangement of plates in the carapace of some
Deutocystis modestus, restored e x t i n ct edentates, Glyptodontidae), and by the
on the evidence of Barrande, absence of an independent gonopore, this having
pi. 15, II. 8. Lettering ns in * j .., . .., ,f . , , , - ,
Fig. ii. lused either with the anus or with the hydropore.
There are signs offixationby the aboral end of
the theca (B), where the plates are larger and tend to lie in rows. T h e
THE CYSTIDEA 47
mouth (0) is surrounded by five large plates, forming a slight projection,

somewhat eccentric. T h e anal pyramid (As) hasfiveplates. T h e hydro-
pore (M), a little to the right of the line joining mouth and anus, was
covered by a small pyramid of three plates, the impressions of which
on the internal cast (the only part preserved) have been regarded as three
openings. T h e canals in the thecal plates are more numerous near their
margins. Certain species, in which the plates seem more rounded, not
closely apposed, and perhaps without canals, in which the anal pyramid
had four plates, and in which the hydropore was not tripartite (i.e. had no
valvular plates),have been separated by Haeckel (1896) as a genus, Amphora-
cystis. Pirocystis, Barrande (1887), Ordovician,
Bohemia (Fig. VIII.), had a pear-shaped theca trun-
cate below for fixation (St), but still without true
stem. T h e anal pyramid had six plates (As); other-
wise it was m u c h like Deutocystis. T h e regularity
of the adoral plates in these two genera suggests
that they m a y eventually prove to be early forms of
Diploporita or Rhombifera.
T h e Lower Niagara rocks (Silurian) of Indiana
and neighbouring states have yielded numerous forms
resembling Aristocystis in external appearance and
structure of theca, but with an ambulacral system
apparently presenting three grades of organisation. FIG. VIII.
They have all been described under the generic Pirocystis pirum, re-
TT , ,., -rr i .• - I stored outline on the
n a m e Holocystites or Holocystts, a n a m e previously evidence of Barrande,
given to a coral, and therefore bound to yield to the EJ-„2?; u>tt6rias as i»
alternative Megacystis, Hall (1864-65). S o m e of the
so-called species described by Hall and S. A . Miller seem to agree with
Aristocystis in the entire absence of arms and food-grooves, in the similar
position and structure of mouth ("ambulacral orifice," S. A. M.), and anus
("mouth," S. A. M.), while a hydropore ("anus," S. A. M.) is often ob-
servable, and occasionally a fourth opening (? gonopore); the positions
of the two latter are at varying distances between mouth and anus.
Miller has described other species with similar structure, but with four
or five of the plates surrounding the mouth raised into .elliptical facets,
apparently for the support of spines like those of Placocystis (p. 5 1 ) ;
no groove connects these facets with the mouth, although in some species
the mouth assumes a tetragonal or pentagonal outline, with angles
directed towards these facets. T h e third and higher stage of organisa-
tion, possibly developed from this one, is seen in Holocystites gyrinus,
Miller and Gurley (1894), and must be referred to the Sphaeronidae
(seep. 72).
F A M I L Y 2. D E N D R O C Y S T I D A E . Amphoridea with a single oral skeletal
process, theca composed of numerous irregular plates, extending below
gradually into a stem. T h e single genus, Dendrocystis, Barrande (1887),
Ordovician, Bohemia and Russia (Fig. IX.), has a theca in shape and
intimate structure not far removed from that of Aristocystidae ; of equal
thinness all over, its plates irregularly polygonal, and their strands of
mesostroma not so well-defined. T h e following differences are of great
48 THE CYSTIDEA
importance:—The theca suddenly thins below to about one-third its

width, forming a tubular extension (St), the walls of which contain
numerous small plates, which gradually become
larger and more definite in arrangement, and
merge into a tube with a narrow lumen en-
closed by comparatively large solid plates. Com-
BTJ
parison with more highly developed genera
shows that this extension is a stem (columna),
and its presence indicates a more fixed habit
than was, perhaps, assumed by Aristocystidae.
Further influence of fixation is clear in the de-
velopment at the opposite pole of the theca
of a movable, jointed tube (Br), composed of
four or five rows of small plates, wider than
high, and often alternating; this tube tapers to
a rounded end, in which no opening is per-
ceptible ; neither are there openings between
its plates; the plates may, however, have
opened along one of the vertical lines, thus
converting the tube into a groove, exactly as
figured in Fig. 5 of Barrande's Plate X X V I . (see
Fig. IX.). This organ was regarded by Barrande
and Trautschold as a tubus ventralis for genital
(not faecal) products ; by N e u m a y r (1889) as
an arm, with a double row of ambulacral pores ;
by Haeckel (1896) as an oral proboscis, or
possibly the stem. It is here regarded as an
extension from the mouth, bearing a ciliated
-BT
3 /•St
food-groove that could be closed by plates, and
perhaps also an extension from the water-ring.
Other thecal openings are doubtful; an anal
pyramid m a y have existed in the lower third
of the theca (As), but Barrande's figures and
descriptions are inconsistent; hydropore and
gonopore quite unknown. Folds or ridges
radiate from the centre to the edges of each
thecal plate; besides strengthening the plates,
these folds, like similar ones in later stalked
forms, m a y indicate the concentration of a
FIG. IX.
nervous layer in the integument into definite
Dendrocystis Sedgibicki,
stored on the evidence of tracts (axial nerves) putting the stem, thecal
Barrande. Br, the arm-like ap- plates, and plates of food-grooves into con-
pendage, copied from Barrande. nection. Cigara, Barrande (1887), resembles
the stem of Dendrocystis, and suggests its occurrence in the Cambrian.
Syringocrinus paradoxus, E. Billings (1859), is the same thing from Quebec.
F A M I L Y 3. E O C Y S T I D A E . Established to include certain obscure forms
from the Lower and Middle Cambrian of Great Britain and North America.
Eocystis, Billings (1868), and Protocystu, Hicks (1872, see also Salter, 1873),
have never been properly described or figured ; but since they cannot
THE CYSTIDEA 49
well be distinguished from Eocystites (?) longidactylus, Walcott (1886), that

species must be taken as the example of the family (Fig. X.). Thecal
plates numerous, irregular, " varying in form, size, and surface characters
on tne same body." T h e two important points are : the varying develop-
ment of radiating stereom-folds on some of the plates; the presence around
the mouth of not less than ten biserial brachioles, with long covering-
plates ('• short pinnulae," Walcott). This type, therefore, is intermediate
between Amphoridea and Rhombifera, and its occurrence at so low a
horizon is fortunate for the phylogenist. This family Eocystidae in no
w a y corresponds to Haeckel's Eocystida, which, like his Eocys'lis, is a
purely imaginary creation of no systematic validity.
F A M I L Y 4. A N O M A L O C Y S T I D A E . Theca compressed in the plane of the
FIG. X.
Eocystis longidactylus. 1, portion of test m u c h enlarged, showing variation in size, outline,
and markings of plates, some of which have apparent pores at their edges; 2, upper part of
a specimen without test, showing portions of brachioles and impressions of covering-plates.
With kind permission of Dr. C. D. Walcott.
thecal apertures, one side tending to be convex, the. other concave.

Plates of the two sides enclosed by a c o m m o n frame of marginals. Plates
of concave side tend to be fewer and more regular than those of convex,
but never achieve bilateral symmetry as do the latter. Tapering stem of
polymeric columnals at one end of theca ; at the opposite end are the
apertures, with function still uncertain. In some genera, spines ("arms"
of most writers) are known, one at each upper angle of the theca. Orna-
m e n t of granules, which on the theca tend to run in transverse, wavy,
sub-parallel lines, simulating the scale-markings of some Crustacea. N o
pores. J. Walther (1886) and Haeckel (1896) have considered the bilateral
symmetry primitive, and homologous with that of the Dipleurula ;
but M . N e u m a y r (1889) maintained that the symmetry of the two was
different. T h e evidence suggests that the evolution was towards greater
4
5o THE CYSTIDEA
bilateral symmetry, and therefore started from the usual sack-like form.
Genera—Trochocystis, Barrande (1859-87 ; syn. Trigonocystis, Haeckel),
Cambrian, Bohemia, France, Spain (Fig. X L ) , is
the most primitive ; its theca is bounded by
twelve stout marginals (mm), conspicuous on one
side more than on the other, and forming a
circular, elliptiv-aL or subtriangular frame ; the
enclosed space on either side is occupied by a
mosaic of 8 0 - 1 6 0 somatic plates, hexagonal
except where truncated by the marginals. A t
the oral end of the frame three openings, nearly
in the broad median plane, pass from the thecal
cavity through or between the marginals to the
exterior; the middle opening (? hydropore and
gonopore) is widest, and is protected by a
hood-like projecting plate (M), (1 madreporite);
of the other two openings, one (0) in the broad
plane is the wider (? mouth), the other (As)
slightly out of that plane is smaller (? anus);
they appear to be connected by a canal (? for
FIG. XI.
reception of gut) running round the thecal
Trochocystis boliemicus, re-cavity on the inside of the marginals. A t the
stored on the evidence of Bar- aboral end of the frame the marginals pass
rande's figures. A part of the into a short, tapering stem (St) of subtri-
theca on the right of the figure angular section, composed of rows (3 or 5 ?)
is removed showing the interior.
The arrows show the supposed of alternating ossicles, its lumen communi-
direction of the gut. The letters cating with the thecal cavity. Trochocystis
are explained in the adjoining m a y be regarded as a differentiation from
text.
such a form as Aristocystis by lateral compression, so that its broad
median plane is morphologically the
sagittal, and the flat siiLs are the
primitive right and left, the pro-
jecting plate M being on the left side.
Mitrocystis, Barrande (1887), C a m -
brian and Ordovician (Fig. XII.),
has twelve marginals (mm), but on
the (left ?) side that corresponds with
the convex side of later forms, the
junction of the stem with the somatic
plates lies between two of them ;
while the median adoral plate of
this side (M) is vertically grooved on
the interior, but exteriorly resembles
the somatic plates, which on this
side, though larger and fewer (50-60) F I O . XII.
than in Trochocystis, still form a Mitrocystis mitra. 1, from supposed right
side; 2, from supposed left side ; 8, interior
mosaic of hexagons ; two, adjoining of upper part of the latter, showing the folded
the stem, are larger than the others. plate M. (After Barrande.)
O n the other side, which corresponds with the concave Bide of later forms,
THE CYSTIDEA 5'
the marginals have extended far over the area formerly occupied by somatic
plates, and these latter number from three to six, one of which is m u c h the
largest and of irregular shape. Openings other than the median not distinct.
Stem of about four alternating rows of plates, often provided with thorn-like
processes, and each overlapping its distal neighbour ; total length about
equal to that of the theca, the proximal third with a wide lumen. N o
other appendages observed. Atelecystis (A. Huxleyi), Billings (1858), is
imperfectly k n o w n ; Anomcdocystis cornutus, Hall (1859), m a y be con-
generic, as usually supposed ; but A. disparilis, Hall, probably belongs to
Placocystis (vide infra). All the species described by Barrande (1887) as
Anomalocystis are doubtful. T h e specimens described by M e e k (1873)
and Wetherby (1879) are separable generically under the latter's name,
Enoplnura; the species are E. lalanoides, M e e k sp., and E. Crustacea,
Haeckel sp.1 In ail these one traces the gradual diminution in number of
plates, especially of somatic plates, and the evolution of the granular
ornament into w a v y ridges. S o m e of these also show traces of adoral
spines. Belemnocystis is placed in this family by Miller and Gurley (1894),
probably with justice, though its exact affinities are obscure. Platycystis,
S. A. Miller (1889), is based on a worn Anomalocystid of indeterminable
affinities. Placocystis, de Koninck (1869), from the English Wenlock beds
of Silurian age (Fig. XIIL), is the most specialised form of this family. It
was redescribed by H . W o o d w a r d
(1880); since then fresh know-
ledge has been gained. O n either
side of the concave face (Fig.
X I I L 1) are three marginals
(mm) which pass over on to the
convex side; at the columnal end
are two marginals, at the oral
end are three, and none of these
five continue on to the convex
side, although corresponding
plates occur there. T h e median
adoral marginal of the convex
side (Fig. X I I L 2) is the plate
M ; its free edge is occasionally FIG. x m .
denticulate (cf. ridgings in Mitro- Ploxocystis Forbesianus. 1, concave or supposed
*-\ T1,C o n m o f i ^ -nlnl-p.3 nf right side; 2, convex or supposed left side ; 3, upper
•cystis). l n e somatic plates 01 margini s i l 0 w i n g attachment for spine at Br'.
tliP rnnr.ave side are o n e large (1, reconstructed from various specimens in British
xne COliuive aiue aic e, M u s e u m . 2, from Brit. Mus., E7545, enlarged ; 3,
Central, and one small at Its irom the type-specimen, Brit. Mus., E7588/)
left upper corner : those of the
convex side are eleven, viz. two ad-columnal, as in Mitrocystis, supporting
one median which does not touch the column as it does in Enoploura ;
a transverse row offive,the median of which is small and often quite
surrounded by its two neighbours (it is not an anal structure, as supposed) ;
a row of three adjoining the adoral marginals. Stem m u c h as in Mitro-
cystis. T h e three marginals that meet at each adoral angle of the theca
(Ficr X I I L 3) form an ?"ticular surface (Br) for the support of a spine
1 This n a m e must be restricted to Wetherby's Fig. 1, d, e, f, and 1g.
52 THE CYSTIDEA
(Br) which m a y attain 2/3 the length of the theca, without signs of a
joint. The spine is subcircular in section, and has no groove and no
accessory plates ; none the less it m a y have served as an arm, i.e. as the
bearer of a tentaculate extension of the water-system, and of a ciliated
path to the mouth. The mouth, anus, and hydropore were probably
situated in the integument uniting the two sides of the thecal opening
that seems to stretch between the spines. Haeckel (1896) supposes that
the Apus-form of the Anomalocystidae was correlated with locomotion,
and that the stem was a locomotor organ—a suggestion by no means far-
fetched ; but his statement that the anus was ad-columnal must have
been based on Pleurocystis (p. 64), which, though belonging to a different
order, simulates Placocystis in many features.
ORDER 2. Rhombifera, Zittel (1879, emend.)

Cystidea in which radial symmetry affects the food-grooves,
and, in the more advanced families, the thecal plates; probably also
the nerves and ambulacral vessels, but not the gonads. T h e food-
grooves are exothecal, i.e. are stretched out from the theca on jointed
skeletal processes (brachioles). These either are close to the mouth
or are removed from it upon a series of ambulacral or subambulacral
plates not derived immediately from thecal plates, or are separated
from the oral centre by hypothecal passages passing beneath teg-
minal plates. T h e stereom and stroma become arranged in folds and
strands at right angles to the sutures of the thecal plates ; in higher
forms the stereom-folds are in part specialised as pectini-rhombs.
T h e chief reason for the establishment of this order is the
recognition of a distinct line of development in the skeletal
structures bearing food-grooves. That this represents a true phylo-
genetic series is confirmed by the structure of the test, although
there m a y be some indefiniteness in this respect shown by the
earlier genera. T h e difficulty of classifying forms at the parting of
the ways is not one to be lessened by advance of knowledge. We
note also the gradual decrease in n u m b e r of thecal plates, their
increasing subjection to a radial symmetry, and greater develop-
m e n t of a stem. Hence, as is to be expected in a natural classifica-
tion, there is a far greater difference apparent between extremes
in the same series, say, the Callocystinae and the Echinosphaeridae,
than between the latter and the Diploporite family Sphaeronidae,
which constitute initial forms of different series. T h e radial
symmetry or actinism of the order is trimerous, pentamerous, or
hexamerous, but m a y undergo secondary modification through
atrophy of a ray (e.g. Comarocystis, Lepadocrinus).
F A M I L Y 1. E C H I N O S P H A E R I D A E . Rhombifera in which the thecal plates
are numerous and indefinitely arranged. So-called pore-rhombs are de-
veloped, but no pectini-rhombs. Brachioles confined to neighbourhood
of mouth, unbranched. Stem, when present, not composed of a single series
THE CYSTIDEA 53
j C °J U m n a l s - T h i s f a r a i l y includes some of the Cystidea earliest

studied. Echinosphaera and Sphaeronis (p. 71) are found in the rocks
around the Baltic as round ballsfilledwith radiating crystals of calcite.
Mence they were k n o w n to the older Scandinavian naturalists as "crystal
apples/ and were, as such, included by Linnaeus in his Mineral Kingdom,
under the n a m e Aetites. Their animal nature was first demonstrated
by the youthful Gyllenhal (1772) in an admirable paper. H e further
recognised, not merely their echinoderm affinities, but also that essential
difference between the tests of the two forms which was emphasised by
Joh. Miiller eighty-two years later, served as the basis of Zittel's classifica-
tion, and is still regarded as an ordinal character. So little were these
forms understood that Konig (1825) placed Echinosphaera aurantium near
the Ascidian, Boltenia, under the n a m e Leucophthalmus Strangwaysi ; while
in 1845 M'Coy compared a Sphaeronis to the Ascidian, Chelyosoma. These
,aTn(r
FIG. XIV. FIG. XV.

Echinosphaera aurantium, after Vol- Peristomial areas of Echinosphaera
borth. T h e lettering is explained in the aurantium, showing variation in origin of
adjoining text. Nat. size. brachioles (Br). (After Volborth.) En-
larged.
comparisons, though based on superficial similarity, with' bearing on the
supposed relationship between Echinoderma and Enteropntusta, have again
been brought forward by Haeckel (1896). Genera—Echinosphaera, Wahlen-
berg(1818 ; synn. Crystallocystis, Citrocystis, Trinemacystis, Haeckel), Ordo-
vician, Europe, type Echinus aurantium, Gyll. (Fig. X I V ) . The smooth,
spheroidal theca is composed of some hundreds of irregular plates, mostly
hexagonal. A t the aboral pole the plates, arranged in one or two fairly
regular circlets, form a slight projection (St), by which probably the theca
was attached, but there was no definite stem. A t the oral pole is another
projection (0), very variable in size and shape ; this, as shown by Volborth
(1846), supports arms. F r o m thefigurespublished by Volborth (1846),
Miiller (1854), Quenstedt (1876), Angelin (1878), and Haeckel (1896), it
appears that the plates forming the oral projection, as well as the arms them-
selves vary in number and position (Fig. X V ) . T h e primitive number of
arms appears to be three, one anterior, i.e. opposite the anus, and two
lateral. T h e two lateral m a y fork, thus producing five branches in all
54 THE CYSTIDEA
(cf. p. 11). In either of these cases the anterior arm m a y diminish in size
andfinallydisappear, leaving either two lateral, or two antero-lateral + two
postero-lateral = four branches in all. T h e length of the arms and their
subsequent branching, if any, are unknown. The portions preserved are
formed of series of brachials, bearing on their adoral (upper) surfaces a
groove leading to the central mouth, and roofed by small covering-plates.
T h e anus (As), with its pyramid of four to ten plates, lies 1/3 or 1/4 of the
way d o w n the theca. Between anus and mouth, to the right, is the hydro-
pore (M). T h e plates of the theca were united by strands of mesostroma as
in the next genus. Arachnocystis, N e u m a y r (1889), of Ordovician age,
has for type the Echinosplmerites infaustus of Barrande (1887). The
pear-shaped theca is composed of 200-800 plates of irregular shape and
arrangement, mostly small, but with a few larger plates interspersed. A t
the narrower end of the theca is a stem, about 4 0 m m . long, composed
offive(?) alternating rows of hexagonal plates. A t the opposite pole lies
the mouth, on a slight elevation of larger, irregular plates (not five orals
as sometimes stated). F r o m these are given off three arms, composed of
two alternating rows of plates (biserial), and with a ventral groove roofed
by small covering-plates ; they m a y reach 100 m m . in length. About a
third of the w a y d o w n the theca is the large anal opening, closed by a
pyramid of five plates. T h e hydropore has not been observed. The
structure of the thecal plates is clearly shown in the Bohemian fossils ;
between the thin non-porous epistereom and hypostereom lies the meso-
stereom, penetrated by canals left by the strands of mesostroma that ran
at right angles across the sutures and united the plates. A trace of the
original path of these strands, as seen in Aristocystis, remains in the form
of canals passing d o w n to the hypostereom,
one at the ad-central end of each transverse
canal, and one on either side the suture.
T h e centre of each plate is solid, and often
raised in an u m b o ; by ideal lines drawn
from the u m b o to the angles of each plate,
the canals are grouped in triangles, and
the adjacent triangles of two neighbouring
plates form a " pore-rhomb." Palaeocystis,
Billings (1858), Ordovician, Canada, has
thecal plates of similar structure. Orocystis,
Barrande (1887), Ordovician, Bohemia
(Fig. XVI.), has an oviform theca, with a
small hexagonal stem (St) of u n k n o w n
length, and near the other pole three
eccentric openings: 0 generally, and
FIG. XVI. probably with right, regarded as the
Orocystis Ilclmhackeri, restored on m o u t h ; As the anus ; M the hydropore.
the evidence of Barrande's figures and
descriptions.
The thecal plates are marked with strong
axial folds, parallel with which are smaller
ridges, all at right angles to the sutures. T h e folds are probably the
superficial indications of axial nerves, and it is noteworthy that strongly
marked folds radiate from the six angles of the stem, and that
six
THE CYSTIDEA 55
similar folds lead to the oral aperture (possibly conveying nerves to

six brachioles). T h e minor ridges are the superficial indications of strands
ot mesostroma, uniting plate to plate across the sutures, and emerging on
the inner surface in rows of apparent pores. Heliocrinus, Eichw. (1840 ;
syn. Heliocystis, Haeck.), Ordovician, Europe, has for type Echinosphaerites
balticus, and therefore includes numerous species of similar structure,
usually referred to Caryocystis. It differs from Echinosphaera in the more
pronouncedly pentagonal, though minute stem, and in the greater orna-
mentation of the cup by axial folds and ridges. Stichocystis, Jaekel (1899),
has apparent pores in the ridges. Caryocystis was. founded by von
Buch (1844 and 1845) to receive Echinosphaera granatum, Wahlenberg
(SpJiaeronites testudinarius, Hisinger, non Auctt), and another species which
von Buch and all subsequent authors have
JBT
incorrectly supposed to be S. testudinarius,
Hisinger. Eichwald (1859), aware that C.
granatum belonged to his o w n Heliocrinus, justly
took as the type the second species mentioned by
von Buch, adding to it C. pumila, an Echino-
encrinid. T h e type of the genus is therefore
the species universally and erroneously k n o w n as
C. testudinarius, which n a m e yields to C. An-
gelini, Haeckel (Fig. X V I L ) . Amorphocystis,
Jaekel in K o k e n (1896), is a simple synonym.
Caryocystis differs from Heliocrinus in the elon-
gation of the oral and aboral poles, and the
elongation of the mouth in the sagittal plane.
A t each end of the mouth-slit, Angelin's figure
(1878; our Fig. X V I L ) shows two facets for
brachioles (Br); it also seems to show two
openings (hydropore, M, and gonopore .?, G)
between mouth and anus.
F A M I L Y 2. C O M A R O C Y S T I D A E . Rhombifera in
which thecal plates are numerous and inde-
finitely arranged. Radial structure of stereom
strongly marked, but no definite pore-rhombs or
pectinirhombs. Food-grooves on free exothecal
brachioliferous processes. Columnals in a single
series. Genera—Comarocystis, Billings (1854),
Ordovician, Canada Theca ovate, m a y be over
7 cm. high, composed of about 150 mostly
hexagonal plates, with strongly marked radial FIG. XVIL
striation of the stereom, especially towards the Caryocystis Angelini (C. testu-
A ctt
margins, which are raised above the umbones f™™\ « ->- (After An-
of the plates. Mouth-slit transverse, with a
pair of uniserial brachioliferous arms at either end. Theca flattened
in mouth-plane. A n u s below arms on right side. Hydropore above level
of anus, near the posterior margin of the mouth. Stem longer than
theca; columnals low, circular, with moderately wide lumen. Achradocystis,
Volborth (1870), Ordovician, Russia, appears to have an anal pyramid of
56 THE CYSTIDEA
seven plates, and a very highly developed stem. Thecal plates have
strong radiating ridges, marginal concentric ridges, and suture margins
toothed on the inside in correspondence with the ridges. Since this struc-
ture is not unlike that in Comarocystis, the genus is provisionally placed here.
F A M I L Y 3. M A C R O C Y S T E L L I D A E . Rhombifera in which the theca
consists of three or four circlets of plates, subjected to a more or less
regular pentamerism. T h e stereom is strongly radiately ridged or folded,
but no so-called "pores" or pectinirhombs are developed. Brachioles
are borne by the upper circlet of plates, and within these there m a y have
been tegminal plates over the mouth. There is perhaps no intimate
connection between the two genera referred to this family. But they
are both Cambrian, and show an early development of that tendency to
reduce the number of plates, which eventually evolved the Glypto-
cystidae from a different branch of the Rhombiferi. T h e Macrocystellidae
were probably derived from Eocystidae without passing through an
Echinosphaerid stage. Genera—Macrocystella, Calla-
w a y (1877), Upper Cambrian, Shropshire. Theca
seen from the side (Fig. X V I I I . 1) shows four circlets
of plates, apparently five in each circlet. Those of
the aboral circlet are low and pentagonal; those of
the second and third circlets hexagonal and rela-
tively large ; those of the fourth circlet about half
the size of those in the third, sub-pentagonal, and
each bears a brachiole. These almost immediately
bifurcate, making ten branches in all, about as long
as the theca is high, and apparently biserial; covering-
plates are distinct. There were probably tegminal
plates above the origins of the brachioles. Thecal
plates strongly marked with radiating folds, which
divide the surface into triangles ; between them are
smaller folds. N o fine r h o m b structure is seen.
A n u s unknown. Stem rapidly tapering, about half
as long again as total length of crown ; proximal
columnals low and imbricating, with very wide
l u m e n ; distal columnals long and narrow. Mimo-
cystis, Barr. (1887), Ordovician, Bohemia, does not, so
far as can be gathered from the published description,
differ from Macrocystella in any essential. Lichenoides,
FIG. XVIII.
Barr. (1846, 1 8 8 7 ; Pompeckj, 1 8 9 6 ; syn. Licheno-
Macrocystella Alariae.
1, from side (recon- cystis, Haeckel), Cambrian, Bohemia and Bavaria.
structed from Brit. Theca composed of rounded plates of very different
Mus., E7523 and E7.V24), sizes, but semi-regular in arrangement. A t the base
x j; 2-4, portion of a
brachiole, x 8, from
are five to twelve minute plates, indicating absence of
side, dorsal, and ventral stem and probably offixation,at all events in adult.
.surfaces ; 5, single plateAbove those is a circlet of five irregularly pentagonal
of a large specimen (Brit. large plates. Resting on, and to a certain extent
Mus., E752S), nat. size.
alternating with these, are six or seven plates of similar size. A circlet
of smaller plates, alternating with the last mentioned, forms the summit,
and bears about eight biserial unbranched brachioles. N o anus observed.
THE CYSTIDEA 57
All plates except the minute ones at the base were united by strong
stroma-strands across their sutures, and these form pore-rhombs.
F A M I L Y 4. T I A R A C R I N I D A E . Rhombifera in which the plates forming
the sides of the theca are arranged in not more than two circlets, and the
plates of each circlet are transversely united by strongly marked pore-
rhombs. T h e genera, though clearly separated as offshoots from the
Rhombifera, do not form a very coherent group, and need careful description
by a well-informed worker. T.amcrin u-% Schultze (1867, Syn. Staurosoma,
Barrande, 1887), Devonian, Eifel, and Bohemia. Theca cup-shaped or a
truncate spheroid, the sides composed of four large, interradially situated
plates, one of which is (? only in some cases) horizontally bisected. These
plates are united by strongly marked stereom-folds, raised above the
surface, and forming demi-rhombs. The composition of the oral surface is
unknown, but there seems to have been a central mouth, with food-grooves
radiating from it towards the margin, where brachioles probably arose.
A n anus seems to have pierced the margin at the summit of one of the
triangular side-plates. Stem-facet four-sided, with angles radial; lumen
small. Rhombifera, Barrande (1867 and 1887), Ordovician, Bohemia.
Theca elongate, triangular in section; appears composed of two circlets—a
lower, of three plates united by strong stereom-folds, visible exteriorly only
as terminal pores outlining " pore-rhombs " ; an upper, of six (?) plates, of
which three pairs are united by pore-rhombs, similar to those of the
lower circlet, and vertically above, not alternating with them. Oral
region unknown. Aboral region passes gradually, by smaller plates, into
a cylindrical stem. T h e structure of the pore-rhombs and the trimerous
symmetry suggest comparison with Caryocrinidae. Rhombifera mira,
Barr., is usually considered to be a
Stephanocrinus. Aethocystis, S. A. Miller
(1892), Silurian, Indiana, m a y be placed
here provisionally.
F A M I L Y 5. M A L O C Y S T I D A E . Rhombi-
fera in which thecal plates are numerous
and indefinitely arranged. Radial folds
of stereom often pronounced, but minor
rhomb-like striae not clearly seen. Food-
grooves on exothecal processes passing
over the theca and bearing brachioles.
Columnals (when known) in a single
series. This Ordovician family shows
the independent evolution of a structure
c o m m o n in a later family, Glyptocystidae,
viz. the extension from the mouth over FIG. XIX.
the theca of series of alternating plates, Amygdaloeystisflorealis.1, from side ;
2.single plate enlarged; 3, portion of food-
supporting a single series of brachioles. groove enlarged. Br, dotted outline of
T h e alternating series is not so com- some brachioles; Br1, facet for attach-
plicated as in Glyptocystidae, and the ment of same. Original, from specimen
belonging to Dr. G. J. Hinde.
food-groove passes, not on the top of it,
but along its sides. T h e main grooves appear in all cases to be reduced
to two ; but these m a y branch and wind round the theca as in the later
58 THE CYSTIDEA
form, Sphaerocystis (p. 63), or m a y remain simple, and stretch in the

transversal plane. Genera—Malocystis, Billings (1858). Chazy Lime-
stone, Canada. Theca globular. In the type-species the grooves branch.
Amygdalocystis, Billings (1854), Trenton Limestone, Canada. Theca
(Fig. XIX.) flattened in plane of food-grooves, and elongate. Grooves
never branched.
F A M I L Y 6. G L Y P T O C Y S T I D A E . Rhombifera with stem, theca, and
brachioles. T h e theca composed of five circlets of alternating plates,
typically five in each circlet. In first (aboral) circlet, right posterior
(r. post.) plate is always fused with right antero-lateral (r. ant.) plate.
Anus, with valvular pyramid, between second and third circlets, in right
posterior interradius (r. post IR). Hydropore in adoral circlet, always
opposite unpaired arm-groove, and thus defining posterior interradius
(post. IR). T h e trans-sutural foldings of the stereom (pore-rhombs) are
restricted in distribution but exaggerated in structure (" pectinirhombs ").
FIG. X X .
Actual distribution of pore-rhombs explained by supposed course of gut in primitive
Glyptocystidae. The plates numbered as in Fig. X X I .
One of them invariably unites the left posterior plate of the first aboral
row with the left anterior plate of the second row. M o u t h central; from
it over the theca radiate food-grooves, primitively 5, by reduction 4 or 2 ;
these are bordered by the plates of the adoral circlet, or by plates
derived from their proliferation ; and these side-plates bear facets for
brachioles of biserial structure. This family is perhaps descended from
primitive Echinosphaeridae, in which a natural tendency to the develop-
ment of five food-grooves (one ant., single ; two lateral, paired) was
accompanied by decrease in number, and increase in size and thickness,
of the thecal plates, together with their arrangement in five alternating
circlets of five (as in Mimocystis). T h e diminution of the thecal cavity,
w e m a y suppose, pressed the coil of the gut against the body wall;
thus the respiratory function was hindered in the pore-rhombs along this
tract, so that they disappeared, while it was thrown more on the remain-
ing pore-rhombs, which became highly developed (Fig. XX.). T h e process
continued till only three pair of intensely folded areas were left, one at
the base on the side opposite the anus, the others above the anus to
THE CYSTIDEA 59
the right and left of it; from their likeness to combs, these areas are
cauea pectinated rhombs, more shortly " pectinirhombs."
W e m a y reconstruct a form like that analysed in Fig. X X I . as a type
(probably ancestral) from which every k n o w n genus of this family m a y
easily be derived. In this archetype two plates (r. post, and r. ant.)
ot the aboral circlet are fused together, so that the total number is
twenty-four ; numbers are attached to these in the diagram, after a plan
originated by Forbes. T h e following statements m a y safely be m a d e
concerning this archetype, those applying equally to the whole family
being italicised : — 3 is the double plate; a pectinirhomb joins 1 & 5,
while other pectinirhombs were probably distributed as in Fig. X X . ; the
anus is in right posterior IR, between plates'7 and 8, and below 13 ; it is
protected by a valvular pyramid, surrounded by a ring of smaller plates ;
20-24 lie between food-grooves, and are therefore interradial; the
1.0. i.P. r.a.
A &
FIG. X X I .
Arrangement of plates in the supposed archetype of the Glyptocystidae. The attached
numbers are those given by Forbes. The letters at the top, read from left to right, denote :
left anterior interradius <fe radius ; left posterior interradius & radius ; posterior interradius ;
right posterior interradius & radius ; right anterior interradius & radius ; anterior radius. Plate
23 bears the hydropore and gonopore ; the notches in plates 15 to 19 represent the primitive
position offivefood-grooves ; between 7, 8, and 13 lies the anus. Pectinirhombs not shown.
hydropore, defining the posterior interradius, is in 23, and above it is
a semi-lunar pore of u n k n o w n function (genital or excretory); opposite
these is the unbranched anterior food-groove, passing to plate 15 ; the
branches of the right groove pass to 18 and 19, those of the left groove
to 16 and 17 ; at the end of each of the five main grooves is a facet,
bearing a brachiole composed of two alternating series of ossicles ("biserial");
the food-grooves of both brachioles and legmen are protected by small covering-
plates; the theca is borne on a stem, which at its proximal end has low
columnals with a wide lumen, and which tapers distally. Modifications of
this type take place in the following directions:—Enlargement of the
ring of small plates around the anus, into a region of scaly, flexible
integument (Cheirocrinus, Glyptocystis, Pleurocystis); the accentuation of
the relations of the five main grooves to plates 15-19, coupled with
the sinking of those plates between those of the third series (Cheirocrinus,
6o THE CYSTIDEA
Cystoblastus); the extension of the subvective system over the thecal

plates, by the proliferation from plates 20-24 of alternating series
of plates, in which every other plate bears a brachiole (Schizocystis,
Glyptocystis, Lepadocystis, Callocystis, Sphaerocystis, Lepadocrinus, Pseudo-
crinus); the atrophy of the anterior groove (partially in Glyptocystis, more
so in Prunocystis and Schizocystis, wholly in Lepadocrinus, Sphaerocystis,
and Strobilocystis); atrophy of two side grooves in addition (Schizocystis,
Pseudocrinus, Pleurocystis); restriction of pectinirhombs to sutures
between 1 & 5, 14 & 15, and 12 & 18 (Prunocystis, Schizocystis, Pseudo-
crinus, Lepadocrinus, Callocystis). N o n e of these characters can be taken
as a basis of classification ; each group so formed would include genera
very diverse in other respects ; doubtless the same structures have in
m a n y cases been independently attained. Happily certain relationships
seem clear, and round them the genera m a y be gathered into sub-families.
S U B - F A M I L Y 1, E C H I N O E N C R I N I N A E , passes from the simple form
JMU. A M I . PrunocystisFletcheri(from,
EchinoencrinusSencken- Brit. Mus., 40207). Eh,
bergi, after Jaekel. pectinirhomb. x 4 diam.
Echinoencrinus, in the direction of extension of two of the lateral grooves

over the theca, through Prunocystis to Schizocystis ; pectinirhombs 1 & 5 and
14 & 15 always, 12 & 18 frequently present, but no others, except 1 & 6
in Echinoencrinus. Genera—Echinoencrinus, H . v. Meyer (1826; synn.
Gonocrinus, Eichwald, 1840, and Sycocystis, von Buch, 1845 ; see also
Volborth, 1842), Ordovician, Russia, differs from the imagined archetype
in restriction of pectinirhombs to 1 & 5, 1 & 6, and 14 & 15, and
in apparent bisection of plate 23 (Fig. X X I I L ) . T h e main grooves
m a y support five brachioles, or only two, or m a y branch yet more ; in
any case the facets are always close around the mouth. Anal region often
prominent (Erinocystis, Jaekel, 1899). T h e plates usually have strong
radiating folds, often crossed by finer concentric ridges (Fig. X X I L ) .
Here Jaekel (1899) places his Glaphyrocystis and Scoliocystis, Ordovician,
Russia. Prunocystis, Forbes (1848), Silurian, England, includes P.
Fletcheri and Echinoencrinus baccatus, Forbes (Fig. X X I V . ) . Theca
" shaped like the fruit of a dog-rose." Adoral row of plates increased
in number. Pectinirhombs on 1 & 5, 14 & 15, and 12 & 18 only.
THE CYSTIDEA. 61
Brachioles clustered round mouth, probablyfive,slender, and comparatively

long. Schizocystis, Jaekel (1895), Silurian, England. Type, Echinoencrinus
armatus, Forbes (Figs. XXV.-XXVIL). Arrangement of plates and rhombs
as in Prunocystis; rhomb 12 & 18 sometimes absent. Ant., r. ant., and
1. post, food-grooves almost or entirely atrophied ; 1. ant. groove extends
nearly half-way down the theca on to plate 11, isflooredwith alternating
xxv.
?IGS. XXV. & XXVI.
chizocystis armatus (from
Mus., E75S9 & E7590).
X X V . from above;
/I. from the abanal _
As, anus ; Br', facets *
brachioles ; fp, flooring FIG. XXVII.
es of subvective groove ; Analysis of Schizocystis. Plates 11 & 13
ig. XXVI. the impressions are notched by the food-grooves. Plate 23 is
hese are seen in the distal double, and bears hydropore and gonopore.
part of the groove ; Eh, the XXVI.
pectinirhomb of plates 14 &
15 ; St, part of stem.
plates, bears about five brachioles; a similar extension of r. post.
groove to plate 13 is checked by anus, and bears only three brachioles.
S U B - F A M I L Y 2, C A L L O C Y S T I N A E , starts from a form in which allfivesub-
vective grooves, with the usualflooringplates and brachioles, pass over
the theca, as in Lepadocystis; and diverges (a) by suppression of grooves,
without branching, into Lepadocrinus and Pseudocrinus ; (b) by branching
of grooves, with subsequent suppression, into Callocystis, Sphaerocystis, and
Strobilocystis; pectinirhombs 1 & 5 , 1 4 & 1 5 , 1 2 & 1 8 probably always
present. Genera — Lepa-
docystis, P. H. Carpenter
(1891 ; syn. Meekocystis, © ©
Jaekel, 1899), Ordovician,
Indiana (Fig. XXVIIL).
Theca ovoid; plates around
anus slightly altered from
the archetypal position.
Pectinirhombs on 1 & 5,
12 & 18, 14 & 15, and
10 & 15. Main grooves
five, stretching a short dis- FIG. XXVIII.
tance over theca, one to Analysis of Lepadocystis Moorei, based on Meek's figures
each plate of fourth circlet. (1871 & 1873). Plates 15 to 19 notched by food-grooves ;
hydropore on plate 23.
Lepadocrinus, Mather
(1843?; Conrad, 1840; Hall, 1859: synn. Apiocystis, Forbes, 1848;
Staurocystis, Haeckel, 1897; ? Hallicystis, Jaekel, 1899; includes
62 THE CYSTIDEA
Pseudocrinus quadrifasciatus and P. oblongus), Silurian, North America,

England, Scandinavia (Fig. X X X . ) . Plates m u c h as in Lepadocystis.
Pectinirhombs o n l & 5 , 1 2 & 1 8 , 1 4 & 1 5 only. Main grooves four,
the anterior being aborted, extend over theca to a degree that differs
in different species, and is always less in younger stages. Pseudocrinus,
FIG. X X I X .
Analysis of Pseudocrinus, based on specimens in
the British Museum, especially 40193.
FIG. XXX.
Restored Lepadocrinus quadrifasciatus. The arm-
lets of the outer rows are erect; those of the noddle
row depressed. Near the top of the left-hand quarter
is the anus ; near the top of the right-hand quarter
is a pectinirhomb. B y permission of the Keeper of
the Geological Dept., British Museum.
Pearce (1842, redescr. Forbes, 1848), Silurian, England (Fig. XXIX.).

Resembles a Lepadocrinus in which all main grooves are aborted except
apparently r. post, and 1. ant. T h e grooves are the same as those of
Schizocystis, but their relation to the thecal plates and anus is as in
Lepadocrinus. T h e theca is compressed so as to have two almost flat
oval sides, fringed by the
brachioles of these grooves ;
one side contains the anus
and pectinirhomb 14 & 15,
the other contains pectini-
rhombs 1 & 5, and 12 & 18.
Callocystis, Hall (1852, syn.
Anthocystis, Haeckel), Silurian,
North America (Fig. X X X L ) .
Plates 10, 12, and 14 are
sunk d o w n between 6 and 7,
Flo. X X X I . 8 &rJ 9 respectively, so as to
rest on 2 and 3 ; thus there
Analysis of Callocystis Jcwetti based on Hall's figures.
appear to be eight plates in
the second circlet. Contrariwise, by the vertical elongation of 7 and 8,
13 is raised between 18 and 19. The remaining plate of the third
THE CYSTIDEA 63
circlet is reduced in size and sometimes quite atrophied. Pectinirhombs

on 1 & 5, 12 & 18, 14 & 15, as usual. Main groovesfive,pass nearly to
base of theca ; one or more of the grooves m a y bifurcate once towards
the distal end. Sphaerocystis, Hall (1859), Silurian, Maryland. Theca
spheroidal. Main grooves four, each with three to six branches. Plates
undetermined ; pectinirhombs, anus, and hydropore situated as in Lepado-
crinus. Strobilocystis, White (1876), Devonian, Iowa, resembles Sphaero-
cystis, but the branches have become "small secondary arm-grooves
extending obliquely downward from each side of the principal grooves."
S U B - F A M I L Y 3. G L Y P T O C Y S T I N A E . Besides the negative characters of
irregularity in the shape of the plates and in the distribution of pectini-
rhombs, the only feature c o m m o n to the included genera is the evidence
they offer of descent from a simple form like Clieirocrinus. T h e number
of pectinirhomb0 connects Cheirocrinus with Cystoblastus and Glyptocystis;
the enlargement of the anal area connects it with GlyptocydisandPleurocystis;
the relation of the third circlet of plates to the fourth is another link with
Cystoblastus. Genera—Cheirocrinus, Eichwald (1856 and 1859 ; see also
$ 3 M <£h (£b
&& 6S>
FIG. X X X I I .
Analysis of Cheirocrinus penniger, modified from Fr. Schmidt.
Schmidt, 1874, under Glyptocystis), Ordovician, Russia, and North America.

T h e chief departures from the archetypal arrangement of plates are
correlated with an increase in size of the anal area, which is covered with
numerous small plates, and surrounded by plates 7, 8, 12, 13, and 14.
This in C. penniger, the type-species, induces the vertical fission of 18
(or intercalation of 18a), and sinking of 12 on to 2 ; the pushing of 15
to the right over 10, and sinking of 10 between 9 and 5 on to 4 ; the
pushing of 17 to the left over 11; the consequent sinking of 16 between
10 and°ll on to 5. In C. Volborthi the plates of the third row are not
sunk, but raised between those of the fourth row ; this is a change in
the direction of Cystoblastus. The distribution of the numerous pectini-
rhombs varies with the species, and, to some extent, with the individual ;
those on 1 & 5, 1 & 6, with the demi-rhombs 1 & 4, 1 & 2, are constant.
T h e arrangement in one specimen of C. penniger is shown in Fig. X X X I I .
Reversions3 to the older and simpler type of rhomb structure occa-
sionally occur (e.g. 13 & 18a in the figure). The five main grooves
pass between plates 20-24 to plates 15, 16, 17, 18a, and 19 ; they are
rather wide and fringed with short brachioles. The threefold division of
64 THE CYSTIDEA
plates 20-24 in C. penniger is thefirststage in the proliferation of those

plates tofloorthe food-grooves ; more advanced stages occur in other
species, thus leading to Ghjptocystis. Homocystis, Barrande (1877), Ordo-
vician and Silurian, Bohemia, resembles Cheirocrinus in the shape of the
theca, the number of pectinirhombs, and the position of the anus. The
material does not permit more precise comparison. Glyptocystis, Billings
(1854 and 1858), Ordovician, Canada. Theca ovoid (Fig. XXXIII.). Anal
area less large than in Cheiro-
crinus, enclosed by 8, 13, and 14.
Plate 16 sunk on to 5, as in C.
penniger; thus 11 is pushed to
the right, and both 11 and 12
are reduced in size. Pectini-
rhombs 1 & 5, 1 & 6, 10 & 14,
10 & 15, 13 & 17, 15 & 16, 16
& 17, 17 & 18, 18 & 19 ; demi-
<co mx$<j> FIG. XXXIII.
rhomb 10 & 16 ; imperfect
rhombs, 7 & 8, 11 & 12, 15 &
19. Main groovesfive,passing
Analysis of Glyptocysti^ltiporus, modified from o y e r t h e thec£lj b y w a y o f p]ates
15-19 ; all nearly reach the base
except anterior groove, which is checked by pectinirhomb 10 & 15.
The resemblance of the grooves to those of Callocystinae suggests that
that sub-family was derived from Glyptocystis itself; but this is nega-
tived by the different modification of the thecal plates. Pleurocystis,
Billings (1854 and 1858), Ordovician, N. America and Britain (Fig.
XXXIV.). Anal area so large as to occupy almost all one side of the theca
with its numerous small plates, the anus being at lower right-hand
corner of the area, which is bordered by plates 3, 2, 7, 12, 13, 14,8.
Correlated with this is aflatteningof the theca in 1. post, and r.
ant. plane, the atrophy of all main grooves except the two in that
plane, great diminution in size of plates 15-19, as well as 13. Pectini-
rhombs 1 & 5, 11 & 12, 10 & 14; the two latter are analogous
to, not homogenetic with, pectinirhombs 12 & 18, 14 & 15, in
Callocystinae. Each main groove ends in a single long and sturdy
brachiole, of the usual biserial structure, with stout covering-plates.
The stem is longer than usual in the family. The curious homo-
plastic resemblance to the Anomalocystidae (p. 52) led Haeckel to
place Pleurocystis in that family, though it differs in every essential
structure. Cystoblastus, Volborth (1867 and 1870), Ordovician, Russia
(Fig. XXXV.). Imagine a Cheirocrinus in which plates 10, 11, 12,
and 14 are still further pushed up between those of the fourth circlet
than they are in C. Volborthi, in which plate 13 has entirely dis-
appeared so as to compensate for the asymmetry induced by the
anus; in which the arm-grooves, of the usual structure, are stretched well
into plates 15-19 and limited to those plates, as in C. sculptus: then you
will have such a form as Cystoblastus. It need only be added that the
anus is surrounded by plates 8, 14, and 19 ; and that pectinirhombs
1 & 5, and 1 & 6 remain as before, while demi-rhombs unite the plates
THE CYSTIDEA 65
which now form the third circlet, viz. in order, 14, 15, 10, 16, 11, 17,
12, 18, 19. The superficial resemblance of Cystoblastus to certain
Blastoids has led most
writers to imagine a true
relationship. This involves *'0^$ -
the entire disappearance
of plates 5-9 ; the homolo-
gising of the plates here
called 10, 11, 12, and 14,
as well as the absent 13,
with plates 20-24, and the
consequent disappearance
of plates 10-14 also ; the
violent supposition that
the horizontal transverse
or tangential folds of the
demi-rhombs in Cystoblastus
originated the radial or
vertical folds of the hydro-
spires in Codaster; as well
as such minor points as
the shifting of both anus
and hydropore, and the
fusion of two pair of basals,
neither of them the same
pair as composes plate 3 of
Cystoblastus.
The structures of the
subvective grooves in the
more highly specialised
genera of this family have
often been spoken of as
"recumbent arms." They
differ, however, from the
arms of Crinoidea in origin
as well as recumbency. From
the subvective structures of
Pleurocystis JUitex-
Glyptosphaeridae and Pro- tus. 1, analysis; 2,
toblastoidea, they differ view from antanal
in that the brachioliferous side, restored from
plates are not thecal plates original observations;
3, view from anal side,
or even intercalated be- after Jaekel.
tween such plates, but lie
outside them and often
transgress their sutures.
F A M I L Y 7. C A R Y O C R I N -
IDAE. Rhombifera in which
the theca is composed primitively of four circlets of plates, comparable to
the infrabasal (IB), basal (B), radial (R), and deltoid (A) circlets of a crinoid
66 THE CYSTIDEA
with dicyclic base (p. 99), and dominated by trimerous symmetry. I B B 4,

the two on either side the anal interradius apparently being produced by
fusion of two original pairs. B B 6 (ten in Heterocystis). Alternating with
B B are 6 R R , between which, on the anterior side of the cup, two or three
interradials (iR) m a y be developed. (In Heterocystis the i R R also alter-
nate with the BB.) O n the interior of all these plates the stereom is
thrown into strong folds, forming bundles of laminae at right angles to
the sutures; on the exterior the ends of the folds are marked by pores,
each surrounded as a rule by a raised rim, and sometimes broken up into
two or more smaller pores. Since the laminae correspond in position and
4
Fio. X X X V .
Cystoblastus Leuchtenbergi, after Volborth. 1, oral surface; 2, posterior ; S, aboral surface ;
4, analysis; s.p, plates flooring arm-grooves; 0, mouth; As, anus, the position of which is
indicated by * in 1; M, hydropore between 18 & 19; St', attachment of stem.
essential structure to ordinary pore-rhombs, the pores necessarily run in

lines from the umbones to the angles of each plate (Fig. X X X V I . 3, 4 ) ; these
structures m a y have helped in respiration; but are in no sense homo-
logous with Blastoid hydrospires. T h e three primitive food-grooves (ant.,
r. and 1.) are of equal size and bifurcate in like manner. T h e proximal
portion tends to be hypothecal; then a short portion lies on the theca
like the " recumbent a r m s " of the Glyptocystidae ; the distal portion is
freely exothecal, biserial, and brachioliferous. Stem well developed,
circular in section. Genera—Hemicosmites, von Buch (1840, redescribed
1845 ; see also Joh. Miiller, 1854 ; syn. Hexalacystis, Haeckel), Lower to
Upper Ordovician, Russia, and perhaps Silurian, N . America. Com-
paring the dorsal cup (Fig. X X X V I . 3) with a crinoid cup, w e m a y
THE CYSTIDEA 67
imagine the anterior radius to be doubled, concurrently with the

bifurcation of the anterior arm, and m a y therefore speak of the left and
right anterior R R and I B B and the anterior B, while the other plates
retain their usual names. T h e three i R R rest on the truncated upper
margins of the anterior and right and left anterolateral B B , and are half
the width of the R R , but quite as high. T h e anus, with valvular
pyramid, is left of the posterior interradius, being in fact below L post.
R, and between 1. post, and post. B B . The tegmen is solidly covered
with nine plates alternating with the nine plates of the radial circlet
(Fig. X X X V I . 1). These plates have no pores like those of the dorsal
cup (but the posterior one is rugose at its adoral end, and appears to have
been pierced by a hydropore). F r o m the central mouth three food-
grooves run over these plates towards the anterior and the right and left
antero-lateral R R T h e mouth and grooves are protected by relatively
large irregular covering-plates. A t the end of each groove is an oval
area over which passed the base of a biserial arm, which became free almost
immediately. Caryocrinus, Say (1825, see von Buch, 1845, and Hall, 1852 ;
synn. Stribalocystis, S. A Miller; Enneacystis, Haeckel), Upper Ordovician,
Scandinavia, and Silurian, N . America. Dorsal cup (Fig. X X X V I . 4) differs
from that of Hemicosmites only in absence of anterior iR, and of anus, the
latter having moved u p to the tegmen. T h e covering-plates of the food-
grooves have become larger and incorporated in the tegmen (Fig. X X X V I . 2),
so that the grooves are subtegminal (cf. Crinoidea Camerata); but
end in facets on the margins of the R R and iRR. Since the grooves
branch while beneath the tegmen, these facets are more than three, though
still distributed into a left, right, and anterior group. In the growth of
the individual, Hall has noticed successive stages with from three to
fourteen facets ; six and nine are fairly c o m m o n , but for adults thirteen
is the usual number, the thirteenth being added on the right of the anus.
Hall describes the arms as composed proximally of "semicircular, and
scarcely interlocking" ossicles ; distally the brachials alternate so that
the arm is biserial. Each brachial bears a grooved pinnule, perhaps also
biserial. In Corylocrinus and Juglandocrinus (both von Koenen, 1886),
Upper Ordovician, South France, the composition of the dorsal cup (Fig.
X X X V I . 6) is the same as in Caryocrinus. T h e tegmen of Corylocrinus
is composed of four plates, of which the right, left, and anterior bear arm
facets, apparently as in Hemicosmites ; the posterior tegminal plate is very
thick and porous (a madreporite). In Juglandocrinus (Fig. X X X V I . 5), as
in a young Caryocrinus, the food-grooves are subtegminal, and come to the
surface on the upper margins of three large plates, which are right, left,
and anterior in position, and alternate with -three smaller plates. These
six plates exactly correspond to the tegminal plates of Hemicosmites; a
central plate over the mouth, and three plates covering the food-grooves,
represent the covering-plates of that genus. This interpretation of von
Koenen's obscure genera was partly suggested by P. H . Carpenter (1891).
A n anus was doubtless present, though not observed in the imperfect
specimens. Heterocystis, Hall (1852), Silurian, N e w York (Fig. X X X V I . 7),
appears to have been derived from Hemicosmites by the vertical bisection of
4 BB(viz. r.post., r. ant.-lat, ant, 1. ant.-lat.), thus producing 10 B B ;
FIG. X X X V I .
Caryocrinidae. 1, tegmen
of Hemicosmites, x $ ; the
plates covering the mouth
4b 0 4b 8" 4BT0
are removed. (From Brit.
Mus. E7591.) 2, tegmen of
Caryocrinus, x2. (Modified
from P. H . Carpenter.) 3,
analysis of Hemicosmites.
(Original.) 4, analysis of Ca-
ryocrinus (based on various
figures). 5, tegmen, and (i,
analysis, of Juglandocrinus
(based on von Koenen's
figures). 7, analysis of He-
terocystis (based on Hall's
figures).
The three primitive rays
are distinguished as ant.,r.,
and I. The four circlets are
marked IB, B, R, & T (teg-
minals). A m o n g the teg-
minals, that marked M is
connected with the hydro-
pore. Plates intercalated
in E circlet are marked ill ; l.
Br', facets for brachioles.
T 0/%^ 0 ft o
--db&opoofr B
» o6 o o o
tow™
THE CYSTIDEA 69
the corresponding broadening of 1. ant. B ; the sinking of the 6 RR,

TP V 1 ? • S ° & S t 0 a l t e r n a t e w i t h the 10 BB, except in posterior
IK, which is entirely occupied by anal plates ; the repeated bifurcation
01 the arms, as in Caryocrinus, but probably to a greater extent, accom-
panied by an increase in number of tegminal and accessory plates, the
arrangement of which is unknown. Stereom-folds are visible. Thecal
plates nodose (cf. Hemicosmites), hence the name of H. armatits given to
the only specimen known.
Throughout this family there is no strict correlation between the arms
and the cup-plates. There is in both structures a dominance of the
number three or six, it is true ; but each arm has not its own radial plate
supporting it, as in Crinoidea. Indeed, an arm may be borne by a plate
that, on all other grounds, would be considered as interradial. Moreover,
the trend of evolution in the family is parallel to the probable evolution
of early Camerata, rather than towards that or any other Crinoid type.
ORDER 3. Aporita, Zittel (1879, restr.)
Cystidea in which pentamerous symmetry affects the food-

grooves and thecal plates, probably also the nerves and ambulacral
vessels, but not the gonads. T h e food-grooves are exothecal and
circumoral. T h e stereom and stroma show no trace of folds,
rhombs, diplopores, or anything other than the finely porous
structure characteristic of all Echinoderm stereom.
One may regard this order as a backwater in the stream of pro-
gress, derived perhaps from the Rhombiferi, but leading nowhere
in particular, and only retained because the forms referred to it
cannot be placed elsewhere. T h e arrangement of the thecal plates,
and a homoplastic resemblance to Hypocrinus (p. 178), have sug-
gested to some a connection with the Crinoidea.
There is only one family, the CRYPTOCRINIDAE, and in it the thecal

plates are arranged in four circlets. Cryptocrinus, von Buch (1840 and 1845),
Ordovician, Russia (Fig. X X X V I L ) . Theca small, irregularly spheroidal,
composed of four circlets of plates. Aboral circlet of three unequal plates,
produced by fusion of an originalfive,the ifused plate being in right
anterior interradius. Above these is a circlet offiverather large hexagonal
plates, following on and alternating with which are five smaller sub-
pentagonal plates. These surround an irregular pentagon in which are
the minute plates of the fourth circlet, and other small tegminal plates.
Five main food-grooves lead from the mouth to facets borne by these
adoral plates. The free brachioles rising from the facets must have been
slender. The anus, with valvular pyramid, lies between two plates of
the third circlet, either supported on a plate of the second circlet, or
separated therefrom by a small supplementary plate. The hydropore
appears to have been in the adoral plate opposite the anterior food-groove,
and left of the anus, which therefore occupies much the same position as
in Glyptocystidae. Another pore, perhaps excretory, lay in the adoral
7o THE CYSTIDEA
plate on the left, that is, opposite the anus. There was a slender stem
of circular columnals. Lysocystis, S. A. Miller (1889, proposed ioxEchino-
cystis, Hall non Wyville Thomson; syn. Scolocystis, Gregory, 1897),
Silurian, N. America. Theca sub-pentagonal, composed of four circlets of
plates. Aboral circlet of four (J) small plates, followed by two circlets of
five plates each, regularly alternating, and an adoral circlet, number un-
known. Apparently three free brachioles, possibly becomingfiveby the
usual bifurcation. Anus at adjacent upper angles of two plateB of third
circlet. In the only known species the plates of second and third circlets
were strongly nodose. Stem unknown.
1 2 3 4
FIG. X X X V I I .
Cryptocrinus. 1, from oral surface; 2, enlarged view of oral region, the tegminal plates
removed; 3, aboral view; 4, side view. (All diagrammatised from Jaekel.) As, anus; Br',
facets for brachioles ; M, hydropore ; p, another pore ; Sf, facet for stem.
ORDER 4. Diploporita, Zittel (1879, emend.)

Cystidea in which radial symmetry affects the food-grooves,
and by degrees the thecal plates connected therewith, but not the
interradial thecal plates; probably also the nerves and ambulacral
vessels, but not the gonads. T h e food-grooves are epithecal, i.e.
are extended over the thecal plates themselves without intermedi-
ate flooring; they are also prolonged on to exothecal brachioles,
which line the epithecal grooves. T h e stereom of the thecal plates
m a y be thrown into folds, but the mesostroma does not so m u c h
tend to lie in strands traversing the sutures, nor are pectinirhombs
or " pore-rhombs" developed; diplopores are always present in
the mesostereom, but often restricted to definite tracts or plates,
especially in higher forms.
While some descendants of the Aristocystidae were seeking in

vain to perpetuate their race by assuming the flattened carapace
of Anomalocystidae, and while others, becoming more reconciled
to a sedentary life, were stretching out from their mouths longer
and longer arms into the food-bearing sea, raising themselves too
on loftier columns, there were yet others that hit upon another
w a y of meeting the needs of a fixed existence. T h e chief need
was to expose food-collecting surface in greater amount and over a
THE CYSTIDEA 7i
wider area. T h e w a y found was to stretch ciliated grooves from

the m o u t h over the surface of the theca, and then to raise them on
armlets or brachiola placed at fit intervals. A t the same time,
the hydrocoel, it m a y be inferred from its constant connection
with such grooves, sent out branches corresponding with the food-
grooves ; from these branches were given off the podia, serving
for both respiration and the prehension of food. This wandering
of the brachiola a w a y from the m o u t h marks then the develop-
m e n t of two structures previously u n k n o w n a m o n g Echinoderms :
(1) canals radiating from the hydrocoel along the theca ; (2) an
intrabrachial, circumoral, or ventral region of the theca, such as
in Crinoids is called the tegmen. These two structures, in one
form or another, characterise all Echinoderma other than A m p h o r -
idea and a few Rhombiferi. B u t it seems that they were inde-
pendently developed along m a n y lines. W h a t in the Crinoidea
is a mere " t e g m e n " or pot-lid, comes in Glyptosphaera, in the
Edrioasteroidea, and in the Echinoidea, to form the greater part of
the test; and with it the perradial ambulacral vessels extend;
whereas the theca of Aristocystidae, which in Crinoidea becomes the
specialised and important calyx or dorsal cup, is in the other orders
more and more reduced until in some cases no more of it can be re-
cognised than the plates of the anal pyramid or their homologues.
Another structure characterising this order, viz. diplopores (p. 41),
m a y possibly have assisted respiration by bringing lacunar blood-
vessels into closer contact with the sea-water; this m a y have been
connected with a less development of podia. T h e functions of
diplopores have not as yet been satisfactorily explained by reference
to recent Echinoderms.
F A M I L Y 1. S P H A E R O N I D A E . Primitive Diploporita, in which the food-
grooves do not extend from the mouth beyond the adoral circlet of plates.
Diplopores diffuse. The included genera show the early stages of tegminal
and ambulacral development; in none of them does more than a single
cycle of plates intervene between the oral pole and the bases of the
brachiola. The five plates forming the cycle are interradially placed,
being separated by the grooves proceeding from the mouth to the brachioles.
The°direction of these grooves is primitively the same as that of the food-
grooves in Echinosphaera, viz. one anterior, opposed to the anus, two
lateral each of which soon branches, thus making five grooves in all,
with bilateral symmetry. Thus the shape and position of thefiveinter-
vening plates are those characteristic of true orals (see p. 124). Genera—
Sphaeronis Hisinger (1828 and 1837); the name was proposed to replace
Echinosphaera of Wahlenberg (1818) for no assigned reason, but was
restricted to forms agreeing with Echinus pomum, Gyllenhal, by Job.
Miiller (1854). The species referred to this genus by Angelin (1878) are
all Ordovician, and agree in the following characters (Fig. XXXVIII.) :—
A spheroid or ovoid theca, sessile on a broad base, composed of irregu-
lar plates, the mesostereom of which is pierced by regularly formed
72 THE CYSTIDEA
diplopores ; the anus close to the peristome, and with a valvular pyramid ;
small hydropore, perhaps combined with gonopore, between mouth and
anus, to the left; five orals
separated by food-grooves
with primitive bilateral
arrangement. T h e various
species m a y be arranged
in groups, according to
the number of times the
grooves branch, and the
number of brachiola given
off from them. Haeckel
(1896) has sought to separ-
Fio. X X X V I I I . ate as genera (Pomonites,
Sphaeronis globulus, after Angelin. 1, from side, nat.Pomocystis, Pomosphaera)
size ; 2, tegmen, enlarged.
those with one, two, three,
and four brachiola to each ray; but until Angelin's notoriously
inaccurate figures shall have been corrected by observation instead
of by hypothesis, these names can rest on no sure ground. Moreover,
Loven's figure of the type-
species, S. pomum, repro-
duced in our Fig. X X X I X . ,
shows that the number of
branches visible m a y be
two, three, or four in a
single individual. Eu-
cystis, Angelin (1878), Or-
dovician, Sweden (Fig.
XL.), sends its grooves
farther d o w n the theca
than Sphaeronis, over one
or two circlets of thecal
plates. F r o m the distal
end of each ray a brachiole
was given off, while others
of uncertain number and
position arose along the
side of the grooves. Prob-
ably some of the forms
described by S. A. Miller FIG. X X X I X .
as Holocystites should be Adoral region of Sphaeronis pomum (from Loven,Om
placed here (e.g. Tremato- Leskia mirabilis," Ofv. Vct.-Akad. ForhandL 1867,434). p,
cystis, Jaekel), although0, orals covering mouth; •wg, section of food-groove running
from mouth to Br', brachiole-facets, some of which are pierced
their orals are not known. by an axial canal; As, plates closing over anus; (7, pro-
H. gyrinus, Miller & Gurley minence with two pores, which Loven considered gono-
(1894), presents a stage in pores; AT, ridge which Loven thought might indicate a
the development of food- madreporite (or G m a y represent combined gonopore and
hydropore); diplopores surround the whole area.
grooves that in some respects is more advanced, although the peristomial
plates have no regular arrangement (Fig. X L I L ) . Allocystis, Miller (1889),
THE CYSTIDEA 73
Silurian, Indiana, m a y go here. Proteocystis, Barrande (1887), Lower

Devonian, Bohemia (Fig. X L L ) , differs from Sphaeronis mainly in the ir-
regular branching of the food-grooves, which stretch farther over the theca,
though whether the tegmen ever contained more than one cycle of plates
cannot be determined from the published figures. Apparently the hydro-
pore formed a slit between, the small gonopore and the mouth ; and the
base, broader than in Sphaeronis, is said to have been prolonged into a stem.
X L II.
Mouth and l'ood-
FIG. XLI. grooves of " Holn-
FIG. XL. Proteocystisflava,oral sur- ri/stites" (7//r('««.s,
Eucystis raripunrtata, oral surface; face, slightly restored from after Miller & Guv-
after Angelin, enlarged. Barrande, enlarged. ley.
Its geological age forbids us to regard Proteocystis as a link between Sphae-
ronitidae and Glyptosphaeridae, but it certainly has points of likeness to
the latter family. Carpocystis, Oehlert (1887), Lower Devonian, W . France,
is a simple spheroid with large stem-attachment. Palmacystis, Haeckel
(1896), Archegocystis, & Codiacystis, Jaekel (1899), are forms with the
epithecal branched food-grooVes, described by Barrande as hydrophores
palmees of Pirocystis, Craterina, & Aristocystis.
F A M I L Y 2. G L Y P T O S P H A E R I D A E . Diploporita in which the food-grooves
extend over the theca well beyond the adoral circlet, and irregularly
transgress the sutures between the
thecal plates. Diplopores diffuse. BT"..
These represent a further advance
on the type of structure originated
in Sphaeronitidae. Genera — 0 ~~
Glyptosphaera, J. Miiller (1854),
Ordovician, Baltic countries (Fig.
XLIIL), has for type the species
first figured by the D u k e of M -
Leuchtenberg (1843), and dis-
tinguished by Volborth (1846) as G -
Sphaeronites Leuchtenbergi. T h e
spherical theca, reaching a diameter
of 7 cm., and larger than any other
As^-'
FIG. XLIIL
cystid, is composed of irregularly Glyptosphaera Leuchtenbergi, after Volborth, nat.
arranged polygonal plates, bearing size. For lettering, see adjoining text.
_,. -i OT)0res T h e mouth is covered
l five orals (0) with characteristic bilateral symmetry, and from between
Zem the anterior unpaired, and lateral paired, grooves radiate about
74 THE CYSTIDEA
half-way over the theca, crossing the sutures of the plates, and giving off
short branches on either side, or sometimes on one side only, at irregular
intervals. A t the ends of the branches are facets (Br) for the support
of brachioles. T h e grooves are shallow and have minute covering-plates.
T h e anus (As), of which the valvular pyramid is rarely preserved, lies about
a third of the w a y d o w n the theca ; between it and the mouth are two
openings, a little to the left, viz. a small round gonopore (G) and a madreporite
(M). The latter, the representative of the hydropore, is always close to
thefirstbrachiole-facet of the left posterior groove, at the junction of three
plates ; it consists of folds (slits ?) running at right angles to the sutures,
and is bounded by a slight ridge forming a triangle or trapezoid. According
to Volborth, there was at the aboral pole a stem, -^ to £ width of theca,
with a wide lumen, and low columnals with five longitudinal sutures, and
with encrusting root-expansion. Eichwald, however, could not find more
than a short conical extension of the theca, and this agrees better with
the appearances of specimens sent by Volborth to the British Museum.
Fungocystis, Barrande (1887), Ordovician, Bohemia (Fig. X L I V ) , differs
from Glyptosphaera in the broad base,
hollowed for attachment to some marine
object, and forming an angle with the long
, axis of the theca; the paucity of diplo-
pores ; and the regular alternation of the
groove branches, making each groove a zig-
zag. T h e test itself is not preserved ; the
internal casts show no sign of the external
grooves and brachioles; but they show
between anus and mouth a curved eleva-
tion (madreporite ?).
F A M I L Y 3. P R O T O C R I N I D A E . Diploporita
in which the food-grooves extend over the
theca almost to the aboral pole, and are
regularly bordered by alternating thecal
plates (" adambulacrals"), on which are
rtrffiTS th^lrdenceôf t h e brachiole-facets. Diplopores diffuse or
Barrande'sfigures;enlarged. confined to adambulacrals, from which they
are never absent. These represent a further
advance in precisely the same direction as previous families. G e n e r a —
Protocrinus, Eichwald (1840), Ordovician, Russia (Fig. X L V ) , was well
described by Volborth (1846). Theca spheroidal or ovoid, attached by
a stem in tlie young, but free in old age and losing all traces of attach-
ment (cf. Lichenoides). Thecal plates larger, stouter, and more swollen
than in Glyptosphaera; all bear diplopores, which m a y become somewhat
at right angles to main food-groove, on the adambulacrals. T h e main
grooves are rather straighter than in Glyptosphaera, lying regularly between
large alternating thecal plates (adambulacrals), each of which bears a
brachiole, except one or two of the proximal ones on the side towards the
direction of the clock-hands. Hydropore minute, above anus. Proteroblastus,
Jaekel (1895; syn. Dactylocystis, 1899), Ordovician, Russia (Fig. X L V L ) .
Theca ovoid, sometimes prolonged gradually into a stem (cf. Dendrocystis).
THE CYSTIDEA 75
Thecal plates clearly differentiated into: (a) smooth, irregular, and

depressed interambulacrals; (b) transversely elongate adambulacrals.
Diplopores at right angles to main food-groove, and confined to inner
Amir
Fio. X L V .
Protocrinus oviformis, after Volborth. 1, oral surface, showing food-grooves partly covered
by ambulacrals, x | ; 2, aboral surface of young individual, showing stem-attachment; 3,
aboral surface of old individual, without stem.
portions of adambulacrals. Each adambulacral bears a brachiole-facet;

there are about thirty-six in each ray.
F A M I L Y 4. M E S O C Y S T I D A E . Diploporita in which the food-grooves
extend over the theca almost to the aboral pole, and are regularly
bordered b y alternating brachioliferous adambulacrals, raised above and
outside the adjacent interambulacrals. Diplopores confined to' inter-
ambulacrals. Five interradial deltoids (A) sur-
round the peristome. In this family w e reach
the final stage of the Diploporita, although a
branch parallel with the Mesocystidae passes on
in the direction of the Eublastoidea, beyond the
boundary of the Cystidea. Genera—Mesocystis,
Bather (Jan. 1898, =Medtes, Hoffmann, 1 8 6 6 ;
Nikitin, 1877 ; Agelacrinus, Schmidt, 1874),
Ordovician, Esthonia. Theca (Fig. X L V I I . 1)
simulates that of a regular echinoid, or still more,
Edrioast&r, since the mouth is on the upper
surface; from it narrow food-grooves, protected
by covering-plates, pass straight d o w n to the FIG. XLVI.
Proteroblastus, showing
margin of the flattened aboral surface (Fig. L__
brachioles (Br), food-grooves
-V-T Y J T o) Adambulacrals raised above the (Amb) bordered by adambu-
A L i
'" „ ,. ., T .-i .„,,„-L- _, • lacrals, and interambulacrals
aeneral surface of the theca, by the pushing in (iAmb% AfterJaekel>
under them of the adjacent interambulacrals;
thus they outwardly resemble the sub-ambulacrals or side-plates of
Callocystinae (Fig. X L V I I . 3). T h e interambulacrals do not, however,
absolutely meet underneath the adambulacrals, but leave an irregular
76 THE CYSTIDEA
canal (which m a y have contained a nerve of the aboral nerve-system).

Interambulacrals numerous and irregular, all pierced by diplopores.
Mouth lies in a depression (cf. Edrioaster); surrounded byfiveinterradial,
slightly forked A, apparently continuous with the adambulacrals, and
homologous with thefiveplates similarly situated in Sphaeronis. Posterior
2 4
FIG. XLVII.
Mesocystis Pusirefskii. 1, general form, restored after Hoffmann and Xikitin. 2, oral sur-
face, after Hoffmann, enlarged ; the deltoids are not clearly shown. 3, structure of the adoral
end of a food-groove, modified from Jaekel; the covering-plates removed from the lower right-
hand part; m u c h enlarged. 4, transverse section of a food-groove, after Jaekel. As, anus;
adAmb, adambulacrals or side-plates (s.p); cp, covering-plates or ambulacrals ; Br, dotted
outlines of brachioles, borne by Br', brachiole-facet; fg, food-groove ; iAmb, interambulacrals,
pierced by diplopores (p); M, supposed hydropores, probably only due to a boring parasite;
0, mouth.
A pierced by hydropore (and ? gonopore). Anal pyramid in upper part of
posterior interambulacrum. Aboral surface of theca composed of numerous
small plates, but the structure of its central region is still unknown.
FAMILY 5. GOMPHOCYSTIDAE. Diploporita in which extension of food-
collecting surface is provided by the curving of the five main grooves
around the theca and not by their prolongation on to brachioles.
THE CYSTIDEA 77
Gomphocystis, Hall (1864), Silurian, N . America and Gotland (Fig

XLVIII.). Theca flattened above, greatly
elongate below, composed of m a n y irregular
plates, pierced by diplopores. F r o m a central
m o u t h five food - grooves radiate over the
theca, curving sinistrally around the upper
part, and occasionally descending a short dis-
tance on the stem-like base. Covering-plates
often strongly developed, and grooves lowered
beneath thecal surface. Jaekel (1895) states
that small side-grooves, but no brachioles,
occur in a Gotland species. A n u s close to
mouth, in an interradius. Attachment ap-
pears to have been by the base, as in Aristo-
cystis. T h e curving of the food-grooves and the
asserted absence of brachioles cause Gompho- Fio. XLVIII.
Gomphocystis tenax, from above
cystis to resemble m a n y Edrioasteroidea. But
showing course of food-grooves,
the structure of the grooves seems to be that and from side with outlines of
which obtains in Diploporita, while the plates shown only in upper part.
After Hall, x ?•
presence of marked diplopores confirms the
reference to that order. In any case the family is out of the main line
of evolution.
APPENDIX TO CYSTIDEA.
The following names have been supposed to refer to Cystids :—
Ascocystis, Barr., probably a Canierate Crinoid.
Balanocystis, Barr., indeterminable.
Camarocrinus, Hall (syn. Lobolithus, Barr.), root of a Crinoid (Scyphocrinus,
apud Jaekel).
Cardiocystis, Barr., indeterminable.
Crinocystis, Hall, probably a Canierate Crinoid.
Cyclocrinus, Eichwald (Pasceolus, Billings), now regarded as calcareous Algae ;
at any rate not Echinoderms.
Cystidea, a name used by Barrande for any indeterminable fragment, and not
intended as a zoological genus.
Dictyocrinus, Uonrad, is a Receptaculite.
Hyponome, Loven, the ejected viscera and disc of an Antedon.
Hypocrinus, Beyrich, an Inadunate Crinoid (see p. 178).
Lichenocrinus, Hall, the root of a Pelmatozoan (see p. 133).
Mespilocystis, Barr., probably Stephanocrinus (see p. 96).
Neocystis, Barr., probably the root of a Pelmatozoan.
Porocrinus, an Inadunate Crinoid (see p. 172).
BhomUfera mira, Barr., is a Stephanocrinus (see p. 96).
A fairly complete Bibliography of the Cystidea was given in—

Barrande, J., 1887. Systeme Silurien du centre de la Boheme, 1" Partie :
Recherches Paleontologiques. Vol. VII. Classe des Echinodermes. Ordre
des Cystidees, 4to, xvii. and 232 pp., xxxix. pis. Prague.
The literature is so interwoven with that of Crinoidea and Blastoidea, that
other references are reserved for the list at the end of Pelmatozoa (p. 211).
C H A P T E R X.
T H E BLASTOIDEA. 1
CLASS II. BLASTOIDEA, SAY (1825, sensu extenso).

GRADE A. Protoblastoidea.
„ B. Eublastoidea.
PELMATOZOA in which five (by atrophy four) epithecal ciliated
grooves, lying on a lancet-shaped plate (1 always), radiate from a
central peristome between five interradial deltoid plates (A), and
are edged by alternating side-plates bearing brachioles, to which side-
branches pass from the grooves. Grooves and peristome protected
by small plates, which can open over the grooves. The generative
organs and coelom probably did not send extensions along the rays
into the brachioles; but apparently nerves from the aboral centre,
after passing through the thecal plates, met in a circumoral ring,
from which branches passed into the plate under the main food-
grooves, and thence supplied the brachioles. T h e thecal plates,
however irregular in some species, always show defined basals (B)
and a distinct plate (" radial," R ) at the end of each ambulacrum;
they are in all cases so far affected by pentamerous symmetry
that their sutures never cross the ambulacra.2
The more primitive of these forms can hardly be distinguished
from their immediate ancestors among the Cystids, such as Pro-
teroblastus and Mesocystis, except by the more developed basals and
radials; and it is this greater intimacy of correlation between
ambulacral and thecal structures that necessitates their removal
from the class Cystidea as here defined. Those general relations
of the ambulacra to the theca, shared by Blastoidea with Diplo-
porita, serve to distinguish them from the Callocystinae, with
which some of the genera have been allied by naturalists. T o
these characters m a y be added the presence of diplopores, which
are still to be found in the most primitive genus. F r o m the
1
2
The term "ambulacrum" has been loosely used in the Blastoidea for the
thecal elements connected with the food-groove. " Pseudambulacrum" is more
correct and more cumbrous. The relations of the true ambulacral system are doubtful.
THE BLASTOIDEA 79
Hidrioasteroidea they are separated by the presence of brachioles and

absence of ambulacral pores. Their line of evolution, though in
some respects parallel to those of the Callocystinae and Edrioas-
teroidea, was independently derived through the Diploporita from
the primitive Amphoridea.
Within the class itself m a y be traced the increase of penta-
merism, combined with a lessening in number of the thecal plates
until a very definite arrangement is reached. A t the same time,
there is a concentration of semi-porous structures into the inter-
FlG. i.
Asteroblastus. 1, oral surface of A. stellatus; not quite correct as anal area is not shown.
2, side view of A. Volborthi. Both figures adapted from Schmidt, and x 2 diam. ami, so-
called ambulacrum; br, brachioles, supported on W, brachiole-facets; f.g, food-groove, pp,
pore-plate, at adoral end of which is deltoid; E, radial, at end ol ambulacrum ; St, stem.
ambulacral region, and the evolution therefrom of elaborate

respiratory organs (hydrospires) j this is probably connected with
the fact that all external connection with the water-ring (by means
of a madreporite or hydropore) seems to have disappeared in the
more specialised forms, and that, if the negative results of research
m a y be trusted, there were no extensions of the water-vascular
system into the brachioles.
A somewhat arbitrary line m a y be drawn below forms that
have acquired the normal definite number of plates and the
hvdrospire-folds hanging far into the thecal cavity ; and while
such forms constitute a grade Eublastoidea or Blastoidea sensu
stricto, those below the line are Protoblastoidea.
GRADE A. Protoblastoidea, Bather (1899).

Blastoidea without interambulacral groups of hydrospire-folds
ijiasi/uiuoo. " * « ~
iffins into the thecal cavity.
hanging
So THE BLASTOIDEA
F A M I L Y 1. A S T E R O B L A S T I D A E . Protoblastoidea with an indefinite

number of thecal plates, bearing diplopores, and with a pore-plate adjacent
to, but distinct from, the deltoid in each interambulacrum. Genus—
Asteroblastus, Eichwald (1862), emend. Schmidt (1874), Ordovician, Russia
(Fig. I.), Theca pentagonal, on a relatively small round stem ; its hemi-
spherical dorsal portion is composed of 4 B B and 5 R R , between which are
from twenty-five (A. Volborthi) to fifty ( A stellatus, type-sp.) polygonal
plates ; all plates have radiating ribs (" axial folds " ) , between which are
diplopores. R o u n d the m o u t h are 5 A , between which food-grooves
pass to the ambulacra. Each ambulacrum consists of two rows of side-
plates (adambulacrals), set alternately on either side of the food-groove,
branches from which run to right and left between adjacent side-plates.
A n y underlying plate there m a y be is entirely covered by the side-plates.
A t the ends of the grooves are sockets, by which uniserial brachioles were
attached to the side-plates. Grooves d o w n the brachioles joined the food-
grooves of the ray, and all probably were covered with small alternating
plates (ambulacrals). Adjoining each A and
separating the adjacent ambulacra, is a large
diplopore-bearing plate ; in A. tuberculatum
this is m u c h like other plates of the theca
(on which ground Haeckel has separated the
species as Asterocystis, Fig. II.); but in A.
stellatus and A. Volborthi it is enlarged, has
a pronounced median crest, and is almost
separated by the ambulacra from the ordinary
thecal plates. [The anus appears to have
Portion of the oral surface of been at the distal end of this " pore plate "
Asteroblastus (Asterocystis) tubercui- i n o n e 0 £ tlie interambulacra, which is wider
atus. A, the five deltoids surround- '
ing the peristome; s.p, side-plates than the Others.] F A M I L Y 2. BLASTOIDO-
or adambulacrals. Other letters as P r n t n V d W m r W with a rlptmirp
in Pig. I. (After Schmidt.) x2diam. C R I N I D A E . rrotooiastoiaea w i m a aennne
n u m b e r of thecal plates, without diplopores,
and without distinct pore-plate. Genus—Blastoidocrinus, E . Billings
(1859), Canadian, and Schmidt (1874), -Russian, Ordovician, is only
k n o w n from imperfect specimens, so that only the following details can
be given (Fig. III.):—The small round stem is inserted into a consider
ably invaginated base, as is the case in several crinoids. B B , at least 3.
R R , 5, not notched for reception of ambulacra, but with truncate upper
margin ; they support 5 large interradially situate A. Each A consists of
two parts : an orad, subtriangular piece, like that called deltoid in Astero-
blastus, and a lower, triangular piece corresponding to the pore-plate in
Asteroblastus ; the connection between the two parts is still slight; indeed,
in Canada the orad portions are often fused with one another into a pen-
tagonal frame. T h e lower portions show a marked striation, due to stroma
strands, at right angles to the radio-deltoid suture, and on the sutural
edge the stereom is thrown into folds (incipient " hydrospires") which,
however, have not been observed to pass into the R R . T h e food-grooves
pass out between the A ; the lancet-plate supporting them is covered by
alternating side-plates, which receive branches from the main groove, and
are provided with a clear brachiole-facet; the remains of brachioles are
THE BLASTOIDEA 81
preserved, as in Asteroblastus and many Eublastoids. These known facts

attord no character, other than the less development of the hydrospires,
by which Blastoidocrinus should be separated from the Eublastoidea, so
J- FIG. III. 2
Blastoidocrinus carcliuriaedens ,• restored on the evidence of E. Billings. 1, oral surface ; 3
-ays show the side-plates (sp) with their facets for brachioles (&)•') ; 1 ray shows the brachioies
(br) attached ; the 5th ray shows lancet-plate (L) exposed by removal of side-plates. 2, from
the side ; the upward extension of the stem (.St) and the invaginated basals (B) are indicated by
dotted lines, h, incipient hydrospires.
long as that order includes such a form as Codaster. But till the structure
of the base and the position of the anus are known, the genus may be
kept with its rather more primitive allies, Asteroblastus and Asterocystis.
GRADE B. Eublastoidea, Bather (1899).

( = B L A S T O I D E A , Auctt.).
Blastoidea in which the thecal plates have assumed a definite
n u m b e r and position in three circlets, as follows : — 3 B B , 2 large
(formed by fusion of two pairs of the primitive 5 B B ) and 1 small,
in r. ant. I R ; 5 R R , often fork-shaped, forming a closed circlet;
5 A, interradial in position, supported on the shoulders or the pro-
cesses of the R R , and often surrounding the peristome with their
oral ends. T h e stereom of the R R and A on either side of the
ambulacra is thrown into folds running across the radio-deltoid
suture • these folds hang d o w n into the thecal cavity, forming the
hydrospires.
Beginning in the Silurian with Codaster and Troostocrinus, w e
m a y trace the gradual modification of a simple type,, and the
evolution of the numerous complicated structures characteristic of
so specialised a form as Pentremites. Starting afresh with Elae-
acrinus w e shall study the elaboration of the structures that
characterise Orbitremites (= Granatocrinus), which represents the
a c m e of the Eublastoidea in Britain. Thus the morphology and
the classification will be unfolded along with the phylogeny.
6
82 THE BLASTOIDEA
Codaster, M'Coy (1849), Silurian to Carboniferous, Britain and N .

America, is the least specialised of all Eublastoids (Fig. V.). T h e 3 B B
form a conical cup, on which follows the more cylindrical circlet of 5
R R , the processes of which bend in
above almost at right angles, to form
part of the truncated summit or oral
surface. Following on the upper mar-
gins of the radial processes come the 5 A ,
which surround the pentagonal mouth-
opening (Fig. V. 1). These A probably H H i m "•""* ^Brachic
represent the combined A and pore-
plates of Asteroblastus; like those pore-
plates they have a pronounced median Deltoids
crest ("oral ridge," Etheridge & Car- Radials
penter). Between adjacent A , and
passing d o w n into the sinus of each Basals -Theca.
R, is a long plate, k n o w n from its
shape as the " lancet-plate " (Fig. V. 2);
the edges of this partly overlap the R
and A ; its upper surface bears a groove
which passes between the adjacent A
to the mouth. It is pierced by a cen-
tral canal, comparable to the central
hollow seen in Mesocystis, and probably
filled by a nerve from the aboral
system (Fig. V . 6). Along the sides
of the lancet-plate lie small "side-
plates," not, however, in single series, >-Stem.
but in zigzag, so that each pair forms
a rhombohedron bisected by the suture
between them (Fig. VI.). O n these
sutures are brachiole - facets ; and
branches from the ventral groove pass
alternately to the side-plates, and on
to the brachioles. T h e whole groove
was covered by small movable plates,
the impressions of which are seen along
its sides. T h e peristome was similarly
plated over. T h e apposed edges of
the radial processes and the A are
thrown into a set of strongly-marked -Root.
folds at right angles to the radio-
deltoid sutures (Fig. V. 6). These
folds in the stereom m a y be an ex- Reconstruction of a typical Eublastoid,
aggeration of the axial folds so con- Orophocrinus (vel Dimorphicrinus) Jiisifor-
spicuous in Asteroblastus; the stereommis, from Kinderhook beds of Iowa. B y
forms a thin-folded wall, the ends Sermission of the Keeper of the Geological
lepartment of the British Museum.
of the folds dipping far d o w n into
the thecal cavity. O n e infers from similar foldings in other animals
THE BLASTOIDEA 83
that the object was an increase of surface for respiratory purposes, the
outer oxygenated sea-water passing d o w n into the folds and the inner
coelomic fluid passing up into the alternate folds. Hence to such struc-
tures E . Billings gave the n a m e "hydrospires." They are similar, in
essential structure and in position across the suture lines, to the pectini-
rhombs of Callocystinae ; and similarly are a development of the normal
Codaster trilobatus. 1, oral surface of young individual of var. acutus, with 3 hydrospires
each side of a food-groove and traces of them in anal interradius (Brit. Mus. E8020). 2, a theca
ground d o w n from the oral surface, thus bringing out the sutures (Brit. Mus. E8023). 3,
analysis of the main thecal elements. 4, theca seen from the left posterior radius. 5, the
same theca from below, with posterior interradius uppermost. (Both from Brit. Mus. E8013).
Xi. 6 slightly restored section across part of a radius, amb, so-called ambulacrum or
pse'udainbulacrum, with food-groove; As, aperture for anus; B, basal; br, brachiole; c.p,
covering-plates ; h, hydrospire-folds ; L, lancet-plate ; 0, mouth-aperture ; E, radial; s.p, side-
plate ; A, deltoid.
structure of the test. The marked pentamerous symmetry of the thecal
plates (with the apparent exception of BB) and of the hydrospires is
disturbed only by the anus, which makes an opening between the pos-
terior A and the adjacent radial processes. From this IR hydrospire-folds
are said to be absent (but one or two may be seen in some specimens,
Fi". V. 2). The anal opening was closed by small plates. The essential
structures of Codaster are all to be found in Protoblastoidea ; the absence
of interambulacrals, in Blastoidocrinus; the ambulacral structures, in
84 THE BLASTOIDEA
Asteroblastus and Blastoidocrinus; the position of the anus, in Asteroblastus;

the hydrospires, though far less developed, in Blastoidocrinus. So m u c h
is this the case that Codaster has been referred to the Cystidea by several
writers of eminence. Further arguments for such action are found in the
fact that Codaster has no " spiracles " at the proximal ends of the a m b u -
lacra, and no hydrospire-pores along their sides,
structures which are often considered character-
istic of the Eublastoidea. T h e gradual evolution
of these structures may, however, be traced
within the order.
Phaenoschisma, Etheridge & Carpenter (1882,
-86), Devonian and Carboniferous, Europe and N .
America, differs from Codaster mainly in the fact
that the hydrospire-folds become more concen-
trated, and pushed in under, or overgrown by,
the side-plates and part of the lancet-plate, so
that as a rule only their ends are visible (Fig.
VII. 2) ; they are also well developed in the
anal IR. T h e side-plates m a y lie at the sides
Fio. VI.
of the lancet-plate, as in Codaster, or they m a y
Food-groove and associated
structures of Codaster triloba- lie on it; in cases where the proximal side-plates
tus, greatly enlarged, o.s.p, project far over the hydrospires, they m a y
outer side-plate; s.p, side-
entirely roof in the depression in which the
plate ; br, brachiole - facet,
from which passes a small hydrospires lie, only leaving a small communi-
groove tof.g, the main food- cation with the exterior on either side the
groove, along which are im-
pressions of covering-plates. proximal end of the ambulacrum (Fig. VII. 6).
These structures are borne The openings thus formed are the rudiments
by L, lancet-plate, in which
is n.c, a possible nerve-canal.
of " spiracles." T h e side-plates that in Codaster
Beneath this emerges h.p, formed the outer halves of the rhombohedral
the plate forming the side pairs are here diminished in size and pushed out-
of h, the first hydrospire-fold.
(Based on Brit. M u s . ES027.) wards (Fig. VII. 1). They are n o w distinguished
as " outer side-plates" (cf. similar structures in the recumbent arms of
Callocystinae). Cryptoschisma, Etheridge & Carpenter (1886), Lower
Devonian, Spain, differs from Phaenoschisma and Codaster in little but the
greater breadth of the ambulacra, which entirely conceal the eight hydro-
spire-slits on either side. Sometimes the ambulacra do not reach to the
tops of the deltoid crests (or oral ridges), and thus there is a spiracle on
either side of each crest, or ten in all; but sometimes they reach right u p
the oral ridges, so that the spiracles of adjacent ambulacra become con-
fluent, and there arefivein all (Fig. VII. 8). This is expressed by saying
spiracles "double" or "single" respectively. Orophooinus, von Seebach
(1864 ; synn. Dimorphicrinus, d'Orb. ; Codonites, M e e k & Worth), Carboni-
ferous, Britain, Belgium, and N . America (Fig. I V ) . T h e hydrospire-slits
are more concentrated at the bottom of the depression for the ambulacra
(" radial sinus") than in previous genera ; but since the ambulacra are
narrower, some of the slits m a y be exposed, and the spiracles are merely
clefts, often extending all along the sides of the ambulacra (Fig. VII. 7).
T h e concentration of the hydrospire-slits causes the inner walls of the
two nearest the median line of the ambulacrum to meet along that line,
THE BLASTOIDEA S5
and so to form a n e w structure k n o w n as the " under lancet-plate"

(" sub-lancet"). In this genus the oral surface is raised into more or less
of a dome, so that the A are visible in side view. Post. A encloses the anus.
Pmtremitidea, d'Orbigny (1849, emend. Eth. & Carp., 1882,-86), Dev-
onian, Spain, the Eifel, and N . America. In the form of the calyx, the
complexity of the hydrospires, and other points there is great variability.
P. Padllettei, de Vern., however, type of the genus, is not far removed from
Phaenoschisma and Cryptoschisma. Eight hydrospire-folds lie on each side
of an ambulacrum, entirely covered by the broad lancet-plate. The
side-plates are on top of the lancet-plate, so that none of it is visible.
T h e outer side-plates are wedged in between the side-plates and do not
5
FIG. VII.
1, Phaenoschisma Verneuili, food-groove seen from above. Ip, lancet-plate ; sp, side-plates,
between which are the small outer side-plates. 2, section across part of a radius of the same ;
the hydrospires are here in the deltoid, and only a process of the radial is seen (R.pr). 3, part
of an ambulacrum of Pentremites, seen from above, x 6 diam. 4, left side of the same further
enlarged, showing some of the covering-plates (diagrammatised from Steinmann). 5, section
across a radius of Pentremites, x 6 diam. 6-8 are diagrams showing the evolution of spiracles :
6, in Phaenoschtima ; ends of hydrospire-folds still visible, only an incipient spiracle. 7, in
Orophocrimis ; a long spiracle-slit is enclosed between side-plates and deltoid ridge. S, in Crypto-
schisma ; on the left the spiracles are distinctly separated by the deltoid ridge ; on the right
the side-plates of adjacent ambulacra meet and the deltoids sink, so that the spiracles appear
single, br, brachiole; bf, articular facet for same ; c.p, covering-plates; A, deltoid crest;
f.g, food-groove ; L, lancet-plate ; 0, peristome ; o.s.p, outer side-plate ; p, pores; B, radial;
s, spiracle; s.l, sub-lancet; s.p, side-plate.
project beyond their edges. A covered by radial processes, so that only
the crests are exposed. The spiracles are clefts on either side the
ambulacra, between the deltoid crests and the proximal side-plates. The
anus pierces post. A, which therefore has no crest, so that the adjacent
spiracles are confluent with the anus ; the opening so formed is called " the
anal spiracle." In some species (esp. P. angulata) the side-plates do not
cover the lancet-plate any more than they do in some species of Phaeno-
schisma. Within the limits of Pentremitidea (as defined by Etheridge &
Carpenter) two changes of importance take place. The hydrospires no
longer remain extended, with each fold opening into the space below the
86 THE BLASTOIDEA
overspreading ambulacrum, but the admedian folds become gradually

lowered into the thecal cavity and open into a c o m m o n canal (e.g. P.
clavata); thus each system of folds forms a "pendent" hydrospire-sac.
T h e second change is the slight notching or bevelling of the ends of the
side-plates and the projection of the outer side-plates so as to touch the
wall of the radial sinus ; thus is formed along each side of the ambulacrum
a series of openings by which water is admitted to the hydrospires, which
it bathes and then passes out again by the spiracles (e.g. P. lusitanica) ;
these openings are called " pores," but are not comparable to the haplo-
pores or diplopores of the Cystidea, to the water-pores of Crinoidea, or to
the ambulacral pores of Echinoidea. Pentremites, Say (1820, originally
Pentremite), Carboniferous, N . America (Fig. X V . 1), appears to be a
descendant of the American species of Pentremitidea. T h e chief difference
is that the side-plates do not cover the lancet-plate, but rest against its
edge ; thus the ambulacrum becomes m u c h broader and assumes a petaloid
shape (Fig. VII. 3, 4). A sub-lancet is developed, as in Orophocrinus;
hydrospire-folds 3 to 9 according to the species, freely pendent (Fig. VII. 5),
as in some Pentremitidea ; but in some species thefloorof the radial sinus
meets below the hydrospires at the distal end of the ambulacrum. A
canal runs between the hydrospires and the side-plates, emerging through
spiracles which m a y be single or double ; there is an anal spiracle, as in
Pentremitidea. Though limited in geographical and geological distribution,
Pentremites has more species and individuals than has any other Blastoid
genus; for this reason, and because it was the first of its class to be
introduced to science, it has usually been treated as the type of the Blas-
toidea. Zoologically considered, however, it merely represents the acme
of one particular line which thereafter died out.
W e return, therefore, to the Silurian, and take u p the beginning of
another line of development, apparently connected in origin with that
which has just been traced and not very divergent therefrom.
Troostocrinus, Shumard (1866, emend. Eth. & Carp., 1886), Silurian,
N . America, might be expected from its geological position to be a primi-
tive form ; and that it is such is shown by the structure of the ambulacra
(Fig. VIII.). T h e chief differentiation from the Codaster type lies in the
elevation of the radial processes ; the restriction of all A, except post. A,
to a very small truncate summit, so that the hydrospire-folds are almost
entirely formed out of the radial stereom; the narrowing of the radial
sinus, so that (as in some species of Phaenoschisma) the side-plates are
pushed up on to the top of the lancet-plate, while the hydrospire-folds
are pushed beneath it T h e outer side-plates are small, subtriangular,
squeezed out to the edge of the side-plates, with which they alternate ;
they touch the wall of the radial sinus so that "pores" are formed
between them. T h e hydrospire-folds are midway between the Codasterid
type and the pendent type; their admedian walls, which support the
lancet-plate, are thickened, and tend to form " hydrospire plates," covering
the immediately adjacent folds. T h e canal that runs along above the
hydrospires and below the lancet and outer side-plates comes to the
surface at the oral end through a spiracle bounded by the A and lancet-
plate, and since the deltoid crests are slight, the spiracles are almost
THE BLASTOIDEA 87
single. T h e anus opens through, the posterior spiracle, i.e. through the
oral end of post. A ; the position is less primitive than in Codaster, but the
greater size of post. A seems primitive. Metablastus, Eth. & Carp. (1886),
is represented by doubtful species in the Silurian of N . America, less
doubtful from Devonian of Europe, and undoubted from Lower Carboni-
ferous of N . America. It closely resembles Troostocrinus in form ; but
the A are all equal, small, and confined to the summit, while the two
1 2 3
Fio. VIII.
Troostocrinus Eeinwardti. 1, section across a radius, m u c h enlarged. 2, upper part of
theca, posterior view. 3, oral surface of theca. Lettering as before. As+sp, anus and con-
fluent spiracles. (2 and 3 slightly altered from Etheridge & Carpenter.)
posterior spiracles are distinct from the anus. In structure the ambulacra
scarcely differ from those of Troostocrinus; but the lancet-plate of
M. lineatus is said to have three longitudinal canals - , the meaning
of which is not obvious (cf. Schizoblastus). T h e base is elongate, and
triangular in section, withflattenedsides. Tricoelocrinus, M e e k & Worthen
(1868), Carboniferous, N. America, and (f) Queensland (Fig. X V . 2), owes
its n a m e to three excavations along the interbasal sutures, corresponding to
the threeflattenedsides of Metablastus. A feature of more importance is
the enclosure of the distal portion of the hydrospires within the thickness
of the radial plate ; this is probably due to the upward growth of the
floor of the sinus, as has taken place, independently and to a less extent,
in Pentremites. Eleutherocrinus, Shumard & Yandell (1856), Devonian,
N . America, is probably a descendant of Troostocrinus. It has, however,
lost its stem and adopted some mode of life that has affected its symmetry.
The place of the stem is occupied by the small r. ant. B. The two other
B B are pushed a little to the side and produced up the theca to meet the
broadened and shortened 1. post. R. The remaining R R , with their ambu-
lacra, are m u c h like those of Troostocrinus and Metablastus; this 1. post.
R, however, bears a short ambulacrum with only seven side-plates on
either side, but these greatly widened transversely to the median groove, and
curved distalwards (Fig. IX.). There are small A, and (apud Shumard)
spiracles at their oral ends on either side of each normal ambulacrum.
T h e anus is stated by Wachsmuth (in Whiteaves, 1889) to lie on the
right upper margin of the abnormal R, and therefore at the aboral end
of the A. Sections across the ambulacra (Eth. & Carp., 1886) show a
lancet-plate with large longitudinal canal, and seven hydrospire-folds,
arranged as in Troostocrinus, on either side of each ambulacrum in its
88 THE BLASTOIDEA
upper part ; at the aboral end of the ambulacrum the floor of the radial
sinus comes below the lancet-plate (cf. Tricoelocrinus).
Nucleocrinus, Conrad (1842,
synn. Elaeacrinus, Roemer, 1851;
and Olivanites, Troost, M S . ,
1849), Devonian, North America,
differs m u c h from the genera
hitherto described (Fig. X.). Al-
though the theca is lofty (often
olive - shaped) the B B and R R
reach a very short w a y up it ;
the B B and lower part of R R
are pressed inwards, and the
radial sinus receives only the
distal extremity of the ambula-
crum. The greater part of each
ambulacrum lies between certain
interradial plates. T h e posterior
FIG. IX.
Eleutherocrinus Cassedayi; oral view x G diam. interradius contains three such
The abnormal, 1. post, radius turned to the plates—a median plate, at the
observer; r. post, ray has covering-plates (cp) oral end of which lies the anus,
which in life would have covered over the oral and a plate on either side. These
centre; in r. ant. ray the cp are removed
and one sees the whole of the side-plates (s.p); lateral pieces meet at their oral
these again are removed from ant. ray, exposing ends, enclosing the anus, and
the lancet-plate (L); removal of L in 1. ant. ray stretch d o w n between the central
shows the hydrospires (h.s). (Based on Shumard
piece and the ambulacra. The
& Yandell, and Whiteaves.)
central interradial is smooth, with a median vertical ridge; but the lateral
pieces are transversely grooved, each groove corresponding to a pore
Fio. X.
NudeocHmis Verneuili. 1, from anterior radius, x §. 2, oral view, showing L w e cover-
ing-plates over the peristome (from Brit. Mus. B20), x j. 3, from posterior interradius, x «.
As, anus ; cp, covering-plates, which were continuous over the food-groove (fg); ]K, interradiai
pieces ; E, radials ; sp, spiracles ; A, deltoids, th« limbs of which flank the ambulacra.
in the ambulacrum. As regards the structure of the other inter-

ambulacra there is a difference of opinion. Each contains a lanceo-
THE BLASTOIDEA 89
late central area, with a median ridge, separated from the ambulacra by
transversely grooved areas meeting adorally. S o m e specimens show
appearances of sutures between these areas, especially at the aboral end.
Hence Lyon (1857), from the study of m a n y hundred specimens, and
Billings (1870) concluded that these interambulacra also contained three
plates, as a rule fused together. Roemer and Etheridge & Carpenter,
however, believed that there was only one plate, and that the markings
were merely ornament. T h e am-
bulacra are narrow ; their struc-
ture is shown in Figs. X . 2 and
XI. They dip d o w n to the mouth
underneath a roof of strong plates.
T h e hydrospires are pendent, their
folds reduced to two; they emerge
through large spiracles, separated
by the interambulacral plates.
A s for the homologies of the
thecal plates, those w h o believe
that there is only one in each
interambulacrum regard that one
as the A, which in the posterior
interradius is split in two by an Fio. xi.
intercalated anal plate. This Section of ambulacrum of Nucleocrinus Ver-
makes Nucleocrinus a highly neuili, x 10 diam. b.r, brachiole; L, lancet-
specialised form, into which is plate ; o.s.j), outer side-plate; s.p, side-plate;
s, supposed suture between lateral and central
suddenly introduced an element interambulacrals.
found in no other Eublastoid. If,
however, w e accept the view that each interambulacrum has essentially
the same composition, viz. three plates, w e are able to institute compari-
sons with Protoblastoidea. These suggest that the true homologues of the
A in Nucleocrinus are the proximal portions only of the plates called deltoid
by Etheridge & Carpenter. This latter explanation of the structure of
Nucleocrinus permits us to regard it as primitive in all except tne hydro-
spires, and consists better with its geological age. Schizoblastus, Eth. & Carp.
(1882-86), Carboniferous, Britain and N . America, i"ay be described
as a Nucleocrinus in which there is only one plate in each of the inter-
ambulacra ; this therefore m a y be called a deltoid, but m a y well represent
the three plates some suppose to exist in Nucleocrinus, since it preserves
their peculiar sculpturing. In some species it is of m u c h less relative
size. T h e hydrospires, as in Nucleocrinus, are of simple structure, with
one to four folds. In two American species the posterior spiracles
are separate from the anus, as in Nucleocrinus; in others they are con-
fluent. T h e plates roofing the mouth, though not quite so stout as in
Nucleocrinus, are usually well preserved. Cryptoblastus, Eth. & Carp.
(1886), Carboniferous, N . America, is like a Schizoblastus with small
A. T h e hydrospires differ from those of Nucleocrinus and Schizoblastui
only in the development of hydrospire-plates (cf. Troostocrinus) which
extend right up the sides of the lancet-plate, separating it from the
folds and from the walls of the radial sinus. But where the A are
go THE BLASTOIDEA
reached, the lancet-plates abut directly on them, without leaving any

pores ; the hydrospire-canals pass up beneath the lancet-plates, and open
through spiracles on either side of each A. Orbitremites, T. &. T. Austin
(1842, generally k n o w n as Granato-
crinus, Hall, 1862), Carboniferous,
England, N . America, and (?) Queens-
land (Fig. X V . 3, 4). T h e general
shape and relations of the plates are
as in Schizoblastus and Cryptoblastus.
Hydrospires the same as in Crypto-
blastus (Fig. XIL). T h e hydrospire-
canals here are surrounded by the
A, and pass through them to five
Fio. XII. single spiracles (the posterior confluent
Section of ambulacrum of Orbitremites
Norwoodi, X10 .diam. hp, hydrospire-plate. with the anus) at the apices of the
A, which sometimes project as short
tubes. T h e plates roofing the mouth are minute and usually irregular.
Heteroblastus, Eth. & Carp. (1886), Carboniferous, England, and (T) N .
America, differs from Orbitremites in that the hydrospire-canals pass
beneath the A, and then curve outwards on either side of each A. T h e
adoral end of the A is produced upwards as a short stout process. Meso-
blastus, Eth. & Carp. (1886), Carboniferous, England, Belgium, (?) N.
America and Queensland, differs from Orbitremites in that the hydrospire-
canals are continued upwards over the flattened lateral portions of the
A, and open at the sides of the A crest. In some species the crest is
almost absent, and the spiracles therefore almost single. Acentrotremites,
Eth. & Carp. (1883-86), Carboniferous, Somerset, is only k n o w n from
one specimen, but is a far more distinct genus than those just described
(Fig. XIIL). T h e general
form is that of Orbitremites. S.p:^gg|ii€^svP.S.p.
T h e hydrospires do not pass
up into the A , but the canal
opens immediately on the
suture between A and R ;
there are thus ten spiracles,
as in Schizoblastus Sayi. T h e
anus pierces post. A, close to
its adoral end. T h e number Fio. XIIL
of hydrospire-folds is un- Transverse section of ambulacrum of Acentrotremites
k n o w n ; the inner walls form eltipticus.
a structure meeting in the
median line, and thus like a sub-lancet; but also passing u p the sides of
the lancet-plate, and thus like a hydrospire-plate. T h e lancet-plate is
small and perforate; it is covered by small side-plates and large outer
side-plates.
Pentephyllum, Haughton (1859), Carboniferous, Limerick, is based
on a single internal cast. It is said to be unstalked, and this con-
dition, if obtaining, is correlated with the asymmetry shown in the
slight shortening of cne ambulacrum and the slight curve of the
THE BLASTOIDEA 9i
adjacent ambulacra towards the opposite side. T h e linear ambulacra, the

large A , and the strictly pentagonal base remove it from the other
irregular Blastoids, and suggest affinities with the group of genera last
discussed. 'Zygocrinus, Bronn (1848, syn. Astrocrinus, T. & T. Austin,
1843, non Conrad, 1840, nee Asterocrinus, Munster), Carboniferous, Britain
(Fig. XIV.). This highly asymmetrical form .^
lias been elaborately described by R. Etheridge, . /mm
fil. (1876), and by Etheridge & Carpenter R ~ / Mill
(1886), but its affinities remain uncertain. "~ll$$m
Its resemblance to Eleutherocrinus lies only in 0 \ II "vq»| f,&
secondary characters induced by a sessile life. __j4\ ^ J m ™ - ^
T h e theca is depressed, stemless, and produced ^^T^^k^^îd^
into four lobes ; on the shortest of these lies ^ ^ & % ^ J ^ ^ j a M r
an ambulacrum modified m u c h as in Eleuthero- ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
Ar
crinus, and towards it the two larger B B "b-^4;-|M^''As
stretch up as in that genus. T h e four normal R " " ^ r <^||P--B
ambulacra lie in the depressions between the
I0
lobes. Three A are large and stretch out over ' '
the lobes; two are small and flank the EtheridgeT Carpenters x 10
abnormal ambulacrum. A n u s and spiracles <Jiam. Oral view, modified
, ^ i i .p-i-ii. i food-groove (Amb) towards the
unknown. O n e hydrospire-lold lies on each observer; 0, peristome; As ?,
side of the radial sinus, and is enclosed by it f et £° u 2fS n S' ening - 0ther
at the distal end (cf. Pentremites, Tricoelocrinus).
T h e surface is covered with strong tubercles which bear minute spines
(cf. Hystricrinus = Arthracantha, p. 158).
Classification.—We have n o w reviewed every k n o w n genus of
Eublastoidea, in an order approximating, as near as our very imperfect
knowledge of m a n y types will allow, to that of their race-history. This
seems to show three main branches: one leading from Codaster, through
Phaenoschisma, to Pentremitidea and Pentremites, with offshoots Crypto-
schisma and Orophocrinus; the second from Troostocrinus, through Meta-
blastus, to Tricoelocrinus, with the offshoot Eleutherocrinus ; the third from
Nucleocrinus, through Schizoblastus, to Cryptoblastus, Orbitremites, Meso-
blastus, and Heteroblastus, with an offshoot Acentrotremites, and probably
Pentephyllum. Zygocrinus also is perhaps connected with this third line
of descent.
T h e classification of Etheridge & Carpenter does not agree very
well with the phylogeny here outlined. T h e erection of an "Order
Irregulares" is no more likely to be correct for Blastoidea than for
Crinoidea. W i t h the exception of the Codasteridae, their families of the
" Regulares " are based almost entirely on the relations of the hydrospire
canals to the deltoids, relations which m a y vary considerably even in an
individual, while they take no account of important differences in the
relations of the hydrospires to the ambulacra Moreover, in the con-
struction of family names, these authors have contravened the laws of
nomenclature.
T h e following classification attempts to overcome the above objections
while making as little change as possible : —
Series A . C O D O N O B L A S T I D A . F A M I L Y 1. C O D A S T E R I D A E . Hydrospire-
92 THE BLASTOIDEA
folds distinctly portions of the thecal plates, coming to the surface of the
radial sinus. N o distinct hydrospire-canal or pores; spiracles developed
imperfectly or not at all. Genera—Codaster, Phaenoschisma, Cryptoschisma,
Orophocrinus. This family coincides with that of Etheridge & Carpenter.
F A M I L Y 2. P E N T R E M I T I D A E . Hydrospire-folds, usually numerous, concen-
trated at the lowest part of the radial sinus, and partly or wholly pendent.
Hydrospire-canal opens through spiracles bounded distally by side-plates.
Base convex. Ambulacra rather broad. Genera—Pentremitidea, Pentre-
mites. This equals the Pentremitidae of Etheridge & Carpenter, minus
Mesoblastus.
FIG. XV.
Theeas of typical Blastoids. 1, a Codonoblastid—Pentremites robustus(from Brit. Mus. ES145).
2, a TTOOStoblastid—Tricoelocrinus woodmani (from Brit. Mus. ES171). 3 and 4, a Granato-
blastid—Orbitremites orbicularis (from the type-specimens, Brit. Mus. ES135). 3, from the side.
4, from below, with posterior interradius uppermost. Allfiguresnat. size.
Series B. TROOSTOBLASTIDA. FAMILY 1. TROOSTOCRINIDAE. Elongate

forms with linear ambulacra descending sharply outwards from the much
restricted peristome. Hydrospire-folds only slightly concentrated, but
communicate with exterior through pores, and through spiracles bounded
by A and lancet-plates. Genera—Troostocrinus, Metablastus, Tricoelocrinus.
This equals the Troostoblastidae of Etheridge & Carpenter. F A M I L Y 2.
ELITJTHEROCRINIDAE. Elongate, stemless, asymmetrical, with four narrow
ambulacra, accompanied by unconcentrated hydrospires. Fifth ambula-
crum shortened and widened. A minute. Genus—Eleutherocrinus.
Series C. G R A N A T O B L A S T I D A . F A M I L Y 1. N C C L E O C R I N I D A E . Interam-
bulacra show traces of a primitive triad of plates. Ambulacra linear, and
stretching far down the theca, which is ovoid. Hydrospire-folds few and
pendent. Spiracles double. Mouth roofed by large platesfirmlyunited
into a tegmen. Genera—Nucleocrinus, Schizoblastus. This family equals
Etheridge & Carpenter's Nucleoblastidae, minus Cryptoblastus and Acentro-
tremites. F A M I L Y 2. O R B I T R E M I T I D A E . Theca globular with concave or
flattened base. Ambulacra linear, stretching down to concavity of base.
Hydrospire-folds few and pendent; a hydrospire-plate always present
(unknown in Heteroblastvs). Hydrospire-folds rarely penetrate A, but long
canals pass onward, through, beside, or under them, except in Acentro-
tremites. Genera—Orbitremites, Cryptoblastus, Heteroblastus, Mesoblastus,
Acentrotremites. This corresponds to Etheridge & Carpenter's Granato-
blastidae, plus Cryptoblastus, Mesoblastus, and Acentrotremites. F A M I L Y 3.
THE BLASTOIDEA 93
PENTEPHYLLIDAE. Theca subpentagonal, stemless; R R asymmetrical.

Ambulacra linear, stretching down to base. One shorter than the rest.
Genus—Pentephyllum. F A M I L Y 4. Z Y G O C R I N I D A E . Theca depressed, stem-
less, asymmetrical, quadrilobate. Four ambulacra between the lobes,
accompanied by a single hydrospire on either side. Fifth ambulacrum
shortened and widened. A large. Genus—Zyyocrinus.
A Bibliography of the Eublastoidea was given by R. Etheridge, jun.,
and P. H. Carpenter, " Catalogue of the Blastoidea in the British
Museum," London, 1886. A complete index of names with references
to literature is furnished by F. A. Bather, " The Genera and Species of
Blastoidea, with a List of the Specimens in the British Museum," London,
1899. For other references see Nos. 16, 17, 25, 27, 30, 34, 38, 45, 50,
60, 64, 69, 71, 73, 75, 76, 77, 78, 82, 84, 85, 94, 95, 96, in the list at
the end of Pelmatozoa (p. 211).
C H A P T E R XI.
THE CRINOIDEA.1
CLASS III. CRINOIDEA, MILLER (1821)

( = C R I N O I D E A B R A C H I A T A , Auctt. veterum ; ETJCRINOIDEA, Zittel,
1879).
SUB-CLASS 1. MONOCYCLICA.
Order 1. Inadunata.
„ 2. Adunata.
„ 3. Camerata.
Sub-Order 1. Melocrinoidea.
„ 2. Batocrinoidea.
„ 3. Actinocrinoidea.
SUB-CLASS 2. DICYCLICA.
Order 1. Inadunata.
Sub-Order 1. Cyathocrinoidea.
„ 2. Dendrocrinoidea.
Order 2. Flexibilia.
Grade 1. Impinnata.
,, 2. Pinnata.
„ 3. Camerata.
PELMATOZOA in which epithecal extensions of the food-grooves,

ambulacrals, superficial oral nervous system, blood-vascular and
water-vascular systems, coelom, and genital system are continued
exothecally upon jointed outgrowths of the abactinal thecal plates
(brachia), carrying with them extensions of the abactinal nerve-
system. The number of these processes is primitively and norm-
ally five, but m a y become less by atrophy. The brachia rise from
a corresponding number of thecal plates, "radials (RR)." Below
these is always a circlet, or traces of a circlet, of plates alternating
with the radials, i.e. interradial, and called " basals (BB)." Through
1
THE CRINOIDEA 95
all modifications, which are numerous and vastly divergent, these

elements persist. A circlet of radially situate infrabasals m a y
also be present. Below basals or infrabasals there follows a stem,
which, however, m a y be atrophied or totally lost.
Although many Rhombifera simulate Crinoidea in the penta-

merism of the theca or the possession of exothecal extensions of
the food-grooves, yet in none are those extensions supported by
plates that are clearly outgrowths from the abactinal system of
thecal plates; in none is there the intimate correlation between
brachia and radialia that obtains in the Crinoidea. This class
therefore cannot be derived from the Rhombifera, as m a n y
structures might otherwise lead us to suppose; the presence of
brachia also forms a clear distinction between it and Diploporita
and Blastoidea. A further difficulty in tracing the origin of the
Crinoidea is furnished by the occurrence of perfectly developed
Fio. I.
Analysis of the cup and brachial elements of Hybocystis probletnaticus. The outlines of the
food-grooves (vg) are dotted.
species in the Lower Cambrian, while representatives of all crinoid

orders are plentiful in Ordovician rocks. Further research, how-
ever, m a y throw back the origins of other Echinoderm classes; in
any case, negative evidence w h e n Cambrian rocks are concerned
counts for little.
Certain features in some of the older Crinoidea seem to throw
light on their ancestry. Such are the presence of hydrospires,
comparable to those of Codaster, in Carabocrinus (p. 172) and
Hybocrinus (p. 1 4 5 ) ; the presence in these and other genera of
well-developed deltoids (A), over the edges of which pass the ambu-
lacra, while the posterior A frequently shows signs of a hydropore
(Fig. X X X V I . ) ; the absence of a brachium from certain radials in
Baerocrinus (Fig. LVII. 4 ) ; the greater development of three radials
in m a n y Inadunata Monocyclica (see p. 144). W e are thus led to
a form not unlike that which isj actually presented by Hybocystis,
Wetherby (1880), from the Ordovician of Kentucky (Fig. I.).
This has 5 large subequal basals, 5 radials, and 5 deltoids. T h e
96 THE CRINOIDEA
anus lies between the posterior A and the radial circlet, being
separated from the latter by a special anal plate (x). T h e right
posterior radial is transversely bisected; its upper smaller portion
(Rs) being pushed a little to the right by x. T h e striking
peculiarity of this form is the continuation of the food-grooves
over the thecal plates, as in Diploporita and Blastoidea. In the
right and left antero-lateral rays these pass over the edges of the
deltoids, over the radials, on to the underlying basals. In the
anterior and the right and left posterior rays there are two ossicles,
each as high as wide, supported on the summits of the radials ;
the grooves pass between the deltoids, over these ossicles, d o w n on
to the outer surfaces of the radials. These ossicles form exothecal,
jointed outgrowths of the abactinal thecal plates ; a deep notch on
their inner surfaces, leading into the cup by a hole between the
deltoids, suggests that they bore, besides the ambulacral structures,
also extensions of the abactinal nerve-system. Therefore, although
incipient, they constitute true brachia, such as are found in no
Echinoderma except Crinoidea, and they show us the probable w a y
in which brachia originated. Hydrospires have not been described;
but, considering their occurrence in the closely allied Hybocrinus
(Fig. X X X V I . ) , they are likely to be found along the radio-deltoid
sutures, as in Codaster. Brachioles fringing the grooves do not
seem to have been present, nor has a lancet-plate been observed.
These facts, as well as the five basals, prove that Hybocystis is not
an offshoot from Eublastoidea, as indeed its geological age forbids ;
but it m a y well be derived from early forms of Protoblastoidea. If
Hybocystis be admitted as actually ancestral, then the development
of brachia in only three rays sheds light on corresponding irregu-
larities of development in m a n y simple and ancient crinoids, connect-
ing them in this respect with primitive Cystidea (see pp. 11, 53).
Another form suêstive of the connection of the Crinoidea with
the Blastoidea is Stephanocrinus, Conrad (1842), Silurian of N .
America and England. C. F. Roemer (1851), Joh. Miiller (1853),
and Pictet (1857), regarded it as a eystid ; Etheridge & Carpenter
(1883) and S. A. Miller as a Mastoid; Dujardin & H u p e (1862)
and Hall (1851) as a crinoid; Zittel (1879) as doubtfully a
Mastoid. W a c h s m u t h & Springer (1886) proved the presence of
brachia, which m a k e it unquestionably a crinoid, but said, "It
agrees by its oral and anal pyramid with certain forms of the
Cystids, while in its general habitus and in the position of the
ambulacra it agrees with the Blastoids." Stephanocrinus (Fig. II.)
has 3 B B , 5 R H , and 5A, arranged as in Eublastoidea, especially
Codasteridae. T h e radial processes are often prolonged into spear-
like spines (S), one in each interradius. Each ambulacral groove lies
in a deep sinus between the deltoids and radial processes, and it is
continued on to an arm, which rises from a single brachial at the end
THE CRINOIDEA 97
of the sinus, and immediately bifurcates, the groove forking with it.
T h e edges of the deltoids meet beneath the groove, but a space for the
mouth (" peristome ") is left in the middle. This space, as well as
the whole groove, is covered by ambulacrals ; these often fuse into
a single plate on either side the groove, where it passes over the oral
surface of the theca, and form five plates, likewise often fused, over
the peristome (P). T h e anus is between posterior A and the adjacent
radial processes, and is closed by a valve of four to six small plates.
Certain pits in a similar position in other interradii possibly are
atrophied hydrospires (h). T h e ornament of the cup-plates is strongly
reminiscent of that in Eublastoidea; but there are clearly marked
axial folds passing up from the basals to the arm-facets, perhaps due
to the greater development of the abactinal nerve-system in the
brachiate form. There were neither brachioles nor a lancet-plate.
Stephanocrinus undoubtedly belongs to the simplest and most
primitive group of the Crinoidea, and it is hard to believe that its
FIG. II.
Stephanocrinus angulatus. 1,
from anterior radius, x 2 diam.;
2, from oral surface, x 4 diam.
(from Brit. Mus. E6715). As, anus,
covered by plates; As, axillare,
from which are supposed to spring
two arm-rami; Br', position from
which these spring, between S,
spines formed by radial processes,
broken off in 2, and showing (h)
supposed atrophied hydrospires;
P, large covering - plates over the
peristome, which is surrounded by
the five orals or deltoids (0).
remarkable resemblances to Eublastoidea are merely homoplastic,
especially since the position of the small basal is not one which
usually occurs in other Crinoidea that have fused basals.
However the crinoid or brachiate stage in the history of the
Pelmatozoa m a y have been reached, it will be useful to recapitu-
late here the c o m m o n pelmatozoic characters as well as those
distinctive of the Crinoidea, as manifested in a normal crinoid of
simple structure. T h e specialisation of those characters will be
shown historically in the systematic part; but since m a n y
structures have been produced or modified in the same w a y more
than once, a general account of the processes m a y be given here.
W e can speak more decidedly on questions of development and
internal anatomy in this class, since the differences between extinct
and recent genera are not such as to hinder interpretation.
A normal Crinoid was thus described in 1821 by J. S. Miller,
the founder of the class: " A n animal with a round, oval, or
angular column, composed of numerous articulating joints,
supporting at its summit a series of plates or joints forming a
7
98 THE CRINOIDEA
cup-like body containing the viscera, from whose upper rim
proceed five articulated arms, dividing into tentaculated fingers,
more or less numerous, surrounding the aperture of the mouth,

situated in the centre of a plated integument, which extends over
the abdominal cavity, and is capable of being contracted into a
conic or proboscal shape. S o m e species of these animals ascer-
THE CRINOIDEA 99
tained to be permanently attached to extraneous bodies, whilst

others appear to have been capable of locomotion." So little is
amiss with this description, that w e need do no more than trans-
late it into modern terminology, as follows : —
A normal Crinoid (Fig. III.) consists of a " c r o w n " (corona)
attached by its dorsal (i.e. aboral) extremity to a " stem " (columna),
which is fixed to the sea-floor or to some solid body by a "root"
(radix). T h e crown consists of a theca (or calyx, in the sense
of W a c h s m u t h & Springer) containing the viscera, and of 5
" arms " (brachia), which m a y be more or less branched. That
part of the theca below the origins of the free arms is called the
" dorsal cup " (or shortly " cup ") ; that part above the origins of
the free arms, i.e. the oral surface, is called the tegmen (sometimes
" disc," sometimes "vault," between which a distinction erroneously
used to be imagined). T h e skeletal and m a n y of the other
systems have a radiate arrangement, of which 5 is the dominant
$0000 *%£ — MONOCYCLIC
va
OOOOOO "gg§ DlCYCLIC
BASE.
# O O O O B/ Q.IB
FIG. IV.
Imaginary analyses of the structure of the dorsal cup in two simple types of Crinoid.
number. Thus the whole animal can be divided into 5 cor-

responding and almost symmetrical sections, " pentameres," by
5 imaginary "perradial planes," starting from the vertical
dorso-ventral axis and passing through the origins of the arms.
T h e skeletal elements are either perradial or interradial in
position.
T h e Dorsal C u p in its simplest form is composed of 2 or 3
circlets of 5 plates, those in one circlet alternating with the 5 in
the adjacent circlet (Fig. IV.). Of these the most important are those
that support the brachia, and to them the term radialia ( R R ) is
restricted. T h e interradial plates below these are called basalia
(BB), since in m a n y crinoids they form the base and rest on the
stem. In some crinoids a circlet of perradial infrabasalia (IBB)
occurs beneath the B B (which latter are then called parabasalia
by some writers). The. former type of base is called " monocyclic ";
the latter "dicyclic."
T h e T e g m e n in its simplest form is likewise composed of 5
IOO THE CRINOIDEA
plates, deltoidea (A), here regarded as synonymous with oralia (0),

alternating with the R R (Fig. V 1). B u t there are nearly always
also present " ambulacralia " ( A m b or cp), covering the grooves
that lead between or over the apposed edges of the A to the
Fio. V.
Three stages in the evolution of the Tegmen. 1, orals only: 2. orals and ambulacrals;
3, orals, ambulacrals, and enlarged peristomial ambulacrals.
brachia (Fig. V 2). T h e mouth is either beneath the A or in a

space between them; in the latter case it is covered by ambulacrals,
often 5 in number and interradial in position, and taken to be
orals by some writers (P in Fig. V. 3). T h e posterior A in m a n y
primitive forms seems to have been pierced by a
hydropore, the walls of which m a y be folded so as
to form a madreporite (cf. Stelleroidea and Echi-
noidea). T h e anus (As) lies between post. A and
the adjacent R R , and is closed by a valvular
pyramid, often surrounded by, or raised on, small
plates.
T h e Brachia in their simplest form consist of a
series of ossicles called brachialia (Br), which con-
tinue straight u p from the radials (Fig. VI.). T h e
surface of the radial to which the proximal brachial
is attached is called the "radial- or arm-facet."
Each brachial is rounded on the outer or dorsal sur-
face, and grooved on the inner or ventral surface.
Fio. VI. T h e ventral or brachial groove contains the follow-
. A ,siniPle' ,P; ine soft parts, taken in order from ventral to
branched arm, that ° /T-,. TTTT \ r\ 1 »v.»*ui.wn u«
of Hybocrinus. E, dorsal (Fig. VII.). O n the surface, the food-groove
chiai;'r.p,r'cov?r- (f.g), lined with ciliated epithelium (ct), which directs
butacraK3 °ram ' a stream of water towards the m o u t h ; an epi-
thelial nervous band (nl) stretching from the
superficial or oral nerve-system; a blood-vessel (b), "radial
pseudhaemal canal"; a water - vessel (w), which gives off tubes
(p) to a series of podia or " tentacles" (t) that fringe the
food-groove and subserve sensation and respiration ; two " sub-
tentacular canals " (s.t.c), extensions from the body-cavity; a canal
THE CRINOIDEA 101
containing the genital cord or rachis (g.c); and a " coeliac canal"
(c.c). O n either side of the water-vessel, beneath the tentacles, is a
senso-motor nerve (n2), giving off branches to the muscles of the
Fio. VII.
Diagram of solid section of a Crinoid arm. For e? nation of letters see adjoining text.
water-canals and to sensory papillae (s) on the tentacles. Below

all these, in a special groove on the very floor of the main brachial
groove, lies another nerve, the "axial cord" (a.c), proceeding from
the aboral or dorsal motor nerve-system; the groove in which this
lies is often (as in Fig. VII.) separ-
ated from the brachial groove
during individual development
by an outgrowth of stereom, and 1 2 3 4
is then k n o w n as the " dorsal " or F I G . VIII.
"axial canal" (Fig. VIII.). T h e Stages in the separation of an axial canal,
exemplified by brachials of Gissocrinus gnnio-
axial cord sends off branches (n3) dactylus. 1 is youngest; 4, oldest, x (i diam.
to all the muscles of the arms,
and to supposed sensory endings in the ectoderm (ed), and is con-
nected with the subtentacular nerves. All these soft structures
in the ventral groove are protected by covering-plates (c.p), also
102 THE CRINOIDEA
called " ambulacrals' (Amb), which can open or close as occasion

demands (Fig. IX.).
W e m a y n o w trace the various
C7|3tv Sp. extensions of the B o d y Systems into
the Thecal Cavity.
T h e food-grooves and associated
structures, except the axial cord, pass
over the tegmen to the mouth, into
which the food-grooves drive their
streams of water. T h e mouth leads
into a gut, which makes a dextral coil
Q£P d o w n to the bottom of the cup, and
.2 then rises along the side of the cup to
FIG. IX.
Ambulacrals. 1, ventral view of the anus; this system, then, is not
two brachials of Gissocrinus squami-affected by radiate symmetry (see
fer, with c p closed above and re- Fig. VII. p. 9).
moved below, x 8 diam. 2, side view
of brachials of Antedon baxicurva, The epithelial nerves on the floor
with c p open, exposing tentacles (t); of the food-grooves also pass to the
c p are supported on side-plates or mouth, where they join an epithelial
adambulacrals (s.p), between which
are seen notches for sacculi (p. 137), ridge encircling the m o u t h ; from
X 15 diam.
this "oral ring," nerves pass to the walls of the gut. The
paired subtentacular nerves run d o w n to a subepithelial,
" circumoesophageal nerve-ring," below the oral nerve-ring. F r o m
this ring proceeds, in each interradius, a pair of nerves which
innervate the tegmen and the mesenteries of the body-cavity. This
nerve-system is connected with the aboral nerve-system in a manner
explained below.
T h e radial pseudhaemal canals join a " pseudhaemal ring"
round the oesophagus beneath the oral nerve-ring; these structures
are hard to distinguish, and even in other classes, where they are
better developed, their origin is not yet clear. There is, however,
surrounding the oesophagus a "lacunar plexus" belonging to what
is generally called the blood-vascular system. T h e circumoeso-
phageal ring is connected with two vascular trunks leading from
the plexus that surrounds the intestine and that absorbs nutrient
substances therefrom; these substances appear to be worked up
into corpuscles by a "spongy organ" in the oesophageal ring. The
ring is also connected with a plexus that passes d o w n the vertical
axis of the theca, through the coil of the gut, to the base; this
surrounds the " axial organ " (vide infra).
The water-vessels (perradial ambulacral canals) meet in a
circumoesophageal water-vascular ring (hydrocircus); these struc-
tures have longitudinal muscle-bands, as well as muscle-fibres
traversing the lumen; no ampullae or valves are differentiated,
as they are in forms where this system has a locomotor function.
In so simple a crinoid as is here in question, there is good reason to
THE CRINOIDEA 103
believe that the water-ring opened into the body-cavity by a single

ciliated canal in the posterior interradius; and that the body-cavity
communicated with the exterior by a single hydropore in post. A,
sometimes merged in the anal opening (as probably in Blastoidea).
This system was not as yet completely affected by radiate sym-
metry ; but in some forms it became so by the development of a
similar canal with corresponding hydro-
pore in each of the other interradii (Fig.
X., compare Figs. XXXIV., X L V L , and
CXIV.).
The two subtentacular canals of each
arm enter a division of the coelom that
passes down the vertical axis through
the coil of the gut, and is known as the
"axial sinus." The dorsal coeliac canal teJ^SLt™^nrtt
passes into a division Of the COelom that interradius (x 180) simplified from
x
. Ludwig. 0, coelomic space; cf,
SUrrOUnds both axial SinUS a n d gut, a n d connective tissue fibres ; g, wall of
• n j .L cc • • J J.- 1 » Rut; n, circumoesophageal nerve;
IS Called the p e n - intestinal Cavity." te, oesophagus; p, pore; r.c, ring
T h e remainder Of the COelom, surround- ^ ^ * o , « t o n e canal ;T, stereom
ing the latter, is called the "subtegu-
mentary cavity." All these divisions of the body-cavity are
lined by endothelium, and are separated from each other, as
well as penetrated, by connective tissue, in which spicules are
often richly developed. From the peri-intestinal cavity, at its
aboral end, there are in this way cut off five chambers, which
surround the axial sinus, and are themselves covered on all sides
by epithelium, containing ganglion-cells and nerve-fibres; the
whole structure is called " the chambered organ" (see Fig. X X .
p. 24).
The genital rachis of each arm is connected with a complex of
twisted, fine canals, called the "axial organ" (see p. 23). This
passes down the axial sinus, widening in the middle of its course,
and then narrowing to a thin strand as it passes between the
five chambers just mentioned.
The axial nerve-cord of the arm does not, as all the organs yet
dealt with, pass to the oral centre, but enters the jbheca over
the radial. If there is a separate axial canal, it may be continued
through the radial facet into the substance of the thecal plates.
The cords ultimately pass into the epithelial covering of the
chambered organ, but their passage is not a direct one (Figs. XI.
and XII.). Each cord is really a double structure, connected
at intervals by chiasmas, and so soon as it enters the radial it
divides into two branches, one of which proceeds to the basal on
the right, the other to that on the left. In addition the branches
are connected with each other and with those of the other radii by
a series of commissures that form rings all round the cup. One
io4 THE CRINOIDEA
such ring is at the level of the radials. If the crinoid have a

monocyclic base, the cords that pass to the basals join one another
in a ring immediately surrounding the chambered organ, the
Kl<:. XI.
Course of axial nerve-cords in Isocrinus. Diagrammatised from sections figured by P. H.
Carpenter. B, basal; It, radial; ax, axial organ ; ch, live chambers of chambered organ; nl,
nerve-cord from R to B ; u2, cord passing down Jl; nZ, cord from B to radially placed lobes of
chambered organ.
lobes of which in this case correspond with the basals, i.e. are
interradial. If the base be dicyclic, the ring forms a commissure
at the level of the centres of the basals; and from these points
Fit-.. XII.
Course of axial nerve-cords in Dicyclic (D), Pseudomonocyclic (P), and Monocyclic (M)
Crinoids. c.o, lobes of chambered organ, the connecting nervous sheath omitted for greater
clearness ; r.c, ring commissure in radials ; other letters as usual.
the cords again fork towards the adjacent infrabasals, where

they join in another ring round the chambered organ, the lobes
of which in this case correspond with the infrabasals, i.e. are
THE CRINOIDEA 105
radial. Nerves from these cords are given off to the stroma of
the cup-plates. This system, as experimentally proved, chiefly
by W . B. Carpenter (1876 and 1884), in opposition to the
scientific opinion of his time, is a senso-motor nerve-system,
governed from the nervous capsule of the chambered organ.
B y means of the commissures the motion of all muscles is cor-
related. Primitively the cords lie on the inner surface of the
cup; they then become bordered by ridges of stereom, and
finally enclosed within the cup-walls. Branches from these nerves
unite with the interradial nerves that proceed from the circum-
oesophageal nerve-ring.
T o turn to the Stem. W e have already traced its probable
origin as an evagination of the many-plated theca of Amphoridea,
and the gradual introduction of order into the irregular plates (p. 48).
In the pentamerous Crinoidea, these naturally became subjected to
pentamerism ; and evidence of m a n y of the older crinoids shows that
the plates were atfirsthexagonal and arranged in alternating circlets
FIG. XIIL
Evolution of Pentamerism in the
Stem. 1, joint surface of a columnal com-
posed of five sections, which alternate
with the angles of the stem-lumen ; %
portion of a stem composed of hexag-
onal alternating plates, which in 3 be-
come arranged more definitely in hori-
zontal rows; 4, continuance of the
process results in columnals offivepen-
tameres. The figures are of Botryo-
crinus stems (after Bather).
of 5, just as plates of the theca (Fig. XIIL). The next stage was
that in which the plates no longer alternated, but were arranged in
horizontal rows divided by five longitudinal sutures. Finally, the
pentameres of each row became fused to form a " columnal," still
pierced by a wide lumen. This regularity was perhaps connected
with the extension into the lumen of a vessel from each of the five
lobes of the chambered organ, with its nerve-sheath (axial cord);
the five cords surrounded a prolongation of the axial organ. In a
monocyclic crinoid the axial cords would be interradial, as are the
lobes of the chambered organ, while the pentameres would alternate
with the basals and be radial. In a dicyclic crinoid the cords would
be radial, the pentameres interradial. The exterior angles of the
stem usually correspond with the pentameres, but not always.
T h e cirri, or side-arms of the stem, correspond, for reasons that
will appear presently, with the axial cords. The lumen of the
stem is often split u p into grooves by ingrowths of stereom; and
these grooves primarily contain the axial cords, and m a y even form
closed canals containing the cords, but this correspondence is not
inevitable. The so-called "law of W a c h s m u t h & Springer,"
io6 THE CRINOIDEA
summarised in the annexed diagram (Fig. XIV.) and table, is in itself

empirical, applicable only to pentagonal stems or lumens, and even
then liable to exceptions (marked * in table); but by attending
niCYCLIC MONOCYCLIC
Fio. XIV.
Comparison of the Dicyclic and Monocyclic base. B, basal; Br, brachials marking the Ave
rays ; ci, cirri, only three out of the five are shown ; co, pentameres of column ; IB, infrabasal;
7i, nerves going to cirri from extensions of capsule; E, radial; s, sutures between penta-
meres of stem.
(as is here done) chiefly to the relations of the axial cords, we shall
have a surer guide for discrimination between monocyclic and
dicyclic crinoids in the m a n y doubtful cases that occur.
DICYCLIC. MONOCYCLIC.
B B [lobes of capsule in Monocyclics] . Interradial Interradial

I B B [lobes of capsule in Dicyclica] Radial
Pentameres of stem (p) Interradial Radial

* Outer angles of stem Interradial Radial
Vertical sutures of stem (s) Radial Interradial
* Sides of stem Radial Interradial
* Angles of lumen of stem Radial Interradial
Cirri, when present (c) Radial Interradial
[Axial cords] Radial Interradial
The primitive crinoid is attached by the distal end of its stem •

and it is supposed by many, from the evidence of the embryo'
Antedon (Fig. X V . ) , that there is developed at that point a special
fixing plate, to which they apply the term " dorso-central," which
must not be confused with "centro-dorsal" (see especially the
writings of P. H . Carpenter). Palaeontology does not lead us to
regard such a structure as primitive, or to ascribe to it any morpho-
logical importance. A s a rule, skeletal growth takes place at the
THE CRINOIDEA 107
distal end of the stem after two main plans: (1) Deposition of
solid, unjointed stereom, around the distal columnals, forming an
encrusting plate or mass (Fig. CXIII. 2); this
occurs on rocky bottoms. (2) Outgrowth of jointed
branches from the plated end, forming "radical
cirri," often with traces of polymeres like those of
the primitive stem, often very long and branching
again, and always with a lumen which contains
an extension of the axial cord (Fig. CXVI.); this
is adapted to a muddy bottom. The radical cirri
arise from the vertical suture-lines of the stem, by FIG. XV.
the intercalation and outgrowth of small plates, Distal end of stem

of larval Antedon hi-
and the extrusion of the axial cord (Fig. X V I . 3). ^r'afte^'wyviiie-
In the course of race-history the cirri gradually ap- co^Scuiarljtereom
pear higher and higher up the stem (Fig. X V I . 1), S a r ^ S f e
and at the same time become shorter, more mobile,
and eventually arranged in whorls (Fig. X V I . 5). At these levels
the axial cords of the stem swell out, forming a repetition of
the chambered organ (Fig. XVI. 4).
The columnals are rarely all of the same height; certain con-
spicuously larger ones, including those that bear cirri, are termed
FIG. XVI.
Evolution of cirri. 1, part of stem of a Silurian crinoid with large, branching cirri (Brit.
M u s . E1354). 2, section across stem of a Carboniferous crinoid, showing branch from axial
canal to cirrus (Brit. M u s . E0708). 3, root of Barycrinus, with cirri originating between
pentameres (modified from W a c h s m u t h & Springer). 4, section across stem of Isocrinus
IVymlle-Thomsoni at. level of cirrus-whorl, the central portions disproportionately enlarged
for greater clearness. 5, part of stem of Isocrinus decorus, with cirri in whorls of five.
"nodals"; those between them " internodals" (Fig. X V I L 1).

Nodals are the first columnals to be formed during growth;
internodals are subsequently intercalated between them, and
again fresh internodals between thefirstformed internodals, and
so on. Fresh nodals are developed at the proximal end of the
stem, so that in that region are more nodals, while distally are
more internodals (Fig. X V I L 2 and 3). In one type nodals are
introduced immediately beneath the base of the cup, so that the
io8 THE CRINOIDEA
proximal columnal is always the youngest. In another type the

proximal columnal is one of thefirstformed, and remains attached
to the cup, n e w nodals being introduced below it (Fig. X V I L
4-7). This proximal columnal is called article basal by P. de
Loriol, and "centro-dorsal" by others, erroneously. It is here
called the proximale.
The Connection between the Elements of the Crinoid Skeleton
is primarily by means of the fibrils of the stroma in which they
are deposited. This condition persists in the "primitive suture,"
and from it development proceeds in the direction of either
greater rigidity or greaterflexibility.Towards rigidity w e have:
(1) "Close suture," in which the fibres are short, and their ends
surrounded by denser layers of stereom on the apposed surfaces of
FH;. XVII.
The Relations of the Stem. 1, portion of stem of Gastrocrimts patulus (modified from Jaekel),
the latest formed columnals are numbered 1, the oldest 6; t~> and 0 bear cirri. 2, proximal, and
3 distal, regions of stein of Isocrinns decorns (cf. o in Fig. CI.), n, nodals (modified from P. H .
Carpenter). 4, proximal region of stem of Onitvhocriiiiis (after W'aehsmuth & Springer), show-
ing infrabasals (IB) fused to proximale (P). 5, proximale of Apiii-rhutf elegans, I Mr., showing
depressions for BB (Brit. Mus. EC711). (i, cup and part of -.tern of A. clegans, showing
proximale and other enlarged columnals (based on Brit. .Mus. KuTOH and E6710). 7, portion of
cup and stem of Millerkrinus polydactylus (modified from 1'. de Loriol), showing minute
infrabasals attached to proximale, also new columnals forming (1).
the ossicles, which are thus closely and immovably fitted together,
though separable by alkalies. (2) " Syzygy," a special case of close
suture between brachials or columnals (Fig. X V I I L 2, 3, and 4),
in which the upper ossicle, "epizygal," bears a pinnule or cirri,
as the case m a y be, and the lower one, " hypozygal," bears none.
(3) " Anchylosis" or fusion, w h e n two ossicles are immovably
cemented by an unbroken deposit of stereom, which, however
is less solid than that of the plates themselves. Towards flexibility
w e have: (1) That form of "loose suture" in which the stroma-
fibrils lie at right angles to the suture, and the stereom is thrown
into corresponding folds (cf. pore-rhombs of cystids), or that form
in which there is a slight facet, either smooth or striated (Fig.
C X I . 3), or interlocking crenulations (Fig. XVIII. 1). (2) "Imper-
forate articulation," in which there is a slight facet, or a toothed
THE CRINOIDEA 109
articular surface (Fig. XVIII. 5 ) ; thefibrilsare atfirstdeveloped

into elastic ligaments, and later into true muscles. (3) " Perforate
articulation," in which there is a highly developed facet, with fulcral
ridge, ligamentar depressions, and muscles innervated from an axial
cord which perforates the ridge (Fig. XVIII. 6).
In such a simple crinoid as that under discussion the cup-plates
would be united by close suture; the tegminals, probably by
primitive suture, or loose suture of the rhomb type; the brachials,
by imperforate articulation, perforate being a later development;
the columnals, by loose suture of the striate type.
The Skeletal Elements of a crinoid may be thus classified :
" Primary Elements," the first to be developed in both ontogeny
and phylogeny, divided into — "abactinal," developed on the
right or aboral coelom, and directly innervated from the chambered
1
FIG. XVIIL
Forms of Joint. 1, sutural mar-
gin of cup-plate of Marsupites
(original). 2, brachials from dorsal
side, x 10. 3, ditto from ventral
side, x *£-. 4, distal face of lIBr:{,
a hypozygal, x ^s. (2, 3, and 4 are
of Antedon bifida, after W . B. Car-
penter.) 5, articular facet of radial
of Pisocrinus ollula, x 3 (after
Bather). 6, articular facet of radial
of Bathycrintis aldrichianus, x 8
(after P. H . Carpenter), ac, axial
canal for nerve; dl, dorsal liga-
ment ; /, fulcral ridge; il, inter-
articular ligament ; mf, muscle
fossa; n, notch for axial nerve;
p, pinnule; p', pinnule-facet; .-,
syzygy-
organ, viz. columnals, cirrals, IBB, B B , R R , Br, and pinnulars

(vide infra); " actinal," developed on the left or oral coelom, and
connected with the various oral ring-systems, viz. A (orals) and
ambulacrals (Chapter VIII., Fig. X.). " Secondary or Supple-
mentary Elements," which m a y be intercalated between the primary
pieces; these have not yet been discussed; they include " inter-
brachials" (iBr), "interambulacrals" (iAmb), "interaxillaries"
(iAx), some "anals," and a few others of no special importance.
T h e terms "proximal" and "distal" are reckoned from the
plane separating stem from crown, so that the infrabasals and top
columnal are the proximal elements of crown and stem respec-
tively. T h e actinal elements, however, start from the oral centre
as proximal point.
For orientation the crinoid is placed in its natural position,
m o u t h upwards, and is viewed from the anal side. T h e anal
interradius is then posterior; the radius opposite it is anterior;
no THE CRINOIDEA
right and left correspond with the right and left of the observer.
T o preserve this orientation w h e n the crown is viewed from above,
the anal side must be nearest the observer (downwards in a
figure); when viewed from below, the anal side must be away
from the observer (upwards in a figure). Such is the rule followed
in the drawings illustrating this book, while in the various analyses
the anterior radius is always placed on the right of the figure.
Various modes of designating the radii have been attempted. T o
extend to the Crinoidea Loven's Echinoid numeration, is to postu-
late an homology that is far from proven. T h e annexed table
compares with other systems the symbols here u s e d : —
Nomenclature of
P. H. Carpenter
Echinoidea and
in Challenger
•rr *r~
Keports and
Stelleroidea
Catalogue.
in Natural
Position.
Ordinary
Blastoid
Orientation as above described. Symbols here
used.
f do
Anterior Radius ant. R. A III. ant.
Right Anterior Interradius r. ant. IR. A-B ) 3 1. ant.

i
Right Antero-lateral Radius r. ant. R B IV. 1. ant.-lat..
Id
Right Postero-lateral Interradius r. post. IK. B-C 'J 4 1. post.-lat.
Right Posterior Radius r. post. R C ; V. 1. post. \
Posterior Interradius post. IR. CD 5 1 S"
post \ .2
Left Posterior Radius 1. post. R. D ) I. is
r. post. )
Left Postero-lateral Interradius 1. post. I R DE -4-3 1 r. post.-lat.
—
Left Antero-lateral Radius 1. ant. R. E II. r. ant.-lat. ) |
Left Anterior Interradius. 1. ant. IR. E-A . 2 r. ant. ) ">-
W e have n o w run through the chief characters of a normal

crinoid of simple structure. F e w are so simple as this, but
various modifications have occurred in the history of the class
some perhaps only once, others at different geological periods in
races of diverse origin. S o m e of these, especially w h e n of im-
portance for classification, must n o w be discussed.
S o m e crinoids have a Dicyclic, others a Monocyclic Base (p.
99). The value of this in classification is disputed. Among
various early genera, placed by W a c h s m u t h & Springer in a
single family (Reteocrinidae), some are with, some without infra-
basals, having the angles of the stem-lumen respectively radial
and interradial. But the yet simpler genera, from which presum-
THE CRINOIDEA in
ably these genera descended, probably differed in the same w a y ;

and resemblances, undoubtedly of secondary nature, should not
lead us to place together forms of diverse origin. The distinction to
be drawn between monocyclic and dicyclic genera is more obvious
in the simpler crinoids ; but here too there are parallel stages
passed through—the monocyclic Iocrinus and Heterocrinus (p. 145)
correspond with the dicyclic Merocrinus and Ottawacrinus (p. 178)
respectively. Since the presence or absence of infrabasals is cor-
related with the radial or interradial position of the lobes of the
chambered organ, the derivation of one type from the other
involves more change than the mere atrophy or appearance of
certain plates. Hence monocyclic and dicyclic genera should not
be placed in the same line of descent, unless this change can be
proved: there is no reason w h y they should not have been inde-
pendently evolved. T h e origin of Dicyclica from Monocyclica
is, in fact, opposed by the available evidence; but Monocyclica
m a y conceivably have been derived from Dicyclica in one of two
ways, outlined in the next two paragraphs.
There are, especially a m o n g the later crinoids, several genera
k n o w n as " pseudomonocyclic," because though infrabasals are in-
visible or absent, at all events in the adult, the evidence of the
axial cords (e.g. in Ehizocrinus) of palaeontology (e.g. Apiocrinus
and Pentacrinus), or of embryology (e.g. Antedon), demonstrates the
existence of infrabasals either in the young or in near ancestors.
Discoveries of this nature have strengthened W a c h s m u t h &
Springer's law by affording a rational explanation of apparent
exceptions. But suppose secondary growth of stereom to occur
in a pseudomonocyclic genus, converting the angles of the stem
from interradial to radial, and the angles of the stem-lumen from
radial to interradial. Then, if recent examples were known, the
law, as emended above (p. 106), might be applied successfully;
but it would not tell the truth if only fossils were available, and
the crinoid would pose as monocyclic. Such changes are actually
observed in the growth of Antedon, while in Isocrinus, which other
facts prove pseudomonocyclic (Fig. X L ) , the angles of the stem-
lumen in the proximal region are interradial, as if the genus were
truly monocyclic, though the downward prolongations of the
chambered organ are radial. In Glyptocrinus Fornshelli the angles
of both stem and axial canal are radial; since there are actually,
no infrabasals, w e m a y suppose secondary ingrowth of stereom,
and this is confirmed by S. A. Miller's description of the columnals
(1874).
T h e changes just described leave the essential distinction
between monocyclic and dicyclic genera untouched (as shown in
Fig. XII.); and a m o n g the earliest crinoids there is little evidence
of pseudomonocyclic forms. There is, however, a possibility that
I 12 THE CRINOIDEA
the change from Dicyclic to Monocyclic m a y have taken place,
not by compression and atrophy, but by torsion and fusion. M a n y
monocyclic genera of Ordovician and Silurian age have some
radials (usually r. post., r. ant., and 1. ant. R R ) transversely bisected;
the upper part is called "super-radial" (Rs); the lower part,
" inferradial" (Ri), (see Fig. LVIIL). N o w , in some dicyclic
genera (e.g. Ottawacrinus, Fig. X C V L ) , perhaps in consequence
of the introduction of fresh plates in the anal interradius, the
radials are shifted to right and left so as to lie almost vertically
above the basals. T h e suggestion then is that the inferradials and
basals of Monocyclica represent basals and infrabasals respectively
of Dicyclica. If then the R s and R?' fuse, a truly monocyclic type
is produced with one circlet of B B and one of R R . O n e obvious
objection to this theory is the presence in m a n y Dicyclica of a
plate (the radianal, R A ) , which is n o w generally regarded as a
slightly modified inferradial (r. post. Hi), (Fig. X X V L ) . Other
objections to this and similar views, based by P. H . Carpenter
(1878) on alleged homologies with the apical system of Echinoidea,
have, it is true, been somewhat discredited by modern embryological
and palaeontological research. Nevertheless, for the present the
gulf between Monocyclica vera and Dicyclica is unbridged, and
must be recognised in classification.
The dorsal cup of a simple crinoid consists of two or three
circlets, but there is often a tendency for the proximal brachials to
be so joined to the radials and to one another as to form part of
the cup (Fig. XIX.). There is, however, a supposed
morphological distinction between these "fixed
brachials" (Br) and the radials : the latter are de-
veloped in the Antedon larva as expanded sieve-
like films; but all brachials begin as " imperfect
rings, which soon become filled u p with lengthening
fasciculated tissue" (P. H . Carpenter, 1 8 8 4 ; see Fig.
XIX.). In a form where m a n y brachials enter the
dorsal cup, it is convenient to have a c o m m o n tern
FIO. XIX. for the primitive elements of the cup (IBB, B B ,
E, radial, crib- R R ) : s o m e cal1 t h e m tn e " apical system," postu-
^ V m i S ; lating a h<>mofogy with the plates so called in
fasciculate ste- Echinoidea; the old term patina is shorter and safer
Ion UMa, x "75! T o understand the extension of the cup beyond
fl e the
by w. °B. car patina, it is necessary first to study the A r m s
penter.) 0 r Brachia (Fig. X X . ) . These are rarely single.
The first step in advance is a bifurcation, con-
stantly repeated in a regular manner (regular dichotomy or
isotomy). Modifications of this occur through the suppression
of a bifurcation at definite points (irregular dichotomy or hetero-
tomy). In each half of the arm, thefirstbranch on the right
THE CRINOIDEA "3
then thefirston the left, and so on, m a y be smaller than the other
branch. Thus there arises a main trunk giving off smaller branches
Specialisation of arm-branching. 1, a non-pinnulate, regularly dichotomous arm (isotomous);

2, a less regular dichotomous arm, a type common in Cyathocrinoidea; 3, 4, two stages in
the evolution of unilateral heterotomy; 5, 6, 7, three stages in the evolution of bilateral
heterotomy, culminating in pinnulation. For other types, see Fig. CX.
right and left alternately. These smaller branches may themselves

undergo a similar process, and so form armlets (ramuli) borne by
the main arm-branch ,,
(ramus). W h e n the iJjf<'A,
ramules cease to branch
themselves, and are reg-
ularly placed on alter-
nate sides of successive
brachials of the main
branch, they are called
pinnulae, and the arm is
" pinnulate." This pro-
cess of evolution has
been phylogenetically
traced in Botryocrinus
(Fig. X X L ) , while the
primitively dichotomous
origin of the pinnules
m a y be seen in the
developing Antedon.
The pinnule, as P. H . Fio. X X I .
Carpenter said, is an Evolution of pinnules in Botryocrinus. 1, B. ramosus,
arm in miniature; it aramuli;
species in which each arm has two rami bearing branched
2, B. decadactylus, a species in which the two rami
differs in nothing but bear ramuli, of which all except the proximal one are un-
branched, and are almost regularly disposed. In B. pin-
TJOsition f r o m t h e S m a l l nulatus the ramuli have become regular unbranched pin-
r . . . nules. (After Bather, 1891.)
end-branches of a simple
dichotomous a r m ; but, in a pinnulate arm, it differs from
the ramus by the restriction to it of the fertile portions
8
H4 THE CRINOIDEA
of the genital rachis. T h e pinnule differs in origin, and prob-

ably in structure and function, from the brachiole, which is an
independent exothecal process (see p. 41). Whether such struc-
tures as brachioles occur in Crinoidea is disputed. W a c h s m u t h &
Springer (1897) appear to regard pinnules as independent develop-
ments, rejecting the above theory of their origin. Jaekel (1894)
accepts the theory for most Inadunata and Neozoic crinoids, and
speaks of the organs as ramuli, restricting the term " pinnulae "
to the similar organs of the Palaeozoic Camerata (Cladocrinoidea,
Jaekel) and to the cystid brachioles, which he regards as homo-
logous. His view is admissible, but lacks proof.
In simple dichotomous arms, each brachial that supports two
branches does so by two upper sloping sides, or shoulders, of
equal size, each notched by the ventral groove, and pierced by the
axial canal, which branches with the arm. Such a brachial is
called azillare (ax), and all that part of the arm borne by any
single axillary is a " dichotom." T h e branches of the axial cord
are united at their bifurcation by a criss-cross of nerve-strands
(chiasma) serving to correlate their activities. A s the size of one
half of a dichotom is reduced, the supporting shoulder of the
axillare is narrowed. Continuance of the process tends to bring
the wider shoulder more parallel to the under joint-surface of the
axillary. Thus a pinnulate arm of primitive structure consists
of a series of axillaries in which the alternate right and left
shoulders are wide and almost parallel, while the others are
greatly reduced and bear pinnules.
A pinnulate arm m a y consist of two rami, or each ramus m a y
bifurcate just as in a simple arm, though never to the same
extent. T h e axillaries on which the rami fork remain unmodified,
and with equal shoulders. It is convenient to distinguish these
as " main-axils " (Ax).
Owing to the great variation in the branching of the brachia,
it is extraordinarily difficult to devise a consistent terminology,
or to denote any particular ossicle in a concise and intelligible
manner (for fuller discussion, see W a c h s m u t h & Springer, 1897;
and Bather, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Jan. 1 8 9 2 ; and Geol. Mag'.
July 1898). In a non-pinnulate dichotomous arm all brachials up
to and including thefirstaxillary m a y be styled primibrachialia or
"primibrachs" (IBr), the axillary being distinguished as "primaxil"
(lax); the following Br in each branch are " secundibrachs " (IIBr),
with a " secundaxil" (Ilax); then succeed " tertibrachs " (IIIBr)'
" quartibrachs " (IVBr), and so on. In a pinnulate dichotomous
arm the IBr do not as a rule bear pinnules, and are therefore
homologous with the IBr of a simple a r m ; but of the next series
only the proximal brachial of each ramus is strictly homologous
with the IIBr of a simple arm, the pinnule borne by it, together
THE CRINOIDEA US
with the next Br, representing the IIIBr of a simple arm. T o use
the same terms is especially perplexing in intermediate forms;
but solutions of the difficulty, though proposed, have not gained
general approval.
For descriptive purposes, a dichotomous arm is viewed from
the dorsal, i.e. aboral surface, and " right" and " left" equal right
and left of the observer. The mediad rami are called interior ;
those to the sides, exterior. A particular brachial in any series
is denoted by placing a small Arabic numeral after the s y m b o l —
IIBr4, IVBr 0 , IIIBr5. T h e number of Br in a series m a y be
expressed either by stating it with a large Arabic numeral, e.g.
IIIBr, 7, and IIBr, 1 0 ; or by giving the number of the axillare,
thus IIIaxT, and IIax10. The ossicles of the distal rami which do
not branch again are called "finials" (F).
T h e ambulacrals ( A m b ) x necessarily branch with the brachials,
and the several series or orders m a y be designated as I A m b ,
IIAmb, etc. Their simplest form is that of a line of small
plates on either side the groove, capable of being raised or
depressed; and w h e n closed, meeting in the median line by a
zigzag suture due to their alternating arrangement. They vary
in size, both absolutely, and relatively to the brachials. Each
ambulacral m a y be divided by one or more tranverse sutures,
parallel to the long axis of the a r m ; this produces the appearance
of short pinnules, for which these structures have been mistaken
by more than one author. The transverse sutures m a y come. to
lie at an angle, and the portions to alternate with one another.
Thus arose the side-plates or adambulacrals, which are a persistent
feature in m a n y of the later crinoids (cf. Fig. IX. 2). There
m a y also be developed minute but distinct ossicles beneath the
outer covering-plates and alternating with them. The complicated
structure thus developed in Cyathocrinus and Gissocrinus has been
exquisitely worked out and illustrated by G. Liljevall (Bather,
1893, pis. vii.-ix.).
Brachia, rami, ramuli, and pinnulae, in which the ossicles lie in
a single row, with more or less parallel joints, are termed " uni-
serial." Simple arms in Crinoidea are always uniserial. Pinnu-
late arms undergo a modification. Since in such arms the joints
slope alternately to right and left (p. 114), the brachials tend to
assume a wedge-shape; in process of growth of either the in-
dividual or the race, a complete wedge-shape is assumed, go that
the joint-lines between the ossicles form a " zigzag." Lastly, the
brachials come to lie in two alternating rows, in which case the arm
is termed "biserial." This development doubles the number of
pinnules in a given length of arm, and thus aids the collection
1
The terras "ambulacral" and "adambulacral" must not be held to imply any
homology with elements thus named in Stelleroidea and Echinoidea.
u6 THE CRINOIDEA
of food. The axial cords and ventral groove at first swing from
side to side; but this would be almost impossible in biserial arms,
so here a c o m m o n straight ventral groove is formed, and the axial
cord lies at the bottom of it. The change from uniserial to
biserial, just as the evolution
of pinnules, begins in both
ontogeny and phylogeny at
the growing tip of the arm,
and proceeds gradually proxi-
malwards (Fig. XXII.).
Still further develop-
FIG. X X I I .
ment occurs in the Camer-
Evolution from uniserial, through zigzag,
to biserial brachials.
ata. T h e adjacent right and
left ossicles of a biserial arm
m a y fuse, so as to form a compound brachial, and this necessarily
bears two pinnules, one on either side. Further than this, it appears
as though two or more compound brachials could fuse, and so form
a triply compound ossicle bearing two or three pinnules on either
side. A t the same time, the pinnulars themselves m a y come to lie
in zigzag or biserial fashion, in the same w a y as do the ossicles of
so m a n y cystid brachioles. It is this structure that influenced
Jaekel in his distinction between "pinnulae" and "ramuli" (supra);
but the facts are explicable as the final stage in a regular
evolution (Fig. L X X I X . ) .
Fusion of brachials either laterally, or in vertical series, or both,
m a y occur in any crinoid race in which it proves advantageous.
In some Gissocrini the IIBr, and possibly IIIBr, of each arm were
laterally united by suture ; in Crotalocrinus (Fig. XCII.) all brachials
of an arm are suturally united by projections at the distal margin
of each brachial; in Petalocrinus (Fig. XCI.) all brachials of an arm
except IBr are fused into a single petaloid plate. Compare also
Melocrinus (Fig. L X X I V . ) and Eucladocrinus (Fig. L X X I . 4).
Brachials primitively, and pinnulars nearly always, are
united by loose suture (compare Fig. X V I I L ) . T h e next stage is
imperforate articulation. In thefinalstage, perforate articulation
(Fig. XXIII. 1), there is a well-marked transverse fulcral ridge,
pierced by the axial canal; the ventral groove comes nearly up to
the ridge at this point. O n each side of the ventral groove, and
often separated by a slight vertical, i.e. dorso-ventral, ridge run-
ning d o w n to the axial canal, are two depressions, fossae ; the ventral
pair lodges muscle fibres ("muscular fossae"); and the doisal
pair, interarticular ligament (" ligamentar fossae"). Dorsad of
the fulcrum is a deep "dorsal fossa," lodging elastic ligament.
This type m a y be modified by the disappearance of the ventral
muscles, the increase of the interarticular ligaments and their
fossae, and of the vertical ridge separating them, which n o w
THE CRINOIDEA 117
passes dorsad of the axial canal, and the concentration of the

dorsal ligament in a pit at the end of the vertical ridge (Fig.
XXIII. 2). This is called " trifascial articulation." Further
increase of the ligamentar fossae and of the vertical ridge,
with the disappearance of the dorsal fossa, produces the
" bifascial articulation," adapted only for lateral movement (Fig.
XXIII. 3). These forms of articulation m a y be bilaterally
symmetrical, but in pinnuliferous brachials the fulcral ridge is
skewed, so that on the distal joint-surface the end of the ridge
towards the pinnule is moved dorsalwards.
The syzygy (J. Miiller, 1 8 4 1 ; P H . Carpenter, 1 8 8 4 ;
Bather, 1896) is an immovable sutural union between two brachials
of a pinnulate arm, accompanied with loss of the pinnule on the
l 2 3
4 5
Fio. XXIII.
Arm-joints. 1, brachial of Isocrinus astrria, after Joh. Miiller. 2, distal face of IBr-i of
Batltycrinus Aldriv.hianus (cf. (> in Fig. X V I I L ) , x 8 diam. 3, the same in Isocrinus lilakei, x 3J
diam. 4, syzygy of Ehizocrinus Eawsoni—a, epizygal from its under surface ; 6, hypozygal
from its upper surface, x 7£ diam. 5, syzygy of Isocrinus Blakei—a, upper surface of hypozygal;
h, epizygal; and c, hypozygal in their relative positions, seen from side, x 3J diam. (2-5 are
after P. H . Carpenter.)
in; axial canal; dl, dorsal ligament fossa ; il, interarticular ligament fossa; mf, muscle
fossa ; p , facet for pinnule ; eg, ventral groove.
hypozygal (compare Fig. XVIIL). Immobility may be effected
in various ways. The apposed faces m a y be smooth (some
Pentacrinids), striated (Uintacrinus, most Antedonidae), or dotted
(some Actinometrae); in Ehizocrinus a peg projects from the dorsal
region of the epizygal into a pit in the hypozygal (Fig. XXIII. 4),
and in some Pentacrinids a dorso-ventral ridge on the epizygal
fits into the hypozygal (Fig. XXIII. 5). The former type of
syzygy facilitates fracture along the suture, and is specially
developed in locomotive forms liable to entangle their arms.
The latter type appears different in origin and function.
W e n o w return to the extension of the Dorsal Cup. This m a y
be effected, as in Ichthyocrinus (Fig. CVIIL), by the direct lateral
union of the proximal brachials. A t the same time, the proximal
ambulacrals enter the tegmen, so that the thecal cavity stretches out
further between the actinal and abactinal elements. In m a n y living
crinoids the proximal brachials are united by aflexibleintegument
n8 THE CRINOIDEA
containing minute supplementary plates (Isocrinus, Calamocrinus);

thus the thecal cavity is enclosed by secondary as well as primary
elements. Similar plated membrane m a y occur between the IIBr
FIG. X X I V .
Calamocrinus diomedeae. 1, posterior view of cup, showing attachment of anal tube to
pinnules and proximal brachials, x f; 2, radial and proximal brachials seen from inside of
cup, showing attachment of interbrachials (much enlarged); 3, a similar portion seen from the
side, showing the interbrachials (unshaded) attached to the brachials and pinnulars (shaded).
Enlarged. (All after Al. Agassiz.) As, anus ; B, basal; IBr, primibrachs ; ilir, interbrachials ;•
pn, pinnulars.
or IIIBr of a single arm. The small plates may increase in size and
firmly bind together the arms and rami (Fig. X X I V a ) ; those
between brachia are "interbrachials" (iBr); between IIBr, "inter-
secundibrachs " (illBr), and so on.
Similarly there are interambula-
illl B r crals of various orders ; the ilAmb,
merging at the sides of the theca
into the iBr; the illAmb separated
by the thecal cavity from illBr;
the illlAmb, and so on. The
interbrachials sometimes, though
rarely, d e s c e n d b e t w e e n the
radials. N o t merely brachials,
but also pinnulars m a y be incor-
porated in the cup, and between
FIO. XXIVa. pinnules are developed "interpin-
Sagenocrinus expansus, to show incorpora-nulars" (e.g. Uintacrinns,¥ig. CIIL);
tion of arms into cup, by means of second-
ary plates (these latter are shaded); for it is often hard to distinguish fixed
lettering see adjoining text. (From Brit. pinnulars from supplementary
Mus. specimen 57147.) x <}. plates. Except in primitive forms
(e.g. Reteocrinidae), the interbrachials have a similar arrangement
in each interradius of an individual. Indeed, the arrangement often
serves as a means of distinguishing species and genera. This
THE CRINOIDEA 119
regularity is, however, often modified in the posterior interradius,

which is widened by the insertion of "anal plates," so called
because they afford room for the anus, and are continuous with
the plates supporting the anal tube when that organ is present.
T h e Anal Plates of the Camerata appear as a median line
splitting the posterior interbrachials, and forming as it were a
sixth ray to the cup. They are rarely developed in forms in
which the anus is central or comparatively small; a slight
enlargement of the posterior calycal elements then sufficed. They
are, therefore, regarded as supplementary pieces developed as
occasion arose in the position
where they are found. T h e anal
tube is an outgrowth of the pos-
terior interambulacrum, and is, in
Reteocrinidae, Glyptocrinus, and sim-
ilar forms, supported by a dorsal
line of ridged plates continuous
with the anals (Fig. X X V . ) . T h e
ridge is connected with the ridges
that unite the posterior basal to Fio. XXV.
the right and left posterior radials, Glyptocrinus decadactylvs. 1, from pos-
and this indicates that an axial terior interradius ; 2, another interradius.
The ridges marking the rays are clearly
cord passed up it to govern the seen, also at; the anal ridge. (1, after
motions of the tube. In later W a c h s m u t h & Springer. 2, after Meek.)
Camerata, where the interradii and tegmen are lessflexible,this
differentiation disappears.
The anals of the Inadunata and Flexibilia (Fig. X X V I . ) have
been m u c h discussed (see summary in Bather, 1890 and 1899 ; and
Wachsmuth & Springer, 1897). A t least one of them, the
radianal (RA), is admittedly a primary, abactinal, radial element,
being in fact the modified lower half of the right posterior radial
(r. post. Ri). B y the introduction of other plates, and notably
one special anal (x) into the posterior IR, the r. post. R s is pushed
to the right, so that R A comes into contact with x, and helps in
the widening of the area and the support of the anal tube. T h e
theory, originated by W a c h s m u t h and Springer, that the tube is a
modified arm, has since been rejected by them. T h e less extreme
view that the dorsal median line of ossicles supporting the tube
represents the proximal left ramus of the right ^sterior arm, up
which the interambulacral peristome around the anus gradually
stretched, has the following facts a m o n g others in its favour : —
T h e tube is admittedly in close connection with the right posterior
ray (Fig. X X V I I . ) ; it is up this side that the rectum passes ; in
Iocrinus, Merocrinus, and Castocriuus, and, to a less extent, in
Heterocrinus, Edenocrinus, and Ohiocrinus, the proximal plate of
this median row rests on r. post. R ; in Iocrinus the articulation
120 THE CRINOIDEA
between r. post. R and this proximal plate differs from that between
r. post. R & IBrx only in size (Fig. X X V I I I . ) ; in Iocrinus the
ventral groove of the median series coalesces in r. post. R with the
ventral groove of right posterior a r m ; this, and other evidence
from Heterocrinidae, shows that the median anal series was in-
nervated from the axial cord of r. post. R. T h e only argument
1. Iocrinus subcrassus. 2. Dcndrocrinus longidactylus. 3. Dendrocrinus Casei.
4. Scaphiocrinus eleyans. 5. CyathoeHmis longimanm, 6. Parisocrimis.

anal area.
FIG. XXVI.
Diagrams of the anal area in various Inadunate Crinoids. (From Uather, after Wachsmuth
& Springer, Hall, and Angelin.)
against the view, is the improbability of a change of function in

the ramus; still the view is not proven.
A distinct question is whether the anal x, which frequently
occurs in the posterior interradius of the cup, is a secondary
element suddenly introduced, as are the anals of Camerata, or
whether it is the proximal median plate of the tube (as in Iocrinus,
Heterocrinidae, etc.), that has gradually sunk d o w n into the cup.
Wachsmuth & Springer hold the former view, believing that
x is homologous with the strictly interradial anal of Camerata,
THE CRINOIDEA 121
and that the proximal median plate of Iocrinus and Heterocrinidae

(which they call /) is represented in genera with a special anal x
by a tube-plate (rt) on the left shoulder of r. post. R (Fig. X X V I .
2-6); they assert that "in the earlier and simpler forms, the tube
consists of only five [vertical] series, one to each interradius, that
of the anal side resting upon /. Later on, as the tube grew larger,
a n e w row of plates was introduced with plate x supporting it.
W h e n there are three series [at the posterior side], as in Dendro-
crinus, the third generally rests upon one side of the left posterior
radial. T h e arrangement of the plates within the rows is so
regular, that if a sinking of the plate t had taken place, it would
certainly be indicated by some disturbance a m o n g the lower plates
in the tube." In this sentence the proximal median plate t (our x)
rrinus isodactylus, Iocrinus, showing connection of anals and brachials. 1,

showing close connec- part of the r. posterior ray seen from inside the cup ; 2,
tion of anal (x) with upper articular surface of El; the groove on the left goes to
right posterior super- o; that on the right to brachials ; 3, left upper articular
radial (r.p.E). En- surface of lis, supporting x; 4, right upper articular sur-
larged. (From Bather.) face of Es, supporting IBrx. Enlarged. (From Bather.)
of Heterocrinus is identified with rt of Dendrocrinus; but no proof

has yet been given that the added series m a y not be those starting
from rt and It, rather than from x and It. O n the other hand, the
view that the series x is homologous with the series t, is supported
by the general size and appearance of the two, and by the inferred
relations of the axial cords. A n d the homology of x with t is
supported by the facts that the position of t with reference to r.
post. Rs, does vary from a higher to a lower level in early genera,
while the position of x to the adjacent radials likewise varies.
In late Carboniferous genera of Dicyclic Inadunata, x certainly
appears to pass u p out of the cup (Fig. X X I X . ) , and this inter-
pretation is confirmed by the migration of the anal in the develop-
m e n t of Antedon, which anal is universally homologised with x
(Fig. X X X . ) ; but if a plate can pass up, it can also pass down, as
122 THE CRINOIDEA
is further proved by the phylogeny of the Calceocrinidae. T h e

fact that x is wholly or partly in the cup, and t partly or wholly
outside, does not m a k e them different morphological elements; for
there is n o w admitted to be no difference between interambulacrals
and interbrachials, or between fixed and free brachials. Con-
sequently in this work the symbol x will always be applied to the
Fio. X X I X .
Upward passage of anal (x) in Vlocrinus. 1, anal area of " Ulocrinus " Blairi ; 2, posterior
view of U. Buttsi; 3 and 4, U. Kansasensis, the cup from posterior and from above, x 3.
(From Bather, after Miller & Gurley.)
proximal plate of the median line of the anal tube, whatever its
position.
Modification of the cup is not confined to the fixed brachials
and interbrachials, but also affects the patina. W e have discussed
the disappearance of IBB. W e have also to note a tendency to
fusion in the plates of the proximal circlet, whether I B B or B B ,
and their change of shape due to the introduction of anals into the
mmmM
WW W FIG. X X X .
8,
Migration of the anal in Antedon. (After W . B. Carpenter and M Sars } Orismiitino.

between BR, the plate x gradually moves upwards, eventually atro" 1 y i ^rillonly two smaU
-ut'" T l \ l £ Z Z T I 6 T 6 °f„tUe a'ial l U b e W ; T h e dottedlines In 1 show the courtof the
gut. These figures also show change m shape of RR, and atrophy of orals (0).
patina. The first stage is the fusion of one pair, producing 1

large and 3 small plates (Fig. X X X I . 2). This is almost entirely
restricted to monocyclic genera, where the plates that fuse are the
right and left anterior basals. Next comes the fusion of two pair
pr 1 8mall a d 2 lar e
°wr,§ 1 ^ S Plates (FiS- XXXI. 3). This occurs
in both Mono- and Di-cyclica. In the former the small plate is
the let anterior basal or rarely left posterior basal; whereas
in ûbxastoidea it is the right anterior basal (Fig. X X X I 4)
In Dicyclica three infrabasals have been observed only a m o n g
THE CRINOIDEA 123
Inadunata and Flexibilia; in the former group the small plate

is often, but not always, the anterior infrabasal (Fig. X X X I . 7 ) ;
in the latter it is (apud W . and Sp.) always the right posterior
infrabasal (Fig. X X X I . 8). A bipartite base is formed only in a
few Monocyclica; the two plates lie on the right and left sides of
the cup (Fig. X X X I . 9). Finally, all plates of the proximal circlet
may fuse into a solid ring, both in Mono- and Di-cyclica. The
infrabasals may fuse with the proximal columnal in Flexibilia,
thus forming a pseudomonocyclic type. The basals may be over-
grown by, and incorporated with, the radials, as in Eugeniacrinus.
The symmetry of the base is modified by the presence of anals.
A n anal resting on the basal circlet causes one of the basals to
double in width, so that the base becomes hexagonal instead of
pentagonal. Thus the quadripartite base comes to consist of a
FIG. X X X I .
Bases and their modifications. 1-0
and 9, monocyclic ; 7 and 8, dicyclic ;
1-4, pentagonal, unaffected by anal;
5, 6, 9, hexagonal, affected by anal.
In all the anal side is uppermost, and
the plates are numbered on Jaekel's
plan (see table, p. 110); the imagin-
ary additional piece is marked +.
1, 5 BB ; 2, 4 BB ; 3, 3 Bli, Crinoid
type ; 4, 3 BB, Blastoid type ; 5,
4 BB; 6,3BB; 7, 3 IBB, as usual in
Dicyclica inadunata; 8, 3 IBB, as
usual in Flexibilia impinnata; 9,
2 BB. (Adapted from Wachsmuth &
Springer.)
posterior and anterior large plate, and two small lateral plates (Fig.
X X X I . 5). These tend to approximate in size. In Xenocrinus
(Fig. L X X V I I L ) , interbrachials as well as anals come down between
the radials, so that the basals are nearly equal in size, but irregular
in shape, and make the base decagonal. Removal of anals and
interbrachials from the radial circlet leaves a pentagonal quadri-
partite base, such as is found in Melocrinidae (p. 161). A n anal
resting on a tripartite base is accompanied by increased width in
the small left anterior basal (Fig. X X X I . 6). But in the bipartite
base the small basal fuses with the combined posterior and left
posterior basals, while the combined right-hand basals increase in
width (Fig. X X X I . 9). In most Dicyclica the infrabasals do not
assume a hexagonal outline; for the anals do not occur in the
basal circlet, but x truncates the upper surface of the posterior
basal. Exceptions are Sagenocrinus, Carabocrinus (Fig. L X X X I V . ) ,
Strophocrinus, and Thenarocrinus (Fig. X C V L ) .
124 THE CRINOIDEA
The enlargement of anal structures was not the only factor in

the modification of the typical pentamerism. Allusion need not
be m a d e to the (apparently sudden) dropping of a radius to
form Tetracrinus (p. 153), or the duplication of the radii to form
Promachocrinus (p. 195), and similar cases. N o r need more be
said as to the enlargement of certain radii (e.g. Pisocrinus), the
bisection of others (e.g. Heterocrinus), and so forth, since in these
cases the outwardly symmetrical appearance of the cup usually
remained unaltered. But certain factors, probably of physical
environment, such as currents and direction of food-supply, or
possibly connected with locomotion, have at different times pro-
duced similar results in different families. A bending over of the
cup, accompanied by diminution of certain radials, was c o m m o n
in Eugeniacrinidae, as well shown by Jaekel (1891). In the
remarkable Calceocrinidae the crown was bent towards the right
posterior interradius, and far-reaching changes brought about in
both cup and arms (p. 148). Even in an unattached species,
apparently of Agassizocrinus, similar growth of one side took place
at the expense of the other. These
Amb cases are comparable to the irregu-
lAmb lar Eublastoids.
Concomitant with modifications
in the dorsal cup were modifica-
tions in the-Tegmen. Just as
brachials entered the cup, so their
covering-plates ( A m b ) entered the
tegmen, prolonging the food-
grooves over its surface. A n d cor-
responding to interbrachials in the
cup, there arose interambulacrals
(iAmb) in the tegmen (Fig.
XXXII.).
FIC. XXXII. Other changes that took place
Tegmen of Marsipocrinus iiidiutux, show- are difficult to describe without
ing incorporation at Amb, ambulacrals, with
iAmb, interambulacrals, between them; raisins the question of the lomo-
an marks anal interradius, with its larger logy of the plates covering the
interambulacrals. (After Lil.jevall in
W a c h s m u t h & Springer. lf>!)7.) x jj- mouth. In Antedon five inter-
radial plates (O) are developed
before the radials and at the same time as the basals, upon which
they rest (Fig. X X X I I I . 1). Between these two circlets appear
the radials, upon the shoulders of which the five adoral interradials
then rest (Fig. X X X I I I . 2), forming a pyramid closed over the
oral centre, but soon opening at the apex to expose the entrance
to the mouth (tentacular vestibule). T h e posterior of these plates
surrounds the hydropore. A t a more advanced stage thev become
separated from the radials by ambulacrals and interambulacrals
THE CRINOIDEA 125
(Fig. XXXIII. 5), andfinally,in most species of Antedon, are

resorbed (cf. Fig. X X X . 4). These plates are called oralia (0).
Their prominence in early stages shows them to be primary
elements of the theca, probably well developed in the adult of
FIG. XXXIII.
Development of orals in Antedon. 1 (after Bury), IB still visible, no RR yet formed. 2
(after Allman), 0 closed ; between them and BB are the developing RR. 3 (after Allman), 0 open,
exposing oral tentacles ; no arms yet exist. 4 (after W . B. Carpenter), 0 now separated from
BB by RR, which support arms. 5 (after W . B. Carpenter), arms cut oft abovefirstbrachial so
as to show 0, which now surround the mouth ; the shaded portion represents integument, in
which ambulacrals and interambulacrals are developed.
Note also gradual decrease, in size of BB. A further stage in oral history is seen in Fig.
X X X . 4, which is from another species.
primitive forms. Five triangular plates that cover the mouth in
the recent Holopus, Hyocrinus, Ehizocrinus, and Thaumatocrinus,
are by all writers homologised with orals (Fig. XXXIV.). In
all Antedonidae, Bathycrinus, and Calamocrinus, they are almost
.Amb
iAmb<
Fio. X X X I V . Fio. X X X V I .
FIG. XXXV.
Tegmen of Holopus. The arms Tegmen of Hybocrinus coni-
are removed from the side nearest Tegmen of Haplo- cus. Small irregular ambula-
the observer, showing the articu- crinus mespiliformis.crals overlie the apposed edges
lar surfaces of R, the radials, Br, first brachial; 0, of 0, the orals, which are
which are fused together. Amb, oral; p, pore in post. shaded. Post. 0 has a hydro-
ambulacrals, which pass down the O ; R, radial. (After pore, and is therefore a madre-
brachials to the tegmen and a little Wachsmuth & Sprin- porite, M. As, anus, lies be-
way up between the orals ; iAmb, ger, 1888.) x 6. tween this and x, the anal
interambulacrals, partly separat- plate of the cup. R, radials,
ing brachials from orals; 0, rive with arm-facets shaded, and
perforate orals; Rp, processes of nerve channel black. (Based
fused RR. (After P. H. Carpenter, partly on MS. drawings by W .
1888.) X |. R. Billings. Natural size.)
or entirely resorbed in the adult. The ambulacra pass to the
mouth between or below the orals.
In Hybocrinus, Haplpcrinus, Carabocrinus, and other primitive
genera arefiveinterradial plates precisely resembling the orals of
the larval Antedon in shape and position (Figs. X X X V . , X X X V L ) .
126 THE CRINOIDEA
The generally accepted view that these are orals is confirmed by

the frequent presence of a pore or pores in the posterior one, as in
larval Antedon and adult Hyocrinus, and by the situation of the
anus between this plate and the adjacent R R ; in Haplocrinus the
pore and the anus appear to be combined near the oral end of this
plate. These plates have in preceding pages been spoken of as del-
toids (A). They meet close around the mouth like the A of many
Blastoids, and in Hybocrinus and Carabocrinus they show traces of
hydrospires of Codaster type. O n the other hand, they are
homologised, and justly so, with five similar plates that occur in
Coccocrinus, Symbathocrinns, Pisocrinus, Allagecrinus, Myrtillocrinus
some Platycrini, and the specimen of
iAmb
Taxocrinus intermedius (Fig. XXXVII.)
described by Wachsmuth & Springer
(Nov. 1888). In most of these
genera the orals (or A) cover the
mouth, and the food-grooves pass in
under them; but in Taxocrinus the
mouth is open, and the grooves with
ambulacrals pass between the orals;
while in Hybocrinus and Carabocrinus
iBlAmb villAmb
the ambulacrals rest on the edges of
FIG. XXXVII. the apposed orals, showing that the
Tegmen of Ta.mcri.niis intermedins. grooves were actually above those
A, anal ridge ; Br, edges of brachials ;
iAmb, UIAmb, illlAmb, interambula- plates.
crals offirst,second, and third order; From this primitive Palaeozoic type,
0, live orals a little distance from
the peristome. (After Wachsmuth & three lines of evolution start: (1)
Springer, 1888.) Ambulacra pass over the edges of the
orals, while ambulacrals and sometimes interambulacrals gradually
cover the orals, which seem thus to sink below the surface and to
diminish in size; the posterior oral, however, usually remains large
and is pierced by hydropores, while the increased size of the anal tube
pushes it more towards the oral centre (e.g. Euspirocrinus, Cyatho-
crinus, Cupressocrinus, Figs. XXXVIII., X X X I X . ) . (2) Ambulacra
and ambulacrals pass between the orals, leaving an open mouth,
while the orals gradually atrophy (e.g. Taxocrinus, Fig. XXXVII.,
probably other Palaeozoic Flexibilia, and certainly many of their
Neozoic descendants). (3) Ambulacra pass beneath the orals,
and gradually also beneath other tegminal plates, which are
developed pari passu with the incorporation of brachials in the
cup, and which thus separate the orals from the periphery
of the tegmen (e.g. Adunata and Camerata, Fig. X L . ; cf. Caryo-
crinidae, p. 66).
At the same time, in types (1) and (3) a modification of the
ambulacrals takes place. The proximal ambulacrals covering the
mouth in (1) become large, and assume a pentagonal arrangement
THE CRINOIDEA 127
simulating that of primitive orals (e.g. Gissocrinus, Fig. X L L , Crotalo-

crinus, Fig. XCII.; cf. Eublastoidea). Other ambulacrals, especially
FIG. X X X I X .
Teamen of Cyathocrinus. 1, C.
planus with ambulacrals and inter-
FIG. XXXVIII. ambulacrals removed, exposing
Tegmen ofEuspirocrinus spiralis, showing four cordi-app'-'.-.l edges of orals (A) and
form deltoids or orals, and a madreporite, with ambu- madreporite (M). 2, C. mammillaris
lacrals overlying their apposed edges. In the pos- with ambulacrals (cp) and interam-
terior interradius is the base of the broken off anai bulacrals (ia) almost entirely cover-
tube. (From Bather, 1893.) x 3. ing orals (A) and peristome. (From
Bather, 1892.) x 2.
axillary A m b , increase in size, and form prominent bosses on the

tegmen, called " radial dome-plates" (Fig. XLII.); the effect of
this is enhanced by the sinking of the other ambulacrals (e.g.
HBT
Fio. X L L
FIO. X L .
Tegmen of Gissocrinus arthriticus,
showing ambulacrals (Amb) passing
Cylicocfinus nodosus, to exemplify the simplest down arms and over apposed orals
type of Camerate tegmen. 1, from 1. post, radius; (0), and becoming enlarged over peri-
2, from above. As, anus ; B, basals; br, opening stome. Post. O remains as a folded
for food-groove and underlying canals; ib, large madreporite; t, anal tube. Other
interbrachials (suborals, Jaekel). Other letters as letters as usual. (From Brit. Mus.
usual. (Afu'-r Joh. Miiller, 1855.) x 2. 46457.) X 3.
Actinocrinidae). These two facts suggest that the proximal dome-
plates of Camerata, regarded as orals by W a c h s m u t h & Springer,
and so quoted under head (3), m a y after all be mo-'lfisd ambulacrals.
128 THE CRINOIDEA
T h e most conflicting views have been held from time to time

by the same and by different writers as to the homologies of these
plates. That here put forward agrees in the main with Neumayr's
(1889), but is based on facts not accessible to him. W a c h s m u t h
& Springer (1897) deny the homology of the
deltoids in Eublastoidea, Hybocrinus, and Cya-
thocrinidae, with the orals in Haplocrinus and
Antedon ; the plates here regarded as enlarged
ambulacrals (e.g. in Eublastoidea, Cyatho-
crinidae, Fig. X L I I L , Crotalocrinus) are taken
by them to be orals, and they imagine that
they undergo resorption, fission, and other
FJG. XLII. changes, stating that they are relatively larger
Tegmen of Megistocrinus in y o u n g S p e c i m e n s A s to the origin and
nodosus, showing radial
homologies of the large interradial plates in
dome-plates, d. (After
Wachsmuth & Springer, Inadunata (here called A or 0 ) , those authors
1S97.) x £. are undecided.
T h e gradual sinking of the ambulacra and their covering-plates
below not only the orals but other tegminal plates, has given rise
in the typical Camerata to structures so differentiated that they
were long misunderstood, and their chief elucidator, Wachsmuth,
believed in 1877 that the tegmen of Palaeozoic crinoids was " a
solid vault or dome," which could not " in the remotest degree be
homologised with the soft
peristome of" recent crinoids.
"It forms," he said, " a part
of the abactinal system"; " a
continuation of the radial and
interradial series of the dorsal
side, and serves merely as a
covering and protection for
the organs underneath."
F r o m this it was generally
inferred that an originally
flexible tegmen (" disc " it was
called, as in recent crinoids) Fio. XLIIL
hflH b p p n n v p r o r n w n b v " a * Tegmen of Cyathocrinus ramosns. The large
n a a Deen o v e r g r o w n Dy a tegminal plates are not homologous with the del-
free a r c h w h i c h braces t h e toid,s' b"' ^squarish central one may be the
... . madreporite. (From Bather, 1893.) x 3.
entire oral side of the body
without the aid of oral plates" ( W & Sp. 1881). T h e disc
remained as an "inner test," in which were ambulacra and
possibly orals. Because of this structure, supposed to obtain to a
greater or less extent in all Palaeozoic crinoids, but not in their
successors, the Crinoidea were divided into Palaeocrinoidea and
Stomatocrinoidea, the latter term being altered by P. H . Carpenter
to Neocrinoidea.
THE CRINOIDEA 129
As fresh facts kept coming to light there was a good deal of

shifting of ground and mutual criticism on the part of Wachsmuth
& Springer and Carpenter. The supposed difference, and con-
sequently the classification, were rejected by Neumayr (1889) and
Bather (1889-90). Independently and synchronously Wachsmuth
& Springer (1889) concluded, chiefly on the evidence of Taxocrinus
intermedins (p. 126), that " in some Palaeozoic crinoids* the mouth is
exposed, and there is no vault aside of the orals "; also that " all
attempts to subdivide the Crinoidea by separating the Palaeozoic
from the Mesozoic and later forms as natural divisions will have
to be abandoned." But it was not till 1891 that they published
their recantation of the view that " the Camerata had a vault and
a subtegminal disk."
The explanation of the Camerate tegmen given by Wachsmuth
& Springer in 1891 was readily accepted and now prevails. It
may be condensed as follows :—The plates of the tegmen were at
first small and yielding, as in the Ichthyocrinidae and in most
recent crinoids; in this state when the arms are open the ventral
surface is depressed, when they are closed it bulges upwards. To
afford better protection to the viscera the tegminal plates became
more solid; the tegmen being thus lessflexiblewas fixed perforce
in its protruded state. The covering-plates of the ambulacra had
perhaps been closed from the begin-
ning, but as, through the upswelling of
the tegmen, the grooves were now more
exposed, further protection was needed.
Consequently they were lowered be-
neath the surface and, starting from
the solid orals, interambulacral plates
closed in over them. Certain of the
covering-plates, however, especially,
it would appear, the axillary pieces,
which perhaps could not so easily be
covered by other plates, became much
stouter, and were still exposed on the
surface as solid radial dome-plates. In FIG. XLIV.
any form highly developed along these rJS^Fu&ZScl^Sfi^

lines, e.g. Cadocrinus (Fig XLIV ) the £ ^ ^ t ^ V 5 ^ 3 8
food-grOOVes, water-vessels, a n d blood- one side of tegmen broken away,
O I ' l l j_T_ jl showing how the food-canals
ahnwillffhowtrio fr»r»H_/»or»alcj pass from
nooo froTti
vessels are sunk right beneath the the arm - openings (Br') under the
tegmen, and are enclosed in a tube tegmen to the upper end of the con-
voluted organ (after F. B. Meek, 1873).
consisting of alternating ambulacrals X g. 2, one of the food-canals, from
above and adambulacrals or side-plates above, further magnified (after Meek).
below. The interambulacral plates of 3, the convoluted organ, from below.
the tegmen send curious extensions into the interior of the calyx, and
these extensions, spreading out, form what used to be regarded as
13° THE CRINOIDEA
a disc. W e may, with Wachsmuth & Springer, regard the exten-

sions as caused by the perforation of the plates for water-canals;
or we may regard them as simple processes for the purpose of
adding strength, without forgoing lightness, by a system of girders.
The supposition just quoted, as to the existence in Camerata
of a complicated water-vascular system, is supported by the
connection of the internal passages
iAmb with small pores near the arm-bases
(Fig. XLV.). Such have been ob-
'-- p — V served by Wachsmuth & Springer
s in Actinocrinidae, Batocrinidae,
Br'
Rhodocrinidae, and Melocrinidae;
they are placed in the cup-wall at
FIG. X L V .
the level of the tegmen, between the
Pores in Camerata. 1, Dolatoevinus
Lyoni, an interradius, showing slit-like arms*and their rami, and their canals
pores (j;) between interambulacrals (after are separated from the subtegminal
Wachsmuth & Springer, 1S97). Nat. size.
2, BatocHnus, showing pores (p) between arm-grooves by a thin partition.
interambulacrals and fixed secundibrachs In Batocrinus, Strotocrinus, Stegano-
(from Brit. Mus. specimen 755!>2). x !j.
B>', passageof arm-canals into thecal cavity.crinus, Eucladocrinus, and others in
which the arms branch off alternately, there is a pore to each ramus
that springs directly from the dorsal cup. Dolatocrinus may have
four to six in each interradius, and two to four between each IIBr
series. Other genera have only ten pores. In Gilbertsocrinus these
are at the end of long tubular extensions of the interradial areas
(Fig. C X X V I L ) . The facts are so plain, that the introduction of
water into the thecal cavity for aeration of the viscera seems prob-
able ; but the connection of these passages with the hydrocoel or
with branches thereof is a different question. The pores may pos-
sibly have replaced the hydropore or the madreporite of certain
Inadunata. In many recent crinoids pores pierce not only the 0.
but the iAmb, often in great numbers, being least numerous in
the posterior IR. Antedon bifida (Fig. XLVI.) is said to have 1500.
They may also occur on the edge of the theca between the arms.
In Actinometra they are chiefly developed near the ventral grooves,
and even on the pinnules. These pores communicate with the
coelom or its extensions (Fig. XLVII.), and so indirectly with the
water-ring. Where there are few pores (e.g. Ehizocrinus, Fig. X.),
a process (stone-canal) stretches out towards each from the ring;
but, when numerous, there is no correspondence between stone-
canals and pores.
The statement has repeatedly been made (by Trautschold,
Lov<m, Wachsmuth & Springer) that pores occur on the suture-
lines between the plates composing the anal tube of many
Inadunata. In the cases to which the last-named authors now
restrict the statement, the tube-plates have strong axial folds, being
no doubt connected along these by thicker ligament, innervated from
THE CRINOIDEA 131
the axial cords (Fig. XLVIII.). The depressions between these folds
are often deep, and it is in them that the pores are said to lie. It
is supposed that such genera have no madreporite, and that the
pores aerated the rectum or a blind extension thereof, for the
anus often opens low d o w n on the anterior face of the tube. The
statement has been definitely disproved for m a n y forms hitherto
said to have such pores. But W a c h s m u t h & Springer (1897,
pi. vii.,figs.2b, 5, 6, 9) support it by figures which, if correct and
1 2
FIG. XLVIII.
Structure of the anal tube in an Inadunate Crinoid, Mastigocrinus loreus. 1, plates in
normal position, from left edge of distal third of tube ; /, transverse folds connecting the main
axial ridges, r 2, plates from the proximal third, disturbed and exposing the articular facets
(art) of the axial ridge. (After Bather, 1892.) x 10 diam.
correctly interpreted, prove it for some species up to the hilt—
and m u c h further. For they show pores not only on the sutures,
but penetrating the plates; not only in the interaxial depressions,
but on the axial folds; not only in the tube, but in the dorsal
cup.
T h e last organ of which the modifications need be considered
THE CRINOIDEA
is the Stem. T h e simplest form of columnal (after the fusion of

the pentameres) is circular, but with a tendency to pentagonal
outline. T h e joint-surface is radiately striated. T h e lumen m a y
be large and circular (Fig. X L I X . 1), or small, and circular or
five-rayed (Fig. X L I X . 2 and 3). T h e assumption of a pentagonal
outline is often accompanied by a restriction of the striation to
the margin and the concentration
of the longitudinal ligament-fibres
in five bands (Figs. X L I X . 4 and
C X I . 7-10). T h e joint-surfaces
m a y become elliptical, with a
fulcral ridge in the long diameter
and ligamentar fossae on either
side; in this case the long diameter
of one end is set at an angle to
that of the other end, and the stem
thus gets a corkscrew twist (e.g.
Platycrinus, Fig. X L I X . 5), and so
can bend in any direction. In a
Russian Carboniferous Platycrinoid
the columnals are square in section,
and the ridges form diagonals at
right angles to one another. In
Bourgueticrinidae, Bathycrinus, and
Fio. XLIX. Ehizocrinus this form of joint is
Types of columnals. 1, Periechocrinus , , j j , •, , ,
(after w. & sP.); 2, Actinocrinusci), from strongly marked, and the columnals
Brit. Mus. E53; 3, ActinocHnus, from Brit. n r p nenillv lrmo- anrl r\ioa Vin-s-
Mus. 38017 ; 4, Silurian, qenus itulet., Brit. a r e usUaiiy long ana QlCe - DOX
Mus. 51J97S, x 2 5 ; 5, Platycrinus, Brit, s h a p e d (Fig. X L I X . 7 ) ; t h e length
x v
Mus. 400; 6, Platycrinus, showing twist .° ' . °
of stem, Brit. Mus. 75900, x j; 7, Rhizo- appears in some cases to be pro-
crinus, from distal region of stem, x 8; J „ „ „ J \.„ t..r.l*~. «£ j- m „ «i. *» .,,—.
8, Antedon sarsi, larva, articular surface of d U C e d b y fusion Of t W O at a S y z y g y .
one of the columnals seen froni the side in T h e S t e m of t h e larval Antedon
9 (after M. Sars). Much enlarged. ^
(Fig. X L I X . 8, 9) has ossicles of the
Bourgueticrinus type and is very flexible. In t w o genera of
distinct origin—Herpetocrinus allied to Heterocrinus, and Campto-
crinus allied to Dichocrinus—the stem is rolled u p round the crown
as shown in Fig. L I X . ; the cirri are, over the greater part of the
stem, confined to two rows along the sides of the ossicles and
directed towards the axis of the coil. In Herpetocrinus the ossicles
become hollowed towards the inside of the coil, and there is a
fulcral ridge parallel to this side; strong (muscular ?) ligament?
were developed towards the outer margin. T h e stem could
uncoil and the crown be projected. T h e structure of the
columnals in Camptocrinus has not been described, but is said to
be similar. W a c h s m u t h & Springer say that such stems are
also found a m o n g allies of Poteriocrinus.
T h e axial canal, which in recent crinoids serves to transmit the
THE CRINOIDEA 133
vascular and nervous prolongations of the chambered organ and

axial organ to columnals and cirrals, m a y in some earlier forms
have served other purposes. The lumen is sometimes extra-
ordinarily wide (40 m m . in the root of Barycrinus, Fig. X V I . 3).
Pores sometimes appear to exist between or through the colum-
nals (e.g. Barycrinus, Crotalocrinus, Fig. L., Traumatocrinus). T h e
distal ends of the cirri sometimes appear to have been open, so
that the large axial canal communicated with the sea - water
(e.g. Barycrinus, Eucalyptocrinus, Cystocrinus, Fig. L. 2). The flat
under surface of encrusting roots is often ridged, as though
grooves put the axial canal in connection with the exterior (e.g.
IAchenocrinus, in which the upper surface is formed of poly-
gonal plates, supported beneath by numerous radiating lamellae).
These bases of attachment are, say Miller & Gurley, "as full of
FIG. L.
The development of "pores" from
cirri. 1, Crotalocrinus, portion of root,
with branching cirri below, and attach-
ments of cirri in upper part. These
latter show the axial canal that passes
from the main axial canal of the stem,
through the thickness of the columnals,
to each cirrus, and continues to the end
of the cirrus. Nat. size. 2, Cystocrinus
tennesscensis, part of stem, showing
stumpy aborted cirri, Willi axial canals
opening at their ends. Nat. size. 3,
Crotalocrinus, part of stem, showing
crenulate sutures between columnals,
and on the columnals the atrophied
attachments of cirri ;• compare with the
extreme upper part of fig. 1. x 5 diam.
4, Crotalocrinus, part of stem, showing
total disappearance of cirrus-attachment,
and only the axial canals remaining as
"pores" piercing the columnals. X 5
diam. (From Bather, 1898.)
pores as sponges." On the theory here adopted as to the origin
of the stem, a greater extern n of the viscera into it in early
forms is probable; the chambered organ itself m a y have been
placed some w a y d o w n it (compare evolution of siphuncle from
visceral cone in Cephalopoda). Assuming that the soft structures
contained in the stem-lumen needed aeration, W a c h s m u t h &
Springer have supposed that streams of sea - water entered
by these pores. This suggestion seems no more happy than
Miller & Gurley's idea that "the mucous or fluid substance,
that contained the material for the base, passed through the
columnar canal into the pores of the base and was deposited in
a softer state than it afterward assumed.'' W e may, however,
suppose that these passages served the double purpose of trans-
mitting nutrientfluidto the mesoderm cells depositing the outer
layers of stereom as the stem and root grew wider by concentric
accretion, and of aerating the same fluid by bringing it near the
oxygenated sea-water.
134 THE CRINOIDEA
In some genera, and especially, as Jaekel has suggested, in

those exposed to rough water or currents, the stem shortened con-
siderably while its attachment was preserved (e.g. Eugeniacrinidae,
Fig. C X X . , Cupressocrinus). Cotylederma, Eudesicrinus, and Cyathidium
are fossil genera, Holopus (Fig. C X X L ) , a recent genus, in all which
the stem is reduced to a mere mass of stereom cementing the cup
to some solid object.
Although the Crinoidea are the Echinoderms in which the
Pelmatozoan habit has had most effect on the anatomy, yet they
present a constant tendency to relinquish the attached m o d e of
life and to lose that typical organ, the stem. So early as the
Ordovician, stems are found that during the life of the animal
were separated from the root, and became attached to other
objects, either by the remaining cirri, or
by winding around them. Often the
distal end of the stem formed a coiled
support like a serpent's tail (e.g. Acantho-
crinus rex, Jaekel, 1895). In some Silu-
rian genera (e.g. Calceocrinus, Mastigo-
crinus) stems have been described that
were rounded off at the distal end during
life. In Herpetocrinus the stem was rarely
if ever attached by anything except its
cirri; while in the species described by
Hall as Brachiocrinus nodosarius, the stem
ends distally in a bulb. In the Devonian
Myrtillocrinus the stem ended in a four-
fluked grapnel ( = Ancyrocrinus, Fig. LI.).
Similar detachment took place in m a n y
Carboniferous and Mesozoic crinoids ; the
recent Isocrinus ( — Pentacrinus) is known
to change its place, probably by swimming
with its arms, and the lower surface of
the distal columnal is "smoothed and
FIG. LI. rounded" (Wyville Thomson, 1873).
Grapnel of Myrtillocriwus (after Addiction to this habit led to the
Hall). gradual shortening of the stem; in
Millericrinus Pratti all stages have been described by P, H.
Carpenter (1882), from a stem of seventy columnals over 50
m m . long, d o w n to a single ossicle, the proximale (Fig. LIL).
Continuance of this process led to the evolution, along m a n y
different lines, of crinoids that are generally described as un-
stalked, and for which older writers were wont to erect an order,
Astylida. These fall into three groups: First, those in which a
portion of the stem remains, becoming compressed and fused, with or
without the infrabasals, into a cirrus-bearing compound ossicle, to
THE CRINOIDEA 135
which the term " centro-dorsal" was originally applied, and to which
it must be restricted (e.g. Antedon, Eudiocrinus, Thaumatocrinus ; see
Figs. CXVII.-CXIX.). These forms anchor themselves by their
cirri, and though capable of crawling, climbing, and swimming, do
not often exercise their faculty of locomotion. Secondly, the group
in which either a portion of remaining stem, or the lower part of
the cup (i.e. B B or IBB), becomes solidified, usually by additional
deposition of stereom, into a knob, which, one m a y suppose, serves
as ballast or as a sea-anchor; such forms are Agassizocrinus (p. 181),
Edriocrimis (Fig. C X I L ) , and Millericrinus Pratti (Fig. LIL). Both
of these groups have a small calycal cavity with thick walls, and
there can be little doubt but that all are attached by a stem in the
earlier stages of ontogeny. T h e third group, comprising Marsupites
(Fig. CIV.), Saccocoma (Fig. L X V I I L ) , and Uintacrinus (Fig. C O . ) ,
3 4
FIG. LIL
Stages in the loss of the stem by

Millericrinus Pratti. 1, cnp with stem of
seventy columnals ( x f). 2, distal end of a
stem, with apparent root (natural size).
3, cup with fairly long stem, with inter-
calated new columnals (natural size). 4,
cup with stem of twenty columnals ( x 3).
5, cup with stem offivecolumnals (x 3).
<>, lower part of crown, with stem reduced
to a pentagonal plate (c), with slight
trace of atrophied next columnal (x i).
7, base, closed below by a single plate
(c), with no trace of lumen or of other
columnals. This plate is the proximale
(p of 3 and 4), but is covered by second-
ary stereom (x 2). (All after P. H. Car-
penter.)
has no trace of a stem or of any anchoring structure, but is in all

respects adapted for free locomotion; the calycal cavity is large in
proportion to the thickness of the arms, and is enclosed by thin
flexible walls. Of these three genera, Saccocoma is the most special-
ised, and is supposed by Jaekel (1893) to have been pelagic, living
in swarms. Uintacrinus, with its extraordinarily long and movable
arms, m a y also have been pelagic. T h e genera of this third group,
although of origin as diverse as those in the other groups, resemble
one another in the presence of a central, pentagonal, apical plate.
This in Saccocoma m a y be the fused basals; in Uintacrinus and Marsu-
pites it represents neither basals nor infrabasals, but m a y be the
proximale, or the supposed distal columnar plate ("dorso-central"),
or a n e w supplementary plate. It is safest to call it centrale.
Another curious modification, perhaps connected with a free-
floating existence, was presented by the root of Scyphocrinus.
This swelled out into a hollow, chambered, balloon-like body,
referred by Barrande to an independent class of Echinoderms under
136 THE CRINOIDEA
the n a m e Lobolithus, and described by Hall as a float, which he

called Camarocrinus.
A s regards the internal organs of the crinoid not m u c h can be
said. T h e most remarkable modifications are those affecting the
Gut. In most recent crinoids this makes a simple dextral coil
around the thecal cavity, from central m o u t h to eccentric anus.
T h e mouth m a y be slightly shifted anteriorly by increase in size
of the anus, or by the anal tube coming to occupy the centre of
the tegmen, as in Batocrinus, or even to pass beyond it towards
the anterior margin, as in Siphonocrinus (p. 199). But the mouth
remains in the axis of the coil, and such forms are called "endo-
cyclic." In Actinometra (p. 196) the gut winds in the same way,
but instead of issuing immediately the first coil is completed,
it continues to coil, not however around the axis of the
mouth but around the axis of the anus. T h e mouth, with its
annular accompaniments, therefore lies between the outer coil and
the next one, and not in the axis of the coil; such a form is called
"exocyclic." This type of coiling does not correspond to the
two coils of the echinoid gut, since those are formed by a loop
returning on itself, in the w a y that any tube or cord fixed at the
extremities is necessarily lengthened. T h e coil of the gut in
Actinometra is therefore doubly peculiar. Yet in the number of
its coils itfindsa parallel a m o n g the Camerata. In m a n y of these
(e.g. Teleiocrinus, Cactocrinus, Batocrinus, Strotocrinus, Macrocrinus,
Eutrochocrinus, Hdbrocrinus, and Dimerocrinus) the gut seems to
have been supported by a loose, spicular calcification of the
connective tissue around the axial sinus, forming a " convoluted
organ " not unlike the shell of Bulla (Fig. X L I V 3). Probably the
oesophagus passed d o w n the hollow axis, then the gut coiled
dextrally in a widening spire, and the rectum passed u p outside,
often along a thickened rim. The number of coils was at least three
in a Batocrinus figured by W a c h s m u t h and Springer (1897, pi. v.
fig. 6). It is remarkable that two of their figures (ib.figs.5
and 7), if correctly described, show a sinistral coil. There is no
reason to suppose that the coil of the gut was ever other than
dextral in any class or order of Echinoderma, though Jaekel
(1897) has m a d e an unconvincing attempt to prove that it was
sinistral in Camerata, Cystidea, and Blastoidea.
In Bathycrinus, Ehizocrinus, and the larval Antedon, the mid-gut,
at the bottom of the thecal cavity, is widened into a stomach.
In Bathycrinus and Ehizocrinus are also interradial diverticula from
the outer side of the coil, supported by processes from the brachials
(Fig. LIIL). Such diverticula were present in the Silurian Habro-
crinus, if the evidence of the convoluted organ and of Angelin
(1878, pi. xxvi. f. 12) can be relied on. In Pentacrinus and
Antedonidae, and to a less extent in Bathycrinus, the gut-wall on
THE CRINOIDEA 137
the inner side of the coil is thrown into folds or villi (Fig. L I V ) .
In Actinometra, however, with its long coil, such plication is slight.
Sacculi (Fig. LV.) are structures confined to this class. They
are globular sacs surrounded by mesoderm, but lying close beneath
the epithelium, usually of the external surface. T h e lower wall
of each sacculus is clothed with rather large nucleated cells,
apparently derived from mesoderm, and from these grow u p
processesfilledwith refringent granules of albuminoid substance.
Each process elongates and becomes attached to the upper (i.e.
outer) wall of the sacculus by a filament. T h e granular portion
of the cell m a y then separate from the nucleated base, and finally
m a y burst, setting free the granules. These granules, colourless
in life, are stained on death by the yellow pigment of the peri-
some, and show strong affinity for most staining reagents. T h e
l.j^JÎ
FIO. LV.
FIO. LIV.
Section of a nearly ripe sac-
FIG. LIII. Longitudinal section of culus of Antedon bifida, int,
wall of anal tube of Antedon superficial layer of integument;
Section across the thecal bifida, showing villi (v) of/,fibrillarattachments of con-
cavity of Bathycrinus Al- rectal wall and their gland tained cells to integument; cut,
dricliianus, at the level ofcells (g). In the connective cutis surrounding sacculus, and
second primibrachs, show- tissue layer are plates of containing nuclei (n*); g, granu-
ing interradial processes of stereom (st), and outside is lar masses of the contained cells ;
stomach (st), the rectum (r), epithelium (c). (Diagram- the large nuclei of these cells are
and the axial organ (ax). matised from Haniann.) seen below in the lining epi-
(Diagrammatised from P. Greatly magnified. thelium (cp) of the sacculus.
H. Carpenter.) x 7 diam. (After Cuenot.) x 200 diam.
sacculi occur chiefly at the edges of the food-grooves; and the
side-plates, w h e n highly developed, are notched for their reception
(as seen in Fig. IX. 2). They have also been observed in the
walls of the gut, in the mesenteries, and above the chambered
organ. They are developed so soon as the larva begins to feed.
Sacculi have been regarded as calcigenous glands (Wyville Thomson),
mucous glands (Bury), excretory organs (Ludwig), symbiotic algae,
" Zooxanthellae " (Vogt & Jung), and accumulations of reserve
material (Walther, and especially Cuenot, 1891). Since the com-
prehensive account by the last-named, little has been written on
the subject, and his view has found general favour. Sacculi occur
in Antedon, Promachocrinus, Eudiocrinus, Atelecrinus, Ehizocrinus,
Bathycrinus, and Pentacrinus ; they are certainly absent from Actino-
metra, and probably from all other recent genera. This fact renders
their occurrence of taxonomic value.
i3« THE CRINOIDEA
THE CLASSIFICATION O F T H E CRINOIDEA.
W h e n the modifications above described have been grasped, when it

is remembered that these are only the more usual among the changes
that take place, and that there are others even more remarkable, and
when it is learned that most of these may affect members of any group
at any period, then it will be understood that the decipherment of the
few and fragmentary leaves of crinoid history that have been preserved
to us has been a long and difficult task, full of vain attempt and
rejected theory, and that classification after classification has been raised
but to fall; and still the leading writers cannot agree, even provisionally.
A n admirable account of the literature on this class, from Agricola,
in 1558, to C. F. Koemer, in 1853, was given by de Koninck and Lv
H o n (1854), and supplemented by W . B. Carpenter (1866). The
nomenclature of genera and species dates, of course, from 1758, the year
of publication of the tenth edition of Linnaeus's Systema Naturae; but
neither Linnaeus nor his immediate successors were more happy in their
dealings with this then little known group than more ancient authors.
It was J. S. Miller of Dantzig and Bristol, who, in 1821, laid the
foundation for a scientific knowledge and classification of the C R I N O I D E A ,
as he was thefirstto name them. Accounts of the subsequent growth of
knowledge and theory are so accessible in Zittel (1879, 1899), P. H.
Carpenter (1884), and Wachsmuth and Springer (1897), that only the
main stages need recalling, and that briefly.
Miller's C R I N O I D E A excludes unstalked genera; the others known to
him are divided into : — A R T I C U L A T A : ossicula forming the cup articula-
ting, Apiocrinus, Pentacrinus, Encrinus. S E M I - A R T I C U L A T A : plates of cup
articulating imperfectly, Poteriocrinus. I N A R T I C U L A T A : plates adhering by
sutures, lined by muscular integument, Cyathocriniis, Actinocrinus, Rhodo-
crinus, Platycrinus. C O A D U N A T A : proximal ossicles of cup anchylosed to
proximal columnal, Eugeniacrinus. The principles of classification here
adopted profoundly influenced subsequent attempts, while the genera
form the types of modern families.
Joh. Miiller (1843) meant by "Crinoidea" all Pelmatozoa, dis
tinguishing the crinoids proper as Crinoidea brachiata. A m o n g these
he retained Miller's A R T I C U L A T A , adding to it the Antedonidae, and
stating that the rays developed from the base of the cup, and merged
into the free arms ; that the proximal plates of the rays were laterally
united by an integument continuous with that of the ventral surface;
that the radial and first primibrach, the primaxil and first secundi-
brach, were joined by muscles, but thefirstand second primibrachs by
muscles or syzygy; and that food-grooves, mouth, and anus were
visible on the tegmen. The peculiar genus Saccocoma, unknown
to Miller, was made the type of the C O S T A T A : stemless, without centro-
dorsal, and with processes from the brachials (pinnulae oppositae, Miiller).
Haplocrinus mespiliformis was separated under the head T E S T A C E A • cup
and tegmen forming afirm,connected test, with five ambulacra running
up to the mouth. Holopus was regarded as an entirely independent and
peculiar division of the Crinoidea (sensu lato), on account of its sessile cup
THE CRINOIDEA 139
and the supposed absence of an anus ; but no group name was proposed.
All other crinoids then knewn were placed in the T E S S E L L A T A , which
included the unstalked Marsupites; their cup was said to be composed
entirely of plates, to which names were given (BB, R R , Ax, etc.), and
their tegmen was said to be solid, with only one opening, and with no
food-grooves. This classification, while retaining as a guide the mode of
union of the plates, took also into consideration the structure of the tegmen.
Zittel (1879) divided the Crinoidea brachiata, E U C R I X O I D E A , as he
called them, into three sub-orders, on the basis of Midler's classification,
but merging Holopits and the Testacea in the Articulata. T E S S E L A T A :
cup-plates thin, immovably united by simple suture ; tegmen solidly
plated; mouth subtegminal; Marsupites, Uintacrinus, and all Palaeozoic
crinoids. A R T I C U L A T A : cup-plates usually very thick, united by articu-
lating or plane sutures ; tegmen integumentary, rarely plated, with open
food-grooves and central mouth ; all Neozoic forms, except those here
mentioned under other sub-orders. C O S T A T A : Saccocoma (see under
Miiller). B y this time several families had been founded, notably by
C. F. Roenier (1855) and Angelin (1878). These were added to by
Zittel, and those of the Tesselata arranged in groups, chiefly according
to the construction of the tegmen. Most of the families were well
founded, but the characters of the Tesselata and Articulata, though
applicable to a few genera, were not really capable of extension to all the
forms that had become known since the time of Miiller.
Wachsmuth's establishment of the P A L A E O C R I N O I D E A in 1877, "to
include those forms in which the disc is roofed by a second integument,
which he supposed to exist in all Palaeozoic crinoids" (W. & Sp.),
has already been noticed. The order covered nearly the same ground
as the Tessellata, and opposed to it was the order Stomatocrinoidea
or N E O C R I N O I D E A , corresponding roughly to the Articulata. Carpenter
& Etheridge (1881) accepted the division, but laid more stress on the
asymmetry of the posterior interradius in Palaeocrinoidea, and therefore
suggested I R R E G U L A R I A and R E G U L A R I A .
Wachsmuth & Springer (1885) divided their Palaeocrinoidea into
three sub-orders, originally suggested by Wachsmuth's study of the tegmen.
C A M E R A T A : tegmen rigid, formed of rather large thick plates ; brachia
in part rigidly incorporated in cup by means of interbrachials; Reteo-
crinidae, Rhodocrinidae, Thysanocrinidae, Glyptasteridae, Melocrinidae,
Actinocrinidae, Platycrinidae, Hexacrinidae, Eucalyptocrinidae, Barrandeo-
crinidae, and Acrocrinidae. A R T I C U L A T A : tegmen flexible, formed of
minute plates; brachia may or may not be partly incorporated in cup,
but not rigidly ; Ichthyocrinidae, Crotalocrinidae.1 I N A D U N A T A : brachia
not incorporated in cup. These were divided into L A R V I F O R M I A :
tegmen of few plates; "disc" covered by "vault"; Haplocrinidae.
Cupressocrinidae, Gasterocomidae,2 Stephanocrinidae; and F I S T U L A T A :
"disc"not entirely covered by "vault," but passes out as a porous
" ventral sac " ; Hybocrinidae, Heterocrinidae, Anomalocrinidae, Belemno-
crinidae, Cyathocrinidae, Calceocrinidae, Catillocrinidae, Poteriocrinidae,
Encrinidae, Astylocrinidae.
1 2
Removed to Camerata in 1888. Removed to Fistulata in 1890.
140 THE CRINOIDEA
It must always have been obvious that the Neocrinoidea were a

polyphyletic group derived from the Palaeocrinoidea ; the difficulty has
been to trace the relationship. This task, however, was forced upon us
w h e n those orders were finally rejected. Since that rejection did not
carry with it the overthrow of Wachsmuth and Springer's sub-orders, the
practical result was the raising of them to the rank of orders, in which
Neozoic crinoids had to be appropriately placed.
P. H . Carpenter (1889) referred all Neozoic crinoids to the Articu-
lata (W. and Sp.) as a sub-order, P I N N A T A , with pinnules ; while the
Ichthyocrinidae constituted a sub-order, I M P I N N A T A , without pinnules.
This had the advantage of making Articulata, W . & Sp., very nearly
the same as Articulata, Miiller. But there is- reason to believe that
the Pentacrinidae are descended directly from the dicyclic Inadunata ;
and since Pentacrinus (i.e. Isocrinus) was Midler's type, one can hardly
escape confusion in using the term Articulata for a group that
excludes the Pentacrinidae. F L E X I B I L I A , Zittel (1895), is superior
and prior to W a c h s m u t h & Springer's proposed substitute A R T I C U L O S A
(1897), which, moreover, was used in a different sense by Jaekel (1894).
O n e reason for the above reference of the Pentacrinidae is the
discovery by W a c h s m u t h & Springer (1897) that in the Flexibilia the
top columnal is not the latest formed, but a persistent proximale, usually
fused with the infrabasals ; whereas in Pentacrinidae, as in Camerata and
Inadunata, the top columnal is merely the latest formed, and continually
moves from its proximal position as n e w columnals develop. This, along
with the other characters, seems to confirm the independent nature of the
order Flexibilia ; at the same time, the resemblance of early genera
to contemporaneous Inadunata is so striking, that one must suppose the
Flexibilia Impinnata to be derived from non-pinnulate dicyclic Inadunata.
Then the want of links between Impinnata and Pinnata suggests that
the process m a y have been repeated, and that Pinnata were derived
from Triassic pinnulate Inadunata (Fistulata, W . & Sp.). Whether the
m o d e of stem-growth indicates affinity or parallel modification is a point
that demands investigation.
The Larviformia of W a c h s m u t h & Springer are generally accepted as
the most primitive Crinoidea, and as representing the ancestral type of
all the orders. O n this ground the group might be retained, not
as a sub-order of Inadunata, but as an Urgruppe, or an independent
order (Zittel, 1895). But their geological age forbids us to regard the
k n o w n genera and species as themselves ancestral to far older forms. If
then they be placed with other Inadunata, the question arises whether
the distinction of the dicyclic and monocyclic base is not more funda-
mental than the varying development of the tegmen. A complex tegmen
is a development from a simple one, but between dicyclic and monocyclic
the barrier runs back to archaean ignorance (Bather, 1893).
T h e Camerata, like the Flexibilia, form an order fairly well defined
on a morphological basis. But here too there are grounds for suggesting
that the modifications m a y have occurred more than once. T h e evolution
of pinnules, of biserial arms, of fixed brachials, interbrachials, and the
like, even of a solid tegmen, m a y all be traced a m o n g Inadunata (e.g.
THE CRINOIDEA 141
Botryocrinus, Encrinus, Uintacrinus, Crotalocrinus, Cyathocrinus). The

Reteocrinidae (W. & Sp.) present us with the Articulate or Flexible stage
of the Camerata, and include both Dicyclica and Monocyclica. It is
reasonable to suppose that the monocyclic Melocrinidae, Calyptocrinidae,
Batocrinidae, and Actinocrinidae were derived from monocyclic ancestors,
whether Reteocrinidae or others, and that the dicyclic Thysanocrinidae
and Rhodocrinidae were derived from dicyclic Reteocrinidae and similar
forms. O n the other hand, the Platycrinidae, and their descendants,
Hexacrinidae and Acrocrinidae, are closer to the Inadunata, and sprang
probably from monocyclic genera, independently and at a later period.
T h e Crotalocrinidae, which W a c h s m u t h and Springer n o w place in the
Camerata, are at any rate of totally different origin from all other Camerata,
and are intimately allied to Cyathocrinus and Gissocrinus a m o n g the
dicyclic Inadunata.
Previous authors have attempted to m a k e their classification serve as
a key to structure rather than as an epitome of descent. A n d the above
considerations suggest that W a c h s m u t h & Springer's system, though far
the best from an anatomical standpoint, is not the phylogenetic classifica-
tion sought by the modern biologist.
A bold attempt at a phylogenetic classification is shortly to be brought
out by Jaekel. F r o m his preliminary notice (1894) and subsequent
writings it appears that he separates the Camerata (W. & Sp.), under the
n a m e C L A D O I D E A , from the rest, to which he restricts the n a m e C R I N O I D E A .
The Crinoidea have radials,fivearms with brachials, and ramuli (Jaekel,
supra), and anal plates connected with right posterior radial ; their origin
is from such a simple type as has been described above. The Cladoidea
originated independently from a many-plated cystid, in which numerous
arms produced as m a n y rows of supporting plates (costalia) in the cup, not
homologous with radials and brachials ; the free costalia bear pinnulae
(Jaekel, supra). T h e resemblances between Cladoidea and Crinoidea are
admittedly great, but all to be explained comfortably by homoplasy and con-
vergence. T h e Crinoidea (Jaekel) are divided into : — F I S T U L A T A : the root-
group, with primitive, simple calyx ; including the generally accepted genera,
also Porocrinus, Crotalocrinidae, and Marsupites. L A R V A T A : essentially
the same as Larviformia ( W & Sp.), but supposed to be derived from
Fistulata, perhaps through Heterocrinidae. C O S T A T A : " arms give off
undivided, alternating side-branches, serving in part for reception of
gonads ; cup usually thin-walled and spacious, composed of a circlet of
large R R and a tripartite or fused base. N o anal plates or tube ; tegmen
simple, offive0, to which suboralia 1 m a y be added " ; Hybocrinidae, Hapa-
locrinidae, Plicatocrinidae, Hyocrinidae, Saccocomidae, Rhizocrinidae (?).
A R T I C U L O S A : the old Articulata, W . & Sp. non Miiller ; Lecanocrinidae,
Ichthyocrinidae, Taxocrinidae. A R T I C U L A T A , Miiller non W . & Sp.:
derived from Fistulata not from Articulosa ; Encrinidae, Pentacrinidae,
Apiocrinidae, Eugeniacrinidae, Antedonidae. Jaekel's proposals are here
alluded to in order that the student m a y understand the terms used in
his forthcoming finely illustrated work. They are valuable as suggesting
research for a large amount of confirmatory evidence.
1
"Die Oralia mit den Radialien verbindenden Pldttchen."
142 THE CRINOIDEA
The Classification here adopted keeps accepted terms so far as

possible, but the distribution of the groups is very different from that
hitherto accepted. Dividing all Crinoidea into M O N O C Y C L I C A and
DICYCLICA, we trace in each order a gradual and to some extent parallel
modification, here and there diverging in somewhat similar directions.
Thus the simplest forms in each order are I N A D U N A T A , with free distinct
arms, and pass from a Larviform stage, with simple tegmen, to a Fistulate
stage, with more complex anal tube and tegmen. At an early period
(? Cambrian) in the history of the Monocyclica, the Camerate modification,
viz. rigid incorporation of brachials in cup and ambulacrals in tegmen,
•ffected a few forms, and thus arose M O N O C Y C L I C A C A M E R A T A . At a later
p .od (Silurian) was a repetition of this modification, but one affecting the
MONOCYCLICA. DICYCLICA
INADUNATA.
k
Cambrian. (LARVIFORMIA)
Ordovician.
Silurian. ADUNATA
Devonian.
Carboniferous.
Permian.
Trias.
Jurassic.
(ARTICULATA).
Cretaceous. Fio. LVI.
Tertiary.
Recent
Supposed Relations of the Orders and
Sub-Orders of Crinoidea.
I 1
cup to a far less extent, and resulting chiefly in a solid tegmen and biserial
arms ; thus arose the M O N O C Y C L I C A A D U N A T A (or Platycrinoidea), which
even Wachsmuth and Springer find a difficulty in placing with the
Camerata. These two highly specialised branches died out before the
close of the Palaeozoic epoch, the Adunata outliving the Camerata ; but
the simpler Inadunate forms continued, and reached a high degree of
specialisation in their Jurassic descendants, to which the living Hyocrinus
is closely related. The Dicyclica Inadunata similarly gave off the
DICYCLICA C A M E R A T A , which persisted only a little less long than their
monocyclic convergents. The dicyclic Crotalocrinidae of the Silurian
are curiously parallel to the Monocyclica Adunata, but it is not worth
while to separate them from the typical Inadunata. About the same time
arose among the Dicyclic Inadunata the modification that resulted in
the FLEXIBILIA, with brachials loosely incorporated in dorsal cup. The
THE CRINOIDEA 143
Dicyclic Inadunata came to their acme in Carboniferous times, and only

those forms persisted to Neozoic and Recent periods which assumed an
Articulate modification, viz. a loose lateral union of proximal brachials,
as seen in Pentacrinidae, which are convergent^ of the Neozoic Flexibilia.
The latter sub-order was represented during Palaeozoic times by the
Ichthyocrinoidea (Impinnata) ; between them and the Neozoic Apio-
crinidae, Bourgueticrinidae, etc. (Pinnata), the links are missing, but may
yet be found among Permian and Triassic crinoids (cf. p. 140). At any
rate, the Neozoic Flexibilia, when they assumed the free-swimming habit,
took a new lease of life and have their acme in our own day.
The systematic account of the Crinoidea may be prefaced by a table
of the terms and symbols employed in technical description, as explained
for the most part in the preceding pages.
PLATES OF PATINA Seepage 112

Infrabasal IB 99
Basal B 99
Superbasal SB 159
Radial. R 99
Inferradial Ri 112
Superradial Rs 112
Radianal RA 119
Pararadial PR 150
BRACHIALS Br
free , Br ; fixed, 100, 112
Primibrachs . ,, IBr , IBr 114
First primibrach IBr, 115
Second primibrach IBr2 115
Primaxil IAx 114
Secundibrachs. ,, IIBr „ IIBr 114
Secundaxil IIAx 114
Tertibrachs IIIBr 114
Quartibrachs IVBr 114
and so on to the
Finials F 115
AMBULACRALS A m b or c.P- 100, 115
Primambulacs. IAmb 115
Secundambulacs IIAmb 115
and so on.
INTERRADIAL A N D SUPPLEMENTARY
ELEMENTS . „ 109
An, interradius IR 20
Interbrachials iBr „ H8
Intersecundibrachs illBr „ H8
and so on.
Special anal plate (or proximal
median plate of anal tube) X 119
Proximal tube-plate on right rt „ 121
Corresponding plate on left It ,, 121
Deltoids A 100
here regarded as homologous with
Orals 0 124
Interambulacrals iAmb 118
Interprimambulacs ilAmb 118
Intersecundambulacs illAmb 118
The various radii and interradii are denoted as explained in the table
on p. 110.
144 THE CRINOIDEA
W e n o w proceed to review the sub-classes, orders, and families

of Crinoidea.
SUB-CLASS 1. MONOCYCLICA, Bather (1899).

Crinoidea in which the base consists of B B only, the aboral prolonga-
tions of the chambered organ being interradial; new columnals are
introduced at the extreme proximal end of the stem.
ORDER 1. Monocyclica Inadunata

(= I N A D U N A T A , W . & Sp. pars, emend.)
Monocyclica in which the dorsal cup is confined to the patina and
occasional intercalated anals ; such A m b or i A m b as enter the tegmen
remain supra-tegminal and not rigidly united.
Thirty-one genera are here referred to this order. Of these, 20
diverge from the normal symmetry to a greater extent than by the intro-
duction of anals, viz. 10 through the horizontal bisection of certain RR,
other than r. post. R, usually r. and 1. ant. R R , while the remaining R R
often increase in width ; 8 through such increase in width of certain R R
(usually 1. post. R and ant. R), often accompanied by variation in the
number of arms directly springing from R R ; 1 by disappearance of a
radial (an occurrence also found in some of the other genera), and apparent
increase in number of arms springing from R R (as in some other genera).
Only 2 of the genera have regularly pinnulate arms, and in 15 the arms
are unbranched. In 14, O are not separated from one another or from
R R ; 11 at least have no anal tube, while in 6 of those the anus if it
existed must have pierced post. 0. In the rest the anal tube was always
supported by a well-defined median ridge of plates, simulating Br. In
Dicyclica Inadunata such characters as these are confined to very few
forms, and those the oldest. Therefore, as well as on anatomical grounds,
we infer that the prevalence of these characters denotes a primitive order.
There is considerable parallelism of development between early In-
adunate forms of Dicyclica and Monocyclica; nevertheless, most of the
Monocyclic genera fall into clearly marked groups, with which no Dicyclica
can be confused. The Hybocrinidae and Stephanocrinus are here taken
first, because of their simple structure aud resemblance to Eublastoidea.
At a very early period the Heterocrinid type must have arisen, through
horizontal bisection of R R (antea, p. 112) and branching of arms. Iocrinus
and Anomalocrinus may be early offshoots from that Hne of descent;
Herpetocrinus and the Calceocrinidae are other remarkably specialised off-
shoots, the latter surviving to Carboniferous times. Starting afresh from
the Hybocrinidae, the exaggeration of size in certain R R became more
pronounced in the Pisocrinidae, which, by addition of supplementary
radials and arms, lead up through Calycanthocrinus and Mycocrinus to
Catillocrinus, a type presenting a strange convergence to Halysiocrinus.
Zophocrinus, Allagecrinus, and certainly Haplocrinus appear to be aberrant
from this line of descent. The more regular Symbathocrinidae with
their simple arms, represent either the direct descendants of the Hybo-
crinidae or a return from the Pisocrinidae to a more normal structure.
THE CRINOIDEA 145
The Carboniferous Belemnocrinus simulates many Dicyclica in the com-

plexity of its anal tube, but in arm-structure may be regarded as inter-
mediate between the Heterocrinidae and certain Neozoic Monocyclica.
Of these latter, thefirstto appear are the Plicatocrinidae, and from them
spring the Jurassic Saccocoma and the Recent Hyocrinus.
F A M I L Y 1. H Y B O C R I N I D A E . Monocyclica Inadunata, in which R R differ
but slightly in size and shape, except r. post. R, which supports on its
left shoulder the proximal plate (x) of the rudimentary anal tube, when
present, while its right shoulder is separated by a slanting suture from
the lower part of the plate and bears an arm. BB, 5. Arms, 3-5,
unbranched, uniserial, non-pinnulate, less wide than RR. O, so far as
known, large, with traces of hydrospires, not separated from R R by
supplementary plates ; post. O cut into by anus and pierced by hydropore.
A m b rest on adjacent edges of 0. Genera—Hybocystis, Wether by (1880,
see p. 95, Fig. I.); Hybocrinus, Billings (185 7,-59; syn. Indianocrinus,
Mill. & Gurl.), Ordovician and Silurian, N. America (Figs. LVII. 3, VI.
and XXXVI.) ; Hoplocrinus, Grewingk (1867), Ordovician, Russia, includes
Baerocrinus (Fig. LVII. 1, 2, 4). For chief literature see AV. & Sp. (91).
Fio. LVII.
Hybocrinidae. 1, Hoplocrinus dipentas (type); 2, Hoplocrinus dipentas (var.); 3, Hybocrinus
tumidus; 4, "Baerocrinus" Ungerni.
FAMILY 2. STEPHANOCRINIDAE. Monocyclica Inadunata, with 5 equal RR,

each bearing an arm in a deep radial sinus. BB, 3, the unfused B being
usually r. ant. as in Blastoidea. Arms branched. O large, with traces of
hydrospires (?) at their junction with R R ; anus at junction of post. O with
R R , with minute valvular covering. A m b , often fused, rest on adjacent
edges of O, and 5 large ones, often fused, cover the peristome. G e n u s —
Stephanocrinus, Conrad (1842, see p. 96, Fig. II.), Silurian, N. America
and Britain, and as "Rhombifera mira" in Bohemia. The arms are
said to branch, but no two observers agree as to the mode of branching,
and in fact it seems to differ in the various ambulacra of the few
specimens that preserve the arms (R. P. Whitfield in litt).
F A M I L Y 3. H E T E R O C R I N I D A E . Monocyclica Inadunata, with x usually
resting on left shoulder of r. post. Rs, and partly on right shoulder of
1. post. R, but sometimes sunk between the two, and always supporting a
long anal tube. BB, 5. Arms, 5, with proximal Br usually full width of
R R ; isotomous or heterotomous, or bifurcate with armlets ; non-pinnu-
late. 5 0, without perisomic plates, have been observed in Heterocrinus
heterodactylus juvenis, but the relations of A m b to tegmen are unknown.
Genera—Iocrinus, Hall (1866), Ordovician, N. America (Figs. X X V I . 1;
XXVIII.; and LVIII. 1); primitive in its isotomous arms, and R R similar
in shape and undivided, except r. post. R, from which an upper portion,
in shape like an axillare, is separated by a horizontal suture, and bears an
arm on its r. shoulder, and on its 1. shoulder a line of ossicles supporting
io
146 THE CRINOIDEA
an anal tube. Therefore for this line of descent, such a position of the
median dorsal rib of the anal tube is considered primitive (among Dicyclica
a similar stage is presented by Merocrinus). Anal tube somewhat com-
plicated. Stem markedly pentagonal, with 5 interradial sutures. Hetero-
crinus, Hall (1843, em. S. A . Miller, 1889, syn. Stenocrinus, W . & Sp.);
Ectenocrinus, Miller (1889) ; and Ohiocrinus, W . & Sp. (1886), are best
k n o w n from Ordovician, N . America, but certainly had representatives
in Europe, where also they were preceded in Cambrian seas by " Dendro-
crinus cambriensis," Hicks (1873), which seems allied to Iocrinus. They
agree in the transverse bisection of r. and 1. ant. R R , in addition to
r. post. R (exceptionally 1. ant. R is simple, and ant. R m a y be compound in
its stead); in the partial entry of the proximal plate of the anal tube into
the cup, since it n o w rests partly on 1. post. R, though more intimately
connected with r. post. Rs (Fig. X X V I I . ) ; in the departure from isotomy
in the direction of two rami with armlets. In Heterocrinus, Ohiocrinus,
Fio. LVIII.
Heterocrinidae. 1, Iocrinus; 2, Heterocrinus bellevillensis; 3, Ectenocrinus; 4, Anomalo-
crinus.
and Iocrinus the stem is pentagonal and quinquepartite ; in Ectenocrinus

almost circular and tripartite. The anal tube is straight and narrow
in Heterocrinus and Ectenocrinus, spirally coiled in Ohiocrinus (cf.
Botryocrinus, Streptocrinus). Ectenocrinus has almost reached a pinnulate
stage of arm-branching, since the Br form syzygial pairs. Anomalo-
crinus, M e e k & Worthen (1885 ; syn. Ataxocrinus, Lyon), Ordovician, N .
America, differs from the last three genera: (1) in greater irregularity of
R R , 1. post. R being larger than the others and often bisected vertically
(1. ant. R or ant. R, as well as r. post. R, are horizontally bisected as usual); (2)
in its peculiar arm-branching (Fig. LVIII. 4). Herpetocrinus, Salter (1873 ;
synn. Ophiocrinus, Charlesworth ; Myelodactylus, Ang. and '[?] Hall; [?]
Brachiocrinus, Hall. Fully described, Bather, 1893), Silurian, Europe,
and probably N . America. Crown bent, in the transversal plane, back
on the stem, which is then coiled around it in the opposite direction
(Fig. LIX.). The coil could be tight, or could be uncoiled and the crown
exposed; the movement was effected by an elastic ligament towards the
inner margin of the columnals, counteracted by strong muscles towards
the outer margin, the fulcrum being a transverse ridge. Columnals show
THE CRINOIDEA 147
traces of original pentamerism, but over the greater part of the stem are
crescentic in section, the concavity being on the inner margin. Cirri,
borne on the horns of the crescent, vary in their arrangement in different
species N o root in adult. O n e ray missing ; other R R all compound,
except 1. post. R sometimes ; as lower than in other Heterocrinidae, partly
rests on r. post. Ri (the radianal, R A ) . T h e tube outwardly resembles a
series of B r and covering-plates. A r m s slightly heterotomous. T h e
FIG. LIX.
Herpetocrinus Fletcheri, in its natural coiled position, the cirri which covered the crown
having been removed. C, cirri; S, longitudinal suture of stem ; t, anal tube. (After Bather,
1893.) x |.
remarkable resemblance of the coiled cirriferous stem to a pinnulate,
canaliculate arm has misled most writers ; for the crown is rarely visible
(vide-p. 134). F A M I L Y 4. C A L C E O C R I N I D A E . Monocyclica Inadunata, with
the essential characters of typical Heterocrinidae, the 1. ant., r. ant, and
r. post. R R being compound, and the arms branching primitively on the
plan of Heterocrinus heterodactylus; but with the following modifications
induced by the bending d o w n of the crown :—the r. post. IR lies alongside
the stem ; the 1. ant. R lies away from the stem ; the plane thus marked
is one of a gradually increasing bilateral symmetry; r. post, arm always
148 THE CRINOIDEA
absent, its place being occupied by anal tube ; the tube encroaches on
r. ant. arm, so that this too disappears; r. post. Rs and r. ant. Bs fuse
to form a T-shaped piece supporting anal tube ; the T-piece atrophies,
and the tube then rests on the corresponding inferradials ; the simple R R
(1. post, and ant.) increase in size, forming the sides of the cup and bend-
ing round on the adcolumnal side where the anal tube is, as well as on
the acolumnal side, where they eventually meet between the two halves
of 1. ant. R ; the arm borne by 1. ant. R may fork once, but usually
FIG. L X .
l.a. Br a> R
Calceocrinus tucanus, from the anterior side.
/;, the base, hinged to left anterior radial,
which is out of sight, andflexiblyjointed to
r.a.Ri, right anterior inferradial; the super-
radials of this and of the corresponding radial
on the other side are hidden by the series of
main-axils, lAx to VAx, which support the
IAx branches of the two large side - arms; the
visible side-arm, a.Br, is the anterior, and
VAx springs from a.R, anterior radial; its diminished
branches are seen at y and S, its enlarged
branches at r ; the single arm along the upper
side is the left anterior(l.a.Br). (After Bather,
1S93.) Natural size.
remains simple, owing to the extraordinary development of the arms
borne by the two large R R on either side of it; the adcolumnal ramus
of each of those arms is reduced to a series of 3-8 axillaries (main-axils;
which lie side by side, curving round towards the anal tube ; each main-
axil gives off a branch which itself bears armlets, which in turn may
assume the regular nature of pinnules, and are rarely visible on the
exterior of the folded arms ; the acolumnal ramus dwindles in size and
becomes hidden by the other branches ; r. post. B atrophies, 1. post, and
1. ant. B B fuse, and the three plates thus left form a triangular base,
which is regularly hinged to the 1. ant. Rt, so that the crown could move
up and down in the sagittal plane of its bilateral symmetry ; on the other
hand, the columnals have each a slight curvature in this plane, and this
Fio. L X I .
Diagrams illustrating the structure of the posterior area in 1, Castocrinus; 2, Euchirocrinus ;
3, Calceocrinus; 4, Halysiocrinus.
kept the stem itself rigid. The various stages in the evolution are
marked by 4 genera (Fig. LXI.): Castocrinus, Ringueb. (1889), Ordovician,
N. America; Euchirocrinus, Meek & Worth. (1873 ; synn. Cheirocrinus,
Hall non Eichw. ; Cremacrinus, Ulr. ; Proclivocrinus, Ringueb.), Ordovician
and Silurian, N. America; Calceocrinus, Hall (1852, em. Ringueb., 1889 ;
synn. Cheirocrinus, Salter, nom. nud.; Pendulocrinus, Austin, M S . ; 1 Delta-
crinus, Ulr.), Silurian and Devonian, N America and Europe; Halysio-
crinus, Ulrich (1886, em. Bather, 1893), Carboniferous, N. America. For
history and morphology see Bather (1893).
THE CRINOIDEA
F A M I L Y 5. PISOCRINIDAE. Monocyclica Inadunata with 1. post. R

and ant. R much larger than the other R R ; r. post. R is the only
compound R transversely bisected, and its lower half separates r. post. Rs,
and r. ant. R from BB, and forms with the two large R R the greater part
of the dorsal cup. Arms unbranched and non-pinnulate. A n anal tube
Pisocrinidae and Catillocrinidae. PE, pararadials; t, anal tube plate = x; R', radianal
=RA ; other letters as usual. In Mycocrinus the radianal and lower parts of R R are hidden
and therefore represented by dotted lines.
usually present, resting on post. R R or on their processes. Genera—Piso-
crinus, de Koninck (1858), Silurian, N.-W. Europe and N. America (Fig.
LXII. 1; see also XVIII. 5), and Triacrinus, Minister (1839, syn. Tricho-
crinus, J. Miiller, 1856), Devonian, Germany (Fig. LXII. 2), differ in that
the former has 5 B B , the latter 3. But incipient fusion of B B is seen in
P. ollula, and 5 B B occur in some Triacrinus. The anal tube closely
15° THE CRINOIDEA
resembles an arm, and its presence was 'first notified in 1893. The relations
of the cup-plates, till then misunderstood, were thus shown to be essentially
the same as in the majority of Monocyclica, while the origin of Calycantho-
crinus, Mycocrinus, and Catillocrinus became clear. This was confirmed by
Jaekel (1895). Pisocrinus was shown by Wachsmuth to have 5 O sur-
rounding a peristomial space ; a groove passed along each interoral suture,
and probably conveyed the food-grooves to the central opening. The
rectum passed into the anal tube between post. O and adjacent RR. A n
anal tube is said by Jaekel to have been absent from the thinly plated
species of Triacrinus in Devonian slates. Calycanthocrinus, Follmann
(1887), Lower Devonian, Germany, shows a remarkable modification,
in the introduction of small arm-bearing plates (" pararadials" . PR),
in the positions shown in Fig. LXII. 3. This may be compared with
the vertical bisection of a radial in Anomalocrinus or the addition
of 5 "interradial radials" in Promachocrinus; but it is thefirststage
of a process continued in Catillocrinidae. It is hard to see how this
process could have been inaugurated except as a discontinuous meristic
variation (cf. Bateson, Materials for tlie Study of Variation, chap. xvii.
1894). F A M I L Y 6. C A T I L L O C R I N I D A E . Monocyclica Inadunata, in which
L post. R and ant R are much larger than the other R R , and bear PR,
usually fused to them ; no R A visible. Arms unbranched and non-
pinnulate. Anal tube resembling arms, but stouter, rests on left process
of r. post. R. Genera—Mycocrinus, L. Schultze (1866, W . & Sp., 1886 ;
Jaekel, 1895), Middle Devonian, Germany (Fig. LXII. 4), differs from Caly-
canthocrinus in the suppression of R A and the P R borne by it; the still
greater size of 1. post. R and ant. R, which now bear 6-7 arms apiece, i.e.
15-17 arms to the whole crown. The 3 B B become fused, while the
10-12 P R are usually fused with the large R R on which they rest. The
increase in size of the large R R takes place chiefly in the upper part; all
the R R rest on the basal circlet, which forms a knob sharply separated
from them. Catillocrinus, Shumard ex Troost (1860, syn. Nematocrinus,
Meek & Worthen ; see W . & Sp., 1886), Lower Carboniferous, N.
America (Fig. LXII. 5). The cup has here resumed a shallow basin-
shape, and differs from Mycocrinus in the complete fusion of B B and the
still greater lateral extension of the 1. post. R and ant. R in their upper
regions. Those large R R now bear 15-31 arms apiece, there being
usually more on ant. R than on 1. post R (cf. Calycaivtliocrinus). The P R
are absolutely fused with RR, or were never developed at all. The basal
circlet projects upward on 1. ant. side, but is almost hidden by the stem on
the other side. The arrangement and shapes of the plates curiously
resemble those which obtain in Halysiocrinus, while the arms may be com-
pared to the branches that spring from the main-axils in that genus. A
similar result has been attained by two lines of development, which, in
their initial stages, were as different from one another and from the
normal type as could well be. The relationship of these forma is a
problem that would repay yet deeper study. F A M I L Y 7. Z O P H O C R I N I D A B .
Monocyclica Inadunata, with 3 BB, 2 equal and 1 larger ; 4 R R , 1 rather
larger than the rest, and probably equals r. and 1. post fused ; 5 0 form
solid tegmen, post 0 being the largest, and r. and 1. ant 0 the smallest
THE CRINOIDEA 151
and, what is rather unusual, not meeting post. 0 in centre; anus unknown;
5 groups of short arms lie where the interoral sutures meet the R R ,
which is not in the middle of any R R except ant. R (see Fig. LXIII. 2 ) ;
each arm-group appears to consist normally of 3 elements, 2 inner and
1 outer, all springing equally from the calyx ; stem with small axial canal.
Genus—Zophocrinus, S. A. Miller (1891), Silurian, Indiana (Fig. LXIII.).
Theca pear-shaped ; Miller says there are 5 arm-plates in each group, and
Fio. LXIII.
Zophocrinus Iwwardi, from a specimen in the collection of Hon. F. Springer. 1, from
posterior, x {; 3, oral surface, x V> ; 3, dissection of plates.
this may be so in some specimens ; these arm-plates may be compared

with the arms of Catillocrinidae, but whether they bore further Br is
uncertain. The tetramerism of this genus affects the cup only, and was pro-
duced by fusion, not by atrophy as was probably the case in Herpetocrinus.
F A M I L Y 8. H A P L O C R I N I D A E . Monocyclica Inadunata, with 5 BB, 5
R R , of which 1. ant, r. post, and r. ant. are compound; tegmen composed
solely of 5 O, one being pierced by a pore (? anus + hydropore); 5 arms,
unbranched and non-pinnulate, the food-grooves supposed to be subteg-
minal. Genus—Haplocrinus, Steininger (1837 ; Aplocrinus, d'Orb. ; see
W . & Sp., 1886), Devonian, Europe and N. America (Figs. X X X V .
and LXIV.); resembles the typi-
cal Heterocrinidae in its cup, AAnus
the Pisocrinidae in its arms, l.ant l.post^—V post rant Ant
and Allagecrinus in its tegmen.
The pore in post. 0 was dis- RR
cussed on p. 126.
ALLAQECRINIDAE.
F A M I L Y 9.
Monocyclica
Qkx&S>yy^
Inadunata, with 5 B B , 5 R R all
Fio. LXIV.
simple, but of unequal and vari-
able size, the larger ones often Dissection of cup of Haplocrinus. 7J'=radianal.
bearing 2 arms, while some arms
may occasionally be absent or diminished in size ; tegmen composed in
the young of 5 O, one pierced by a pore (? anus 4- hydropore); 5 arms un-
branched and non-pinnulate, the food-grooves supposed to be subtegminal.
Genus—Allagecrinus, Etheridge & Carpenter (1881, restricted by W . & Sp.,
1886), Lower Carboniferous, N . America, Upper Carboniferous, Scotland,
resembles Haplocrinus in its tegmen, while the duplication of arms is
152 THE CRINOIDEA
reminiscent of Calycanthocrinus; here, however, the B R are axillary,

and P R not developed. Rowley (1895) has described calyces less than
•5 m m . high. F A M I L Y 10. S Y M B A T H O C R I N I D A E . Monocyclica Inadunata,
with 5 simple RR, bearing 5 unbranched, non-pinnulate arms, which rest
as a rule on broad articular facets projecting adorally in "muscle-plates,"
corresponding to the muscle-fossae. Genera—Phimocrinus (Low. and Mid.
Devonian, Europe), Stylocrinus and Stortingocrinus (Mid. Devonian, Europe),
Symbathocrinus, including Lageniocrinus, which is probably its young (Upper
Devonian and Lower Carboniferous, Europe and N. America). Phimocrinus,
Schultze (1866), is primitive in having 5 BB, while all the rest have 3 ;
the oldest species, P- Jouberti, Oehlert, shows clear traces of horizontal
suture in r. post, r. ant, and 1. ant. R R , the usual compound R R of typical
Heterocrinidae ; the proximal plate of the anal tube is placed as in those
forms. The latter feature is also found in Stortingocrinus, Schultze (1866),
which is notable for having the small unfused B in 1. post. IR, and the
angles of the columnar canal radial in position, though the genus is Mono-
cyclic. Stylocrinus, Sandberger (1850), has no facet on R R for support
of an anal tube, nor is the usual passage for the rectum seen in the cup-
Fm. LXV.
Dissection of cup of Symbathocrinns. The projections on the RR are muscle-plates.
wall; therefore one cannot orient the small B ; the anus probably pierced
post. O. Symbathocriuus, Phillips (1836), has small B in 1. ant. IR, as in
Platycrinidae ; the anal tube rests on the shoulder of r. post. R ; 5 0,
all small, post. O being the largest and separated from the muscle-plates
of the adjacent R R by the passage of the rectum (Fig. LXV.). The family
is not clearly defined, and its Middle Devonian members present remarkable,
though superficial, resemblances to the contemporary Cupressocrinidae.
F A M I L Y 11. B E L E M N O C R I N I D A E . Monocyclica Inadunata, with 5
BB, 5 simple RR, each supporting by a slightly excavate facet an arm
which forks on IBr4 or 5 ; each ramus, with numerous syzygies in the
proximal portion, bearing ramuli on alternate sides of most epizygals
and of all ordinary distal brachials ; single narrow anal in radial circlet,
resting on post. B, and supporting a large anal tube composed of alter-
nating hexagonal plates, folded on their lateral margins. Genus—Belem-
nocrinus, White (1862), Lower Carboniferous, N. America. Dorsal cup
elongate, its plates solid, and thecal cavity a narrow canal below and
shallow excavation above, thus resembling that of many Neozoic crinoids,
B. typus has no cirri on the stem, which is circular in section ; B. florifer
has a stellate stem of true Monocyclic type, with 3 or 4 cirri to each node.
THE CRINOIDEA 153
Missouricrinus, S. A. Miller (1891), Burlington group, if truly Mono-

cyclic, must be placed near here.
F A M I L Y 12. PLICATOCRINIDAE. Monocyclica Inadunata, with B B fused
into a knob-like support; 4 or 6 (exceptionally 3, 5, 7, or 8) simple RR,
enclosing wide thecal cavity, each supporting an arm, which forks on
IBrx ; IIBr wedge-shaped, united by perforate articulation, not, so far as
known, by syzygy, regularly pinnulate ; pinnulars tend to fuse. Tegmen
unknown. Columnals cylindrical,- with radiately striated joint-surface.
For full account, and for the evidence of the axial canals passing from R R
into the fused basal circlet, so proving that it is no columnal, see Jaekel
(1893). Genera—Plicatocrinus, Miinster (1839), Upper Jura, Germany
(Fig. L X V L ) , thin R R enclose a wide and deep thecal cavity, facets from
^ to 4 width of R, crescentic, without
large muscle-plates ; proximal pinnules
composed of 3 pinnulars, which in suc-
ceeding pinnules are fused to a solid piece.
Tetracrinus, Miinster (1839), Upper Jura,
France and Germany, has thick R R with
strong muscle-fossae. The occasional oc-
currence of 3, 5, 7, or 8 rays shows that
the normal 4 and 6 arose from the more
usual 5 as sports (i.e. discontinuous meris-
tic variations). F A M I L Y 13.' H Y O C R I N I D A E .
Monocyclica Inadunata, with 3 thin BB,
the smaller one in 1. post. IR ; 5 RR, thin,
broad, and spade-shaped, with a slight axial
fold running straight up the middle from
the subjacent B and ending in a narrow
facet; 5 arms, bearing unbranched alter- Flu. LXVL
nating ramuli, which may be modified in pucatocrinw. Fraasi, from aboral
their proximal portions for reception of surface with one outstretched arm
r r
. .r complete. (Adapted from Zittel,
ripe gonads; Br long, cylindrical, with iss2, x jj.)
deep, narrow ventral groove ; below the
first ramule, which is on the right of each arm, are 6 Br, with the
joint between each pair a syzygy ; between successive ramuli are 3
Br, united by syzygies; proximal ramuli the longest, and the follow-
ing ones proportionately shorter, so that they all terminate on the
same level as the arm ends ; 5 triangular O, separated from R R by
iAmb and A m b , cover the wide mouth and circumoral tentacles; each O
as a rule pierced by a water-pore, and post O by 2 ; water-pores also
pierce several iAmb, but not in post. IR ; anal tube reduced to a small
cone towards the left of the post, interambulacrum ; columnals cylindrical,
slightly higher than wide, united by discs of ligament-fibres, joint-
surfaces hollowed and plain or indistinctly striate, with stellate axial
canal ; no cirri ; root unknown. The sole living representative of the
order is the unique species Hyocrinus bethellianus, W.-Thomson (1876,
Fig. L X V I L ) , dredged by H.M.S. Challenger 30 miles W . of Crozet Is.,
in the Southern Ocean, while columnals are said to have been found
in Mid-Atlantic just N. of the Equator ; see P. H. Carpenter (1884).
154 THE CRINOIDEA
Evidence for its truly Monocyclic nature is wanting; but in the

absence of proof to the wntrary, it must be
left in this, apparently natural, position. T h e
stem is not unlike that of some Plicatocrinidae;
the branching and syzygies of the unforked
arms remind one of the structure in the
arm-rami of Belemnocrinus and Saccocoma; the
cup is not unlike that of Plicatocrinus Fraasi.
T h e only specimen at all complete is a male,
with testes probably mature and swelling out
in the proximal portions of the proximal
ramuli ; in these regions each ramular sup-
ports 2 or 3 square side-plates on either side,
and these support the covering-plates. The
orals could probably open to expose the
funnel - shaped gullet, which leads into a
narrow gut with single dextral coil; glandular
ridges line the gullet and first part of the gut
T h e intra-thecal connective tissue contains no
spicules. F A M I L Y 14. S A C C O C O M I D A E . Mono-
cyclica Inadunata, in which 5 R R and a
minute centrale enclose a large spheroidal
thecal cavity : each R has a prominent median
ridge ending in a narrow facet, which sup-
ports a thin arm, forking on IBr 2 ; beginning
at about IIBr15, each ramus gives off from
every 3rd Br unbranched alternating ramuli
arranged as in Hyocrinus; the rami and
ramuli are usually found rolled u p in their
distal portions; Br cylindrical, elongate;
lax and the more proximal IIBr m a y bear
lateral, paired, wing-like expansions, which
in the more distal Br and the ramulars are
always represented by delicate trellised pro-
cesses, with thicker upper and under mar-
gins, which it is conjectured supported a
continuous membrane ; no stem; all skeletal
elements very thin and coarsely reticulate.
Genus—Saccocoma, L. Agassiz (1834 ; syn.
Euryale, Konig), Solenhofen Lithographic
Fio. LXVH. Stone, Upper Jura (Fig. LXVIII.). Jaekel,
Hyocrinus bethel- w h o has admirably elucidated the structure
iianus. ( F r o m and affinities of this wonderfully specialised
Challenger Narra-
tive, x f.)
crinoid (1893), considers that,the arms were
swimming-organs, the food-groove, ambulacral,
and genital systems being atrophied at their
distal ends, and that the animal was pelagic,
floating in enormous swarms in the peaceful lagoons of Eichstadt and
Solenhofen.
THE CRINOIDEA i5S
Fio. LXVIII.
Saccocoma. 1, & tenclla, from aboral surface (after Jaekel, x {). 2, S. peetinata, from
aboral surface, to show coiling of arm-branches (x £). 3, S. peetinata, cup anil jwosiiual
brachials from side (after Zittel, x |).
ORDER 2. Adunata (Bather, 1899).

Monocyclica with dorsal cup primitively confined to the patina and
an occasional single anal; tegmen solid ; portions of the proximal Br
and their A m b tend to be rigidly incorporated in the theea. Arms fork
once to thrice, and bear pinnules on each or on every other Br. B B fused
to 3, 2, or 1. (Eucladocrinus and Acrocrinidae offer peculiar exceptions
to this diagnosis.)
The genera of this order have been referred, in whole or part, to the
Camerata or their equivalents by most recent writers. But most of the
Silurian genera here included are admitted as close allies of Monocyclica
Inadunata. If so, then they were derived from Inadunata ages after the
typical Camerata had appeared. Moreover, though the Devonian and
Carboniferous descendants of these Silurian genera became modified after
the fashion of the Camerata, there is scarcely one in which the modification
is so great as in the simplest Camerate. The order is divisible into two
groups—A. with R R in contact all round the cup, and base consequently
pentagonal in outline ; B. with R R separated by an anal plate in post.
IR, and base consequently hexagonal in outline. The relations of
these groups are not clear. B. may be derived from A. by sudden inter-
calation of an anal, or A. and B. may have descended independently from
Inadunata ; the absence of B. from Silurian rocks renders the former
hypothesis more probable. There is no difficulty in imagining the descent
of early genera of A., such as Cordylocrinus and Coccocrinus, from Hybo-
crinidae in which the cup had become as symmetrical as in, say, Stephano-
crinus while the arms had passed through regular dichotomy to a stage
with ramuli, as in Ectenocrinus. The actual intermediate form is not yet
known, but that it will be found among Ordovician crinoids is a
legitimate inference.
156 THE CRINOIDEA
G R O U P A. F A M I L Y 1. P L A T Y C R I N I D A E . N o anal. B B 3 ( = 2 fused
pairs and 1 unfused, this being usually the left, sometimes the right,
antero-lateral) forming a pentagon. Cordylocrinus, Hapalocrinus, Cocco-
crinus, and Cylicocrinus, which appear in the Silurian and continue to
Devonian, are more primitive than the rest. Marsipocrinus, though also
Silurian, is considerably more advanced, and may be regarded as a
first attempt at the typical Platycrinus structure ; it was apparently an
unsuccessful attempt, since it left no descendants, although Wachsmuth
& Springer and Jaekel seem to regard Platycrinus as such. Platycrinus
came in the Carboniferous, with its offshoot Eucladocrinus, and, unless
we are to imagine a reversal of the general trend of evolution, must be
derived from a simpler form than Marsipocrintis. These facts are best
presented by instituting 3 sub-families. S U B - F A M I L Y 1. C O C C O C R I N I N A E .
Platycrinidae with IBr 2 (3 in Hapalocrinus Victoriae); IIBr more than
2 ; few A m b and iAmb in tegmen ; (?) anal tube rarely present; stem cir-
cular in section ; lumen small and round. Genera—Coccocrinus, J. Miiller
(1855, syn. Amblacrinus, d'Orbigny pars, 1849), Silurian of America,
Devonian of Europe ; O large, symmetrical, almost covering the tegminal
ambulacra ; iAmb 1 or 3 ; anus between O and iAmb ; arms apparently
delicate, fork once, distal portions unknown. Cylicocrinus, J. Miiller
(1855, as Culicocrinus; Jaekel, 1895), Devonian, Germany (Fig. XL.),
differs from" Coccocrinus chiefly in having heavy biserial arms. Hapalo-
crinus, Jaekel (1895, em. Bather, 1897 ; includes Agriocrinus, Thallocrinus,
and Clematocrinus, Jaekel), Silurian of England, Australia, and (?) N.
America, Devonian of Germany (Fig. LXIX.) ; 0 small; iAmb more than
1 ; A m b visible between O and iAmb ;
arms fork once, sometimes twice, varying
in this respect in the same species, or even
individual ; IIBr (and IIIBr when pre-
sent) uniserial, or slightly in zigzag, bear-
ing alternately disposed pinnules, either
on each or on every other Br ; cirri at
the root, and often on nodals. Cordylo-
crinus, Angelin (1878 ; W . & Sp., 1897 ;
Bather, 1897), Silurian of Gotland and
England, Lower Devonian of N. America ;
differs from Hapalocrinus in having com-
pound IIBr, each of which bears a pin-
nule on each side. S U B - F A M I L Y 2.
MARSIPOCKININAE. Platycrinidae with
one IBr ; IIBr, if notfinials,one or two ;
many A m b and iAmb in tegmen ; no
anal tube; stem circular in section; lumen
Fio. LXIX.
large and quinquelobate. Genus-ilfar-
Mus. E5615. c, cirri; iBr, interbra- sipocrmus, Bather (1889, nom. nov. pro
chials. The suborals of Jaekel. Other wfl».„»,,'««;»„lo T>l,;iK»«. ioor> j
letters as usual, x 3. Marsupioannus, Phillips, 1839, non de
Blainville, 1830 ; syn. Cypellocrinus vel
Cupellaecrinus, Shumard, 1866, ex Troost MS., non Steininger), Silurian
N.-W. Europe and N. America ; arrangement of cup-plates shown in Fig.
THE CRINOIDEA 157
LXX., and of tegmen in Fig. X X X I I . ; 0 rather small, pushed anteriorly,

and asymmetrical; tegminal I A m b and IIAmb distinctly visible; arms fork
once or twice, stout, biserial, with large pinnules ; no cirri on column. The
large size of the cup is accompanied by development of stroma-strands across
the sutures. The large tegmen permitted a Gastropod (P7 yceras) to attach
itself above the anus and live on the excrement; this is seen in many of
the larger Adunata and Camerata and a few other crinoids (Keyes, 1888).
S U B - F A M I L Y 3. P L A T Y C R I N I N A E . Platycrinidae with IBr 1 (rarely 2), IIBr 2
(rarely 3) ; tegminal A m b and iAmb usually more than in Coccocrininae,
FIG. L X X .
Marsipocrinus, from Brit. Mus. E6519. pn, pinnules ; other letters as usual. Nat. size.
fewer than in Marsipocrininae ; anal tube often present; section of stem

circular near the cup, elliptic or rhomboid below, with fulcral ridge following
long diameter ; lumen small and round. Genera—Platycrinus, Miller
(1821 W . & Sp., 1897; synn. Centrocrinus and Pleurocrinus, Austin;
Edwardso'crinus, d'Orb.), Devonian (1 species), Carboniferous, Europe and
N America (Fig. LXXI.); 1-3 iAmb always rest on the adjacent shoulders
of the R R in each IR, and consolidate a varying number of Br and A m b
with the calyx; arms fork once to thrice (exceptionally more), the dichotomy
often irregular, producing 6 rami to the arm ; columnals have a slight
skew so that the fulcral ridge of the proximal surface lies at an angle to
that of the distal surface ; thus theflattenedstem, which otherwise could
i58 THE CRINOIDEA
move only in one plane, has a spiral twist that enables it to bend in any
direction (Fig. X L I X . 5, 6). Eucladocrinus, Meek (1871, W . & Sp.,
1897), Carboniferous, N. America ; appears late in the history oiPlaty-
crinus, from which it was evolved polygenetically by modification of the
arms ; two main rami to each arm (sometimes only one ramus) composed
of biserial Br, with large almost rigid A m b , form tubular extensions of the
thecal cavity, and give off on alternate sides short, biserial ramuli, which
in turn bear pinnules (Fig. L X X I . 4). This sketch of the evolution of the
Platycrinidae is confirmed by the ontogeny of Platycrinus. In young
stages (Fig. L X X I . 2) the basal cup is relatively shallower; R R less high ;
columnals circular in section ; Br uniserial, later on zigzag, and longer ;
pinnules relatively stouter and wider apart; O relatively larger, and
Fro. L X X I .
Platycrininae. 1, aboral view of cup and proximal brachials of Platycrinus subspinosus (after
Wachsmuth & Springer). 2, crown of young P. Huntsvillae, from Brit. Mus. E6778. x |. 3,
calyx of P. eminulus, anterior view (after W . & Sp.). 4, arms of Eucladocrinus millebrachiatus,
oral surface showing covering-plates (cp) and aboral surface (after W . & Sp.). Br", articular facet
for arms ; Rm, ramus ; r, ramule ; other letters as usual. All (exc. 2) two-thirds natural size.
occupying greater partof tegmen. From this obviously Coccocrinine stage,
the change to the mature Platycrinus has been observed in many species.
G R O U P B. F A M I L Y 2. H E X A C R I N I D A E . Cup formed of 1, 2, or 3 BB,
forming a hexagon; 5 R R ; and 1 anal in line with RR. The family
is closely related to the Platycrinidae, but differs in the hexamerous
symmetry ; also, as a consequence of this, in the presence of an interbasal
suture in post IR, whereas in Platycrinidae the nearest to that position
is in r. post, radius. Genera—Hexacrinus, Austin (1843, Schultze, 1867,
W . & Sp., 1897), Devonian, Europe and N. America (Fig. LXXII.);
B B 3 ; IBr, 2 united by syzygy in America, only 1 in Europe ; arms with
2 rami, bearing ramuli. on one or both sides at intervals; Br uniserial,
and all except axillaries bear pinnules ; tegmen as in Platycrinus; stem
circular in section, with small round lumen. Arthracantha, Williams
(1883, syn. Hystricrinus, Hinde, 1885), has theca'of same structure, but
armed with movable spines borne on tubercles; arms dichotomous, biserial;
THE CRINOIDEA 159
stem circular in section. Dichocrinus, Miinster (1838, W . & Sp., 1897,

syn. Cotyledonocrinus, Casseday & Lyon, 1860), Carboniferous, Europe and
N. America; B B 2 ; IBr 2, united by syzygy ; IIBrx ^.j 2 and, when arms
fork again, IIIBrj a n d 2 are united by syzygy ; arms thin, uniserial or
biserial, occasionally pendent; stem circular in section. Camptocrinus,
W . & Sp. (1897), Carboniferous, America, differs from Dichocrinus
O O £>
Fio. L X X I I
Hexacrinus. 1, analysis of cup ; 2, H. pateraeformis, cup from below. (After L. Schultze.) x h.
only in the structure of the stem, which in its crescentic section and 2
series of cirri resembles that of Herpetocrinus (p. 147). Talarocrinus, W .
& Sp. (1881-97), Carboniferous, N. America ; differs from its ancestor
Dichocrinus in its more massive plates and in having but one IBr to an
arm, and that small; anal resembles ant. R in shape and size ; arms
branch twice, biserial, free from IIBr inclusive. Pterotocrinus, Lyon &
Casseday (1859, W . & Sp., 1897 ; syn. Asterocrinus, Lyon non Miinster),
Carboniferous, N. America; a remarkable modification of Talarocrinus,
with Br up to IIIBr incorporated in cup ; large
wing-like processes spread out from tegmen, and
probably represent the hypertrophied axillary
IAmb. With this exaggerated type, the nearest
approach to the true Camerata, the Hexacrinidae
become extinct. F A M I L Y 3. A C R O C R I N I D A E . Cup
formed of 2 B B , forming a hexagon ; 5 R R ; I
anal in line with R R ; and a large belt of acces-
sory plates between B B and RR. Acrocrinus,
Yandell (1855, W . & Sp., 1897), later Carboni-
ferous, N . America (Fig. LXXIII.) ; derived from
Dichocrinus, which it otherwise resembles, by the
gradual intercalation of 6-20 circlets of supple-
mentary plates, " superbasals" (SB) ; the S B im- Fin. LXXIH.
mediately above B B are always the latest formed Acrocrinus amphora. (Re-
and the smallest; the S B supporting the anal and constructed from Wachs-
niuth & Springer.) x J.
ant. R are in single series, the rest alternate.
In A. amphora the arms were recumbent on the cup and apparently
immovable. This remarkable family was the last to appear, and sur-
vived all other Adunata and all Camerata.
ORDER 3. Monocyclica Camerata

(= C A M E R A T A , W . & Sp. pars).
Monocyclica in which IBr, two in each ray(exc. Stereocrinus, Hadrocrinus,
Alloprosallocrinus) and often succeeding orders of Br, are incorporated by
i6o THE CRINOIDEA
iBr in the dorsal cup (becoming "fixedbrachials," Br), while the corre-
sponding A m b are either incorporated in, or pressed below, the tegmen
by iAmb ; all thecal plates united by suture, somewhat loose in the
earliest forms, but speedily becoming close, and producing a rigid theca ;
mouth and tegminal food-grooves closed ; arms pinnulate.
The families may be grouped somewhat after the plan of Wachsmuth
and Springer (1897), thus : —
A. N o anal plate in radial circlet of patina. B B usually form a
pentagon. Melocrinoidea.
B. A n anal plate between R R in post. IR. B B form a hexagon.
1. Proximal anal heptagonal, succeeded by one or more in the
same vertical series, between the ordinary iBr. Batocrin-
oidea.
2. Proximal anal hexagonal, succeeded by no vertical series, but
by 2 iBr. Actinocrinoidea.
Whether Group B. was derived from some genus in Group A. is un-
certain ; representatives of both groups are found in the Ordovician. It
is more probable that i>,2 was derived from B,\, by way of the Periecho-
crinidae. A m o n g Melocrinoidea the Patelliocrinidae .are scarcely removed
from the Inadunata, and some of their genera might almost be placed
with the early Adunata, with which they were contemporary. Although
their occurrence in the Ordovician is doubtful, yet the existence of the
family points to the path along which the Camerata ascended. The
Glyptocrinidae and Melocrinidae, which differ in little but number of
B B , and both have anals in the dorsal cup, may have been derived from
such a form as Stelidiocrinus, which also has anals. With less doubt we
infer that the Patelliocrinidae without anals gave rise to the similarly
constituted Clonocrinidae, from which sprang Eucalyptocrinidae, and
probably also Dolatocrinidae. A m o n g Batocrinoidea the simplest and
one of the oldest genera is Tanaocrinus, with 5 BB, and not far from
it come the earlier Xenocrinidae, with 4 BB, which perhaps led on to
Periechocrinidae, and so to Actinocrinoidea The important ancestral
family, however, is the Silurian Carpocrinidae, in which Acacocrinus is
nearest to the Inadunate type. From them arose Barrandeocrinus with
its recumbent arms, then the Coeliocrinidae without anal tube or respira-
tory pores, and, later on, the Batocrinidae possessed of both those structures.
N o members of this order survived the Lower Carboniferous, but during
their history they developed some of the most numerous in individuals
and species among crinoid genera, and in Barrandeocrinus, Eucalyptocrinus,
Agaricocrinus, and Strotocrinus, some of the most remarkable of all
Echinoderma.
S U B - O R D E R 1. Melocrinoidea. Monocyclica Camerata with R R in
contact all round ; IBrx usually quadrangular.
F A M I L Y 1. G L Y P T O C R I N I D A E . Melocrinoidea with 5 B B ; in each half-
ray 2-8 IIBr, sometimes IIIBr; free arms rarely branch beyond IIIBr,
and may be uniserial, zigzag, or biserial; iBr numerous but definite ;
illBr numerous, less definite; a ridge of anals in post. IR ; tegmen
of numerous small plates; stem round, with pentagonal lumen. All
Ordovician of N. America, European representatives doubtful. Genera
THE CRINOIDEA 161
Glyptocrinus, Hall (1847 ; W . & Sp., 1897 ; synn. Canistrocrinus, W . &

Sp.; Pycnocrinus, S. A. Miller), has small B B and arms in zigzag (Fig. XXV.).
Schizocrinus, Hall (1847 ; W . & Sp., 1881 ; (?) syn. Scyphocrinus, Hall
non Zenker), doubtful, but close to Glyptocrinus, arms uniserial. Periglypto-
crinus, W . & Sp. (1897), has large B B and biserial arms. F A M I L Y 2. M E L O -
CRINIDAE. Melocrinoidea with 4 B B ; in each half-ray 2-5 IIBr ; these
support 2 or 4 main rami giving off pinnules or pinnulate ramuli ; iBr,
illBr, and post. IR as in Glyptocrinidae ; tegmen of numerous, small, and
irregular plates; stem round. Genera—Scyphocrinus, Zenker (1833;
non Hall, nee Pictet), Silurian, Bohemia and (?) N. America. Cup very
large, including many of the proximal ramuli, which enter the iBr
and illBr areas ; subsequent rami are free and divergent; rami and
ramuli uniserial; root a large hollow spheroid strengthened by internal
septa, regarded as afloat(= Camarocrinus) by Hall, as a cystid (= Lobolithus)
by Barrande. Mariacrinus, Hall (1859, -estr. W . & Sp., 1881-97 ; syn.
Zenkericrinus, Waag. & Jahn), Silurian, Europe, N. America. Free arms
composed of wedge-shaped IIIBr, divergent, may or may not bear a
few ramuli on their amedian sides (Fig. L X X I V 1). Melocrinus,
Goldfuss (1826 ; W . & Sp., 1897 ; -- K m .
synn. Astrocrinus, Conrad ; Turbino-
crinus, Troost ; Castanocrinus, and
Cytocrinus, C. F. Roem. ; Clonocrinus,
Oehlert), Devonian, Europe and N.
America ; the 2 main rami of each arm
are laterally fused into one trunk with
single large ventral groove ; this bears
paired biserial pinnulate ramuli (Fig.
L X X I V . 2) ; thus the genus is related
to Mariacrinus as Eucladocrinus (p. 158)
to Platycrinus, and as Steganocrinus (p,
170) to Actinocrinus. Ctenocrinus, Bronn
(1840, em. Follmann, 1887), Lower
Devonian, W . Europe, is distinguished
by Jaekel (1895), but merged with
Melocrinus by W . & Sp. (1897); the FIG. LXXIV.
ossicles of the rami are compound, and Rays of Melocrinidae. 1, Mariacrinus,
from Brit. Mus. 57475. 2, Melocrintis
each may bear 2 pinnules. nobilissimus (after Wachsmuth & Sprin-
F A M I L Y 3. P A T E L L I O C R I N I D A E . Melo- ger). Rm, ramus; r, ramule; p, pin-
crinoidea with but few Br incorpor- nule. Supplementary plates are shaded.
ated in cup; B B usually 3, unequal, may be the original 5, or may
fuse to 1 ; both IBr resemble free brachials ; in each half-ray 1, or
generally 2, IIBr, merging into free arms, which may be uniserial, zig-
zag or biserial; iBr 2-6, a single one rests on R R ; stem small and
round. This early Palaeozoic family contains genera with and without
additional plates in post. IR ; but all are simple forms, scarcely more
removed from the Inadunate type than are the Silurian Adunata. They
may be intermediate between Inadunata and some more advanced
Camerata, e.g. Clonocrinidae ; but it is not probable that they represent
the ancestors of Glyptocrinidae or Melocrinidae. Genera—Stelidicorinus,
n
162 THE CRINOIDEA
Angelin (1878; [?] syn. Harmocrinus, • Ang.), Ordovician, N. America.

and Silurian, Gotland (Fig. L X X V . 1, 2); 5 BB, uniserial arms, anals in
iBr
FIG. LXXV.
Patelliocrinidae. 1 and 2, Stelidiocrinus capitulum. 1, calyx from posterior; 2, oral surface;
3, Patelliocrinus pachydactylus. (All after Angelin, about nat. size.)
post. IR, large orals. Macrostylocrinus, Hall (1852, W . & Sp., 1897), Silu-
rian, N. America ; 3 BB, biserial arms, anals in post. IR, small plates in
tegmen. Allocrinus, W . & Sp. (1889-
97), Silurian, N . America; 3 BB,
uniserial arms, no anals in post. IR.
Patelliocrinus, Angelin (1878), Silurian,
Gotland (Fig. L X X V . 3 ) ; 3 B B , arms
zigzag or biserial, no anals. Briaro-
crinus, Angelin (1878), Silurian, Got-
land ; 3 B B , arms secondarily uni-
serial, i.e. IIBr are compound plates,
anals uncertain. Centriocrinus, Bather
(1899, nom. m u t pro " Centrocrinus,"
W . & Sp., 1881, non Austin, 1843,
nee Worthen, 1890); B B fused, arms
unknown, no anals in post IR.
F A M I L Y 4. C L O N O C R I N I D A E . Melo-
crinoidea with 4 B B ; in each half-
ray 1-2* IIBr, with varying number
of IIIBr and even occasionally lVBr ;
free arms biserial, sometimes forking
as far as VIIBr; iBr few and
definite; illBr few, not always
present; occasional illlBr ; no anals
in post. IR ; tegmen unknown; stem
round or sub-pentagonal. Genera—
Clonocrinus, Quenstedt (1876, non
FIO. L X X V I . Oehlert, 1879 ; syn. Corymbocrinus,
Clonocrinus polydactyius. i, from side Ang-)» Silurian, England, Gotland, and
(from Brit. Mus. 40257); 2, vertical section N. America ; base concave : free arms
(from Brit. Mus. B6489). Lettering as . - TTTT> T,TTT, ._ .
usual. Nat. size. isotomous from IIIBr to VIIBr ;iBr in a
single vertical row, the two proximal
large and definite. This genus leads towards Eucalyptocrinidae. Poly-
peltes, Angelin (1878), Silurian, Gotland, seems to have pinnules incorporated
THE CRINOIDEA 163
in the cup. It leads on to Trybliocrinus, Geinitz (1867 ; syn. Spyridio-

crmus, Oehlert, 1891), Lower Devonian, Germany and France, which
also has a concave base. Technocrats, Hall (1859, W . & Sp., 1897),
Devonian, Md., U.S.A., base convex, arms not branching beyond IIIBr,
no illBr ; the cup plates have axial folds as in Dolatocrinidae, which
FIG. L X X V I I .
Eucalyptocrinidae. 1, CcUlicrinus murchisonianus from the side, arms removed except on
the right; 2, plates from distal end of anal tube ; 3, the same plates from C. costatus ; 4, similar
plates described by Hall as Cryptodiscus; 5, calyx of Callicrinus costatus; 1, 2, 3, U denote
successive circlets of the anal tube; i, ii, iii, denote the areas of origin of interbrachial
processes. Other letters as usual. 1, 2, 3, 5, after Angelin ; 4, after Hall.
family may be thus connected with Corymbocrinidae. FAMILY 5.
EUCALYPTOCRINIDAE. Melocrinoidea with usually concave patina of 4 BB
and 5 RR ; in each half-ray are 2 IIBr, supporting HIBr^ (and in
Eucalyptocrinub IIIBr2), followed by IIIBr, proximally uniserial, distally
biserial; iBr 3, 2 resting on 1; illBr 1 ; tegmen elevated in a central
anal tube, and composed of 4 circlets of large plates, variously shaped
164 THE CRINOIDEA
and bearing processes. W h e n stripped of arms and processes, the theca

resembles a sherry-decanter with a kick at the bottom. At the junction
of cup and tegmen are the 10 pairs of ambulacral openings for food-grooves
and associated vessels, which pass beneath the tegmen to a central
mouth suspended beneath the neck of the decanter. From this a gut
winds dextrally down, around, then up, and out at the mouth of the
decanter. The processes borne by the tegmen are vertical partitions
rising from the fixed iBr and illBr to varying heights, while smaller
partitions are between the IIIBr series. Genera—Callicrinus, d'Orb.
(1849), Silurian, Europe and N . America (Fig. L X X V I L , see Angelin,
1878, W . & Sp., 1897). The cup is built on almost the same plan as
that of Clonocrinus, the difference lying in the verticalfissionof the 2nd
iBr. The partitions do not rise very high between the arm-branches ;
on the other hand, large spinous processes are frequently given off from
plates of both cup and tegmen, while the upper circlet of the anal
tube is often extended in 4 quadrant-shaped horizontal extensions
(Cryptodiscus, Hall; see Weller, 1898). Eucalyptocrinus, Goldfuss (1826 ;
syn. Hypanthocrinus, Phillips), Silurian of Europe, N. America, and
(?) Victoria, Devonian of Eifel (see Angelin, 1878, and W . & Sp., 1897) ;
differs from Callicrinus in the great development of the vertical partitions,
which form compartments in which the arms rest right up to their tips,
so that the closed crown is almost egg-shaped, especially as it has not the
obtrusive ornament of Callicrinus. Angelin has figured laminae of
stereom within the theca ; these served to support the subtegminal
food-grooves and mouth, and are pierced by the gut ; they are not
hydrospires. This family was richer in species than any other of the
Silurian; while the main structure was fixed, the ornament varied
greatly. F A M I L Y 6. D O L A T O C R I N I D A E . Melocrinoidea with large base,
flattened or concave, 3 BB, nearly always fused; in each half-ray, 1-4
IIBr, and sometimes IIIBr and IVBr; free arms biserial, and may fork ;
Br,3 or more ranges ; illBr usually present, merging with illAmb; an
.dditional iBr exceptionally present in post. IR ; tegmen, when known,
solid, with large plates ; stem round and large. All Devonian of N.
America. Genera—Dolatocrinus, Lyon (1857 ; W . & Sp., 1897 ; syn.
Cacabocrinus, Hall), has 2 IBr, a stout almost central anal tube, respiratory
(?) slits in interbrachial areas at junction of cup with tegmen (Fig. X L V . 1),
and plates usually with axial folds. Stereocrinus, Barris (1878, W . &
Sp., 1897), has 1 IBr, and B B unfused. Hadrocrinus, Lyon (1869 ;
W . & Sp., 1897 ; syn. [?] Coronocrinus, Hall), has 1 IBr and large iBr
variable in number and arrangement ; very large, and imperfectly known.
The single primibrachs of Stereocrinus and Hadrocrinus probably represent
the two IBr of Dolatocrinus fused (cf. Alloprosallocrinus).
S U B - O R D E R 2. Batocrinoidea. R R in lateral contact except in post. IB.
Proximal anal heptagonal. IBrx quadrangular, except in Periechocrinidae.
F A M I L Y 1. T A N A O C R I N I D A E . Batocrinoidea with 5 B B ; the proximal
IIBr fixed, but outwardly resemble free brachials ; arms fork still further,
brachials wedge-shaped; iBr and illBr numerous, irregular, occupying
depressed areas connected with tegmen, which was probablyflexibleand
composed of small plates ; in post. IR is a vertical ridge of anals ;
THE CRINOIDEA 165
stem relatively large and -sub-pentagonal. Genus—Tanaoerinus, W . &

Sp. (1897), Ordovician, Ohio (Fig. LXXVIII. 1, 2). In structure and in
time this genus is wellfittedto be taken as an ancestor of the Carpo-
crinidae. F A M I L Y 2. X E N O C R I N I D A E . Batocrinoidea with 4 B B ; each
half-ray contains IIBr, and sometimes IIIBr; free arms in zigzag or
biserial. iBr and illBr, also iHIBr when present, numerous. Post. IR
wider than the others, divided by a longitudinal row of ridged anals.
Tegmen of minute irregular plates. Stem quadrangular to circular in
section, with pentagonal lumen. Genera—Xenocrinus, S. A. Miller
FIG. LXXVIII.
Tanaocrinidae and Xenocrinidae. 1, Taiwcrinus typus, posterior view, x 2 diam. 2, anterior
view, x 2 diam. 3, Xenocrinus, analysis of cup. 4, Compsocrinus harrisi, cup from posterior,
diagrammatic, x 2 diam. (All adapted from W . & Sp.)
(1881 ; W. & Sp., 1897 ; Fig. LXXVIII. 3); iBr sink between RR, so
as almost to rest on B B ; IIBr arefinials.Compsocrinus, S. A. Miller
(1883 ; W . & Sp., 1897 ; Fig. LXXVIII. 4), has R R in contact except
on anal side; IIIBr sometimes fixed ; iBr stouter than in Xenocrinus.
Both Ordovician, Ohio. Abacocrinus, Angelin (1878; syn. ? Carolicrinus,
Waag. & Jahn), Silurian, Gotland and (?) Bohemia, is more highly developed.
Between it and Compsocrinus we must imagine a form in which the free
Br became biserial, while the free rami forked several times. In Abaco-
crinus the proximal biserial brachials (IIIBr) with their pinnules are in-
corporated in the dorsal cup ; the stem has changed from sub-quadrangular
166 THE CRINOIDEA
to circular, but the columnals still alternate in size. From the imagined
intermediate form (not from Abacocrinus itself) Periechocrinus m a y have been
derived by fusion of 2 BB. F A M I L Y 3. C A R P O C R I N I D A E . Batocrinoidea
with 3 B B (? fused in Macarocrinus) ; R R rather large ; each half-ray
contains 1-3 IIBr usually passing into the free arms, which are usually
2, occasionally 3, to each ray ; iBr 2-5, in contact with i A m b ; illBr
may be present in limited and definite number ; tegmen of numerous
small plates, with a few larger ones ; in post. IR a vertical row of anals;
stem large and round, usually with small pentagonal lumen. Genera—
Acacocrinus, W . & Sp. (1897), Silurian, Indiana, has 2 arms to each
ray ; brachials wedge-shaped, each bearing one pinnule. Desmidocrinus,
Angelin (1878), Silurian, Europe ; in each ray one of the rami forks
again almost immediately. Macarocrinus, Jaekel (1895), Lower Devonian,
Eifel, differs in greater length of Br, in fusion of B B , and presence

of one IIBr instead of two (Fig. L X X I X . 1). Carpocrinus, J. Miiller
(1841 ; synn. Phoenicocrinus, Austin ; Abracrinus, d'Orb. ; Habrocrinus,
Pionocrinus, and [?] Leptocrinus, Angelin, 1878. See W . & Sp., 1881),
Silurian, Europe ; derived from Desmidocrinus by fusion of free Br to
form uniserial ossicles each supporting 2 or more pinnules, and by atrophy
of the unpaired ramus, which resembles a large proximal pinnule (Fig.
L X X I X . 2). F A M I L Y 4. B A R R A N D E O C R I N I D A E . Batocrinoidea with
3 B B ; R R irregularly shaped ; each half-ray containing 1 IIBr, which
supports a free arm, biserial, and recumbent over dorsal cup ; iBr, 3, in
contact with i A m b ; tegmen solid with large sub-spinous O, alternating
with 5 radial dome-plates; stem large and round. Genus—Barrandeo-
crinus, Angelin (1878 ; syn. [?] Cylicocrinus, S. A. Miller non Muller ; see
W . & Sp., 1897), Silurian, Gotland and (?)N. America (Fig. LXXX.).
THE CRINOIDEA 167
The chief feature is thefixedrecumbency of the arms, as in some Hexa-

cnnidae and Acrocrinus; but differing from those forms in that the
pinnules were very close-set, and folded in two rolls over the ventral
groove when closed. Except for this and the consequently more solid
tegmen, the genus is not far removed from the Carpocrinidae. Ant. R is
hexagonal; r. and 1. ant. R R heptagonal; r. and 1. post R R pentagonal.
F A M I L Y 5. C Q E L O C R I N I D A E . Batocrinoidea with 3 B B ; in each half-
ray, 1 or 2 IIBr; free arms separated by 3 or more iBr in contact with
iAmb, 2-4 biserial rami to each ray; a row of anals in post IR, sup-
porting no tube ; but anus opening marginally from a slight prominence;
tegmen solid, with large O, esp. post 0 ; no respiratory pores known.
Genera—Coelocrinus, Meek & Worth. (1865-66 ; synn. Sphaerocrinus, M .
& W . non Roem.; Aorocrinus, W . & Sp., 1897), Devonian and Carboni-
ferous, N. America, and (?) Devonian, Europe (Fig. L X X X L ) . 2 or 4
rami to each ray, each with independent opening into the theca; cup extend-
ing below arm-bases. Dorycrinus, C. F. Roemer (1854, W . & Sp., 1897),
Carboniferous, N. America; derived from Coelocrinus with convex base;
rami paired, 2 to a single opening ; radial dome-plates of tegmen bear
large spines. Agaricocrinus, H a U ex Troost (1858 ; W . & Sp., 1897),
Carboniferous, N. America ; derived from Coelocrinus with concave base,
that feature being greatly exaggerated so that.
the cup does not project below the arm-bases ;
rami 2-4 in each ray, each with independent
opening. F A M I L Y 6. B A T O C R I N I D A E . Bato-
crinoidea with 3 B B ; each half-ray contains
1-5 IIBr, also IIIBr, 1-5, always in adanal
series, and sometimes in the rest, but rarely in
anterior series ; free arms with 1-4 biserial
rami in each ray ; iBr, 1-15, usually uncon-
nected with iAmb, except in post. IR, and
sometimes separated from them by the brachials
there also; plates in posterior IR 2-19, per- Codoc^ZimZtZus, from
haps more ; anal tube long, usually stout, and Brit. Mus. E1773. x 5.
central; tegmen solid, with O and radial dome-
plates usually prominent, post. O always pronounced ; 10-20 respiratory
pores characteristic (Fig. X L V . 2), but doubtful in Dizygocrinus and very
doubtful in Hyperoerinus; stem round, usually stout, with small pent-
agonal lumen. The family is confined to the Lower Carboniferous
rocks of central N. America, where itflourishedexuberantly along
with the parallel family Coelocrinidae. Batocrinus camefirst(Kinder-
hook) and went last (St. Louis); the rest are confined to Burlington
and Keokuk Groups. Genera—Batocrinus, Casseday (1854 ; em. W .
& Sp., 1897), has 1-3 iBr separated from iAmb by IIIBr; 18-26
short arm-rami set regularly round periphery (Fig. L X X X I L ) . Eretmo-
crinus, Lyon & Casseday (1859 ; W . & Sp., 1897), like Batocrinus,
but has 12-26 long paddle-shaped arm-rami, and eccentric anal tube.
Alloprosallocrmvs, Ly. & Cass. (1860, W . & Sp., 1897), constructed like
Batocrinus, but converges in outward shape towards Agaricocrinus.
Ewtrochocrinus, W . & Sp. (1897), 18-40 short rami, set regularly around
168 THE CRINOIDEA
periphery like spokes of a wheel; iBr may or m a y not join iAmb ;

illBr often present. Dizygocrinus, W . & Sp. (1897), like Eutrocho-
crinus, but with rounded calyx, more variable in composition, anal tube
and stem rather slender. Hyperocrinus, Meek & Worthen (1865, as
Uperocrinus; syn. Lobocrinus, W . & Sp., 1897); 18-22 free rami, arranged
in arm-groups, separated by iBr which join iAmb ; illBr sometimes
present; lofty tegmen; respiratory pores unknown. Macrocrinus, W .
& Sp. (1897); 12-16 rami, in groups, but not separated by iBr
except in post. IR ; anal tube tapering ; stem slender ; tegmen coni-
cal or hemispherical; respiratory pores, 10. The study of the relations
between these genera is a fertile and unappropriated field.
F A M I L Y 7. P E R I E C H O C R I N I D A E . Batocrinoidea with 3 B B ; I B ^
hexagonal; each half-ray contains 1-5 IIBr, and sometimes 2-6 IIIBr;
free arm-rami biserial, usually branching ; iBr numerous and merging
Fio. L X X X 1 I .
Batocrinus. 1, B. ieosidactylus, calyx from the side (after Casseday, nat. size). 2, cup
seen from aboral side, from Brit. Mus. E5055. Supplementary plates shaded, x f.
into iAmb ; post. IR wide, with plates in successive rows of 1,3, 4-6, etc.;
tegmen of numerous small plates in which O, A m b , and radial dome-plates
are sometimes to be distinguished, especially post. O ; anus without tube,
from sub-central to marginal; stem large, round, with wide lumen, round
or 5-lobed. Members of this family, esp. Gennaeocrinus, are liable to be
confounded with Actinocrinidae, but differ in the presence of 3 plates
(not 2) in the second row of post. IR, in which respect they resemble
Xenocrinidae, Carpocrinidae, Coelocrinidae, and Batocrinidae. Genera—
Periechocrinus, Austin (1843 ; synn. Geocrinus, d'Orbigny ; Saccocrinus,
Hall ex Troost; Pyxidocrinus, J. Miiller, pars ; [?] Trochocrinus, Portlock
and [?] Pander; [?] Pradocrinus, Verneuil, 1850 ; see W . & Sp., 1897),
Silurian to Carboniferous, Europe, N. America, Australia ; elongate cup
of thin long plates, usually with axial folds, and depressed theca in which
0 are not distinguishable ; arms fork and are less advanced than in
Ahacocrinus (p. 165). Beyrichocrinus, Waag. & Jahn (1899) Silurian
Bohemia, little known. Megistocrinus, O w e n & Shumard (1852 ; W . &
Sp., 1897), Devonian and Carboniferous, N. America, (?) Carboniferous
THE CRINOIDEA 169
England ; globose cup of heavy short plates, with tegmen from flat to
Xin\ ' f radk - 1 d o m e - P l a t e s ' a n d A «»b usually distinguishable (Fig.
A L U . ) ; free rami grouped in pairs, have covering-plates and side-plates.
Gennaeocnnus, W . & Sp. (1881-97), Devonian, N. America; low cup of
thm plates with axial folds ; theca rather depressed and lobed in arm
regions ; 0 small but visible, as also are A m b ; rami, 8 to a ray, branch
from alternate sides of arms ; in form like the Actinocrinid Physetocrinus.
S U B - O R D E R 3. Actinocrinoidea. R R in lateral contact except in
post. IR ; proximal anal hexagonal ; I B ^ usually hexagonal ; B B 3
equal, forming a hexagon.
F A M I L Y 1. A C T I N Q C R I N I D A E . Cup conical or bowl-shaped, with orna-
ment of axial folds; only 1 IIBr, which is axillary; free arm-rami branch
on alternate sides of the half-rays, starting either from lax or H a x ; all
free portions of arms are biserial; proximal pinnulars bear hooks; iBr
numerous, primitively merge into iAmb, but become separated therefrom
Fio. L X X X H I .
Actinocrinus. 1, analysis of part of cup, showing post, and r. post, interradii. 2, cup from
below; the supplementary plates shaded.
by development and lateral contact of fixed brachials ; post. IR wide,

with proximal anal foUowed by 2 plates in second row; tegmen
solid ; 0 not prominent, but usually distinguishable ; iAmb may cover
the tegminal A m b ; anus either on a tube or piercing tegmen, either
central or eccentric; stem round, with small 5-lobed lumen. The
family is confined to the Lower Carboniferous, andflourishedchiefly
in N. America. Actinocrinus, with its descendant Steganocrinus, and
Cactocrinus, with its descendant Teleiocrinus, form a group characterised by
a long anal tube. In Physetocrinus and its descendant Strotocrinus the anus
pierces the tegmen directly. For complete account of the family and
revision of genera see W . & Sp., 1897. Genera—Actinocrinus, Miller (1821;
synn. Amphora, C u m k ; Blairocrinus, S. A. Miller; Fig. LXXXIII.); cup-
plates with axial folds and parallel ridges ; theca lobed at arm-regions, the
numerous iBr being depressed, while the higher orders of Br with their
A m b form 5 broad rays, sometimes including some iBr ; these rays fork and
give off free rami to alternate sides every second or third plate,firston outer
side from Hax, then on inner side fromIIIax,andso on; the ramimay branch
a<»ain • pinnules long, the proximal pinnulars armed with a small hook pro-
jecting from the middle; tegmen solid, rising centrally into a stout tube with
170 THE CRINOIDEA
anus at distal end ; 0 small and eccentric ; A m b visible in tegmen, either

as two rows of large covering-plates which pass out from between O and
follow the branching of the food-grooves, or as large single plates (IAmb
and I IAmb), succeeded by smifll covering-plates, which pass on to the free
arms. Steganocrinus, Meek & Worthen (1866), differs from Actinocrinus
in the extension of each ray into 1 or 2 rigid tubular rami, from
which biserial ramuli are given off alternately on opposite sides, either
from every ossicle or from every other ; covering-plates consist of side-
pieces and spinous A m b . Cactocrinus (W. & Sp., 1897) differs from
Actinocrinus in having the arm-rami given off in a continuous row
around the theca, the brachials meeting laterally, so that iBr are not in
contact with iAmb (cf. Eutrochocrinus); bifurcation takes place on each
successive plate, i.e. all Br, except thefinials,are axillary; all pinnulars,
except the extreme distal ones, bear hooks which imbricate over the adjacent
pinnules (cf. structure of a feather) ; covering-plates consist of side-pieces
and A m b ; Br and tegminal plates spinous (cf. Fig. XLIV.). Teleiocrinus, W .
& Sp. (1881; syn. CalatJwcrinus, Hall, pars, non v. Meyer) ; a modified
Cactocrinus in which the arms have become so numerous and crowded
that they are pushed outward, while their bases have become united
and extended as a broad rim at the top of the theca ; between the A m b
and iAmb forming the roof of this rim, and the Br forming itsfloor,are
developed processes of stereom serving as girders; the ambulacra with
their ambulacrals are mostly depressed below the tegmen and covered by
i A m b ; a respiratory pore is at the side of each ambulacral opening into
the theca. Physetocrinus, Meek & Worthen (1869), differs from Actino-
crinus in the absence of an anal tube, and in bifurcation of arms on each
successive Br, as in Cactocrinus. Strotocrinus, Meek & Worthen (1866),
often confounded with Teleiocrinus, towards which it is convergent, bears
to Physetocrinus precisely the same relation as Teleiocrinus bears to Cacto-
crinus. Sampsonocrinus, Mill. & Gurl. (1895), Carboniferous, Missouri,
has r. and 1. post. iBr truncating BB, and only 1 IBr in r. and 1. ant. radii ;
the unique specimen is best regarded as an abnormal Actinocrinus. Com-
pare Phillipsocrinus, M'Coy (1844 or 1862), Carboniferous, Ireland, in
which also some iBr truncate B B ; but since B B are here 4, this may
be a more direct descendant of Xenocrinidae, perhaps by way of the
Silurian Laubeocrinus, Waagen & Jahn (1899), which seems a li«V
between early Batocrinoidea and Actinocrinoidea. F A M I L Y 2. A M P H O R A -
CRINIDAE. Actinocrinoidea with cup depressed and tegmen much elevated,
accompanied by downward projection of proximal regions of arm-rays;
cup-plates with granulo- vermicular ornament; iBr few; in other
respects like Actinocrinidae. Genus—Amphoracrinus, Austin (1848),
Carboniferous, Europe and N. America ; arms free from lax or IIBr, ;
anal tube short and eccentric. T w o American species occasionally have
3 plates (instead of 2) succeeding the proximal anal, but the middle of
these is small and wedge-shaped, barely touching the anal; this may be
a plate of the ensuing row pressed down, or it may represent the middle
plate in Batocrinoidea.
i
THE CRINOIDEA 171
SUB-CLASS 2. D I C Y C L I C A , Bather (1899).
Crinoidea in which the base consists of BB and IBB, the latter being
liable to atrophy or fusion with the proximale, but the aboral prolonga-
tions of the chambered organ are always radial; new columnals may or
may not be introduced at the proximal end of the stem.
ORDER 1. Dicyclica Inadunata

(= I N A D U N A T A , W . & Sp. pars, emend.).
Dicyclica in which the dorsal cup primitively is confined to the patina

and occasional intercalated anals, and no other plates ever occur between
R R (Grade : Distincta); Br may be incorporated in the cup, with or
without iBr, but never rigidly, and their corresponding A m b remain
supra-tegminal (Grade : Articulata); new columnals are introduced at
the extreme proximal end of the stem.
This order, so far as its Palaeozoic genera are concerned, corresponds
roughly to the Inadunata Fistulata of Wachsmuth & Springer, and
entirely to the Inadunata Dicyclica of Bather with an error or two
corrected ; but it includes also some of Midler's Articulata and some of
Wachsmuth & Springer's Larviformia. The latter authors have them-
selves proved the connection of the Encrinidae and Pentacrinidae with
their Fistulata. The distribution of the 70 genera into families would
present no great difficulty, were a purely morphological classification our
aim. One might use, as has been done, such characters as the presence
or absence of pinnules, of an anal tube, of a radianal, of articulation
between cup-plates, or of simply bifurcate as contrasted with dichotomous
arms. But there is every gradation in the development of these characters,
pinnulate forms being derived from non-pinnulate, the radianal gradually
disappearing, articulation of plates, developed as need arose, and so on.
Hence the great division into Cyathocrinidae and Poteriocrinidae (W. &
Sp., 1886 ; Zittel, 1895) cannot meet the needs of the phylogenist A n
attempt to sketch the actual race-history (Bather, 1890) resulted in the
recognition of a distinction between Dendrocrinus and its allies, with their
broad radial facets and thin tegmen on the one hand, and Cyathocrinus
and its allies, with narrower facets and more solid tegmen on the other,
while the pinnulate forms were all derived from the Dendrocrinidae.
This distinction, subsequently strengthened (Bather, 1893), has been
made much of by Jaekel (1895), who divides all his Fistulata into
Cyathocrinacea, Dendrocrinacea, and Poteriocrinacea, the last group being
derived from the Dendrocrinacea, and giving rise to the Articulata
(Jaekel). It is therefore but a slight step to establish two sub-orders,
Dendrocrinoidea and Cyathocrinoidea. Of these the latter were the first
to be specialised and thefirstto disappear. The Dendrocrinoidea moved
more slowly and went further—even to our own day—undergoing modi-
fication in the development of the anal tube, in the pinnulation of the
arms, and in the relation of arms to cup. Moreover, from them branched
off the order Flexibilia, probably on more than one occasion.
172 THE CRINOIDEA
SUB-ORDER 1. Cyathocrinoidea. Dicyclica Inadunata, with a fairly

stout tegmen, in which 5 orals (A, sub-ambulacrals, interradial s, con-
solidating apparatus, of authors) are usually conspicuous, helping to
stiffen the tegmen, supporting the ambulacra on their adjacent edges, and
enclosing but not covering the peristome ; post O frequently a madre-
porite ; radial facet usually narrow; arms distinct from dorsal cup, un-
branched or dichotomous; none attain the pinnulate stage, but the
presence of pinnules would not in itself remove a genus from the sub-order.
F A M I L Y 1. C A R A B O C R I N I D A E . Cyathocrinoidea with one or more
large anals in line with R R ; R A supporting these, and resting on a
supplemental plate intercalated between post. B and r. post. B and rest-
ing on IBB. Anus, surrounded by a few small plates, pierces tegmen
between x and post O. Strong stereom-folds pass across the radio-
oral sutures. Post O pierced by hydro-
pore (a madreporite). Arms stout and short.
Genera—Carabocrinus, Billings (1856,-59);
Strophocrinus, Sardeson (1899), both Ordo-
vician, N. America (Fig. LXXXIV.). The
Fio. L X X X I V .
radio-oral folds are probably vestigial
Analysis of cup of Carabocrinus.
hydrospires (cf. Hybocrinus). The inter-
radial tegminal plates are admittedly homologous with orals, and ambu-
lacrals rest on their apposed edges (as in Fig. V. 2 ; see also p. 126).
F A M I L Y 2. P A L A E O C R I N I D A E . Cyathocrinoidea with anal x in line with
R R ; R A smaller and rhomboidal, abutting on x and not separating
r. post Rs from r. post B ; anal tube slightly developed ; 5 O surround a
pentagonal peristome ; post O a madreporite ; arms narrow, rising from
well-defined facet, axial canal not separate from ventral groove, but passes
into thecal cavity through a large opening between R and adjacent
O. Genera—Palaeocrinus, Billings (1859), Ordovician, Canada (Fig.
L X X X V ) . ; usually regarded as a synonym of Dendrocrinus, to which it
is closely allied ; but it differs in shape of R A , the defined radial facet,
the anal tube composed
of but 4 or 5 vertical
rows of plates, and above
all, the solid orals sup-
porting ambulacrals,—
differentiae which place
it in this sub-order.
Stem shows 5 radial
sutures ; cup plates FIG. L X X X V .
usually folded; arms Analysis of cup of Palaeocrinus, showing the axial
isotomous to IVBr. folds of the plates. R' radianal.
Porocrinus, Billings (1856-59 ; see J. Grant, 1881, and Beyrich),
Ordovician, Canada and Russia (Fig. L X X X V I . ) ; arms unbranched.
Deep folds lie at the angles of all thecal plates, directed towards the
angle, and not passing at right angles across the middle of the sutures,
thus differing from hydrospires of Eublastoidea and from pectinirhombs ;
Beyrich imagined them to be separated by suture from the rest of the
plate, and Grant described a membrane [?a film of epistereom] covering
u
THE CRINOIDEA 173
them. Bactrocrinus, Schnur in Steininger (1849), Devonian, Eifel ; usu-

ally made a synonym of Homocrinus, but separated by Zittel (1879), Bather
(1893), and Jaekel (1895) ; differs from Palaeocrinus only in the occa-
sionally wider radial facet and rather more de-
veloped anal tube, in which points it approaches
Homocrinus. F A M I L Y 3. E U S P I R O C R I N I D A E .
Cyathocrinoidea with anal x hexagonal or
heptagonal, resting on post. B, but rising
above level of R R ; with R A pentagonal,
resting on post, and r. post. B B , supporting
x on one side, r. post. Rs on the other, and
a plate of the anal tube (rt) sunk into the
cup between them ; anus at end of a massive
anal tube; post. O a madreporite; arms
dichotomous, axial canal not separate from ven-
tral groove. Genera—Euspirocrinus, Angelin
(1878; see Bather, 1893), Ordovician of
Canada, Silurian of Gotland (Figs. L X X X V I I .
and XXXVIII.). The usual text-book figure
of E. spiralis is reversed. Closterocriuus, Hall
(1852), and Ampheristocrinus, Hall (1882),
both Silurian, N. America; 3 I B B ; imper-
fectly known (Fig. L X X X V I I L ) . The anal
area of the family resembles that of the
advanced Dendrocrinoidea. F A M I L Y 4. S P H A E -
ROCRINIDAE. Cyathocrinoidea, with 3 anal FIG. LXXXVl.
plates as in Euspirocrinus, but differing in Porocrinus Smithi. 1, partial
reconstruction, seen from right
that R A is comparatively large, x not rising posterior radius, the arm of
above R R , rt small and not, or hardly at all, which is removed. Length of
stein and arms unknown.
rising above R R ; post. O a madreporite ; (Based on specimens belonging
arms isotomous; axial canal separate in Br to âimDr.2,G.opJ.
ticaHinde.)
l section across
x J
and R. Generz-Spliaerocrinus, C. F. Roemer ^S^J^^^* S-'
(1851; for history see Bather, 1892; for x 4 diam. other lettering as
structure, Jaekel, 1895), Devonian, Germany usual-
and England ; the anus pierces the tegmen directly through a ring
of small plates. Parisocrinus, W . & Sp. (1879), Devonian of Ger-
many, Carboniferous of England and N. America (Fig. X X V I . 6), has a
well-developed anal tube of hexagonal plates, which are folded at the edges.
« > e
FIG. LXXXVII. FIG. LXXXVIIL

Analysis of cup of Euspirocrinus sjdralis. Analysis of cup of Ampheristocrinus.
FAMILY 5. C Y A T H O C R I N I D A E . Cyathocrinoidea, with no anal except x,

which is in line with RR* and usually supports a large tube; post. O a
madreporite ; arms isotomous, axial canal separate or not. Genera—
Cyathocrinus, Miller (1821 ; see Bather, 1892-93, for full revision and
174 THE CRINOIDEA
details), Silurian to Carboniferous, world-wide. This, being the best

known genus of the sub-order, demands closer description. The dorsal
cup (analysed in Fig. L X X X I X . 5) consists of: 5 equal I B B ; 5 large
BB, all hexagonal except post. B, which is truncate above ; 5 shield-
shaped R R , each with a facet usually £ width of plate, the articular
surface being either smooth and imperforate, or having a slight transverse
ridge pierced by the axial canal (Fig. L X X X I X . 2); a square anal x, in
line with R R and resting on truncate post. B. Tegmen consists of 5 O
resting on the incurved shoulders of B R , and surrounding a pentagonal
FIO. L X X X I X .
Cyathocrinus. 1, C. multibrachiatus, seen from posterior. (Brit. Mus. E5462.) 2, radial
of C. visbycensis, showing articular facet, x 2. 3, joint-surface of colwmnal of C. acinoMms,
x 2. 4, joint-surface of a brachial of same, with covering-plates in position, x 9. 5, analysis
of the cup. a.c, axial canal; /, fulcral ridge ; t, intercalated plate ; j, joint-surface ; l.ci and
l.c%, the twp halves of a covering-plate of the left side; nn, nodals; r.c1, proximal half of a
covering-plate of the right side ; t, anal tube ; v.g, ventral groove. (2-5 after Bather.)
peristome (Fig. XXXIX. I),- post. 0 being large, conspicuous, and pierced
by numerous water-pores, the other 0 being smaller and often almost
entirely hidden, partly by ambulacrals resting on the apposed edge of all
O, partly by small interambulacrals (Fig. X X X I X . 2). The proximal A m b
meet over the peristome and often grow to a large size, sometimes fusing
and simulating orals (for which elements they are taken by W . & Sp.,
see Fig. XLIIL). The anal tube consists of more or less hexagonal plates,
arranged in fairly regular longitudinal rows ; it varies greatly in width,
length, and width of lumen ; the anus is at its distal end ; the plates m a y
be slightly folded, but are not transversely elongate, nor are there pores,
THE CRINOIDEA 175
or even the appearances of pores, between them (Fig. X X V I . 5). Arms

dichotomise 5-7 times, and in each series there are more brachials in the
admedian branch of the dichotom (Fig. L X X X I X . 1). The covering-plates
are well developed ; in their simplest form they are conical, in both out-
line and longitudinal section, regularly alternating, and each reaching
about \ across the ventral surface ; each covering-plate may, however, be
transversely divided, and the parts may come to be arranged in a manner
too complicated for description here (Fig. L X X X I X . 4). Stem round,
with lumen usually 5-lobed ; stem and lumen vary in width ; columnals
low, usually alternating in thickness and height, the smaller ones being
those last formed; joint-surface radiately striate (Fig. L X X X I X . 3); no
longitudinal sutures and no cirri. Gissocrinus, Angelin (1878 ; em. Bather,
1893), Silurian,. Europe and possibly
America (Fig. XC.; see also Figs. VIII., IX.,
and X L L ) ; connected with Palaeocrinus;
one or two pairs of IBB usually fuse ; cup-
plates have clear axial ridges ; distal mar-
FIG. XC.
gins of Br usually project; anal tube com-
Analysis of cup of Gissocrinus.
pressed antero-posteriorly, its plates trans-
versely elongate and folded. Arachnocrinus, Meek & Worthen (1866),
Silurian to Devonian, America and Europe; small cup and heavy arms,
which, together with anal tube, spread out horizontally from the cup.
Lecythocrinus, Miiller (1858, em. Zittel, 1879 = Taxocrinus briareus,
Schultze, 1866), Devonian, Eifel; stem subquadrangular, with one large
central and 4 smaller peripheral canals (cf. Cupressocrinidae). F A M I L Y 6.
PETALOCRINIDAE. Cyathocrinoidea without x in dorsal cup, and with
Fio. X C I .
Petalocrinus. 1, partial recon-
struction of P. mirabilis, with one
arm removed to expose radial
facet, and other arms devoid of
covering-plates; the root is im-
aginary, x 2 diam. 2, section
across four grooves of an arm-fan,
showing traces of the original
sutures (s) between them, covering-
plates (c.p) closed and open, also
stages in the separation of the
axial canal (a.c) from the ventral
groove (v.g), compare Fig. VIII.,
x 5 diam. 3, articular facet of
arm-fan of P. visbycensis; m,
muscle-fossa; I, dorsal ligament-
fossa ; r, fulcral ridge, x §. 4,
dorsai view of cup and proximal
regions of arms of P. mirabilis ;
Br, arm-fan; St, proximal colum-
nal ; other letters as usual, x 3
diain. (3 and 4 are after Bather.)
arms fused into solid arm-fans. Genus—Petalocrinus, Weller (1896),

Silurian, Gotland and N. America, appears to have been derived from
Arachnocrinus by lateral fusion of the rami of each arm to form a blade
176 THE CRINOIDEA
or fan articulated to the R by a single IBr (Fig. X C L , see Bather, 1898).

F A M I L Y 7. C R O T A L O C R I N I D A E . Cyathocrinoidea with cup as in Cyatho-
crinus ; anal tube when present constructed like that of Gissocrinus;
tegmen almost entirely composed of A m b , some of which are much
modified ; the orals seem to have been covered by these and to have
atrophied, except post. O, which remains as a conspicuous plate, ap-
parently madreporic (Fig. XCII. 3); the entry of A m b into the tegmen is
connected with the shortening up of proximal portions of arms, so that
IBr, IIBr, IIIBr, and sometimes IVBr, all partially rest on R, and are
firmly united by suture with it (Fig. XCII. 1). Arms repeatedly iso-
tomous ; axial canal distinct, except sometimes in extreme distal region.
Crotalocrinidae. 1 and 2, Enallocrinus scriptus (after W a c h s m . & Spr.). 1, posterior view

of cup and arm-bases. 2, enlarged view of more distal portions of arms ; o from side, 6 from
back, showing cornice-like projections. 3, tegmen of Crotalocrinus pulcher, from a specimen at
Stockholm. The arm-branches are united by the lateral processes of the brachials, the spaces
between being represented in solid black ; the interradii (IR), along which adjacent arms unite,
appear as five depressed lanceolate areas, in the posterior of which lies the short anal tube (.d.-.);
the axial canals (a.c) are separate from the ventral grooves (i.g); the latter are protected by
covering-plates (cp), which become larger towards the centre, and four proximal ones (P) meet
around the madreporite (M), x 2 diam.
Stem large, round, with wide lumen (Fig. L. 1, 3, 4). All Silurian.
Genera—Enallocrinus, d'Orbigny (1850), Gotland and England ; arm-
branches distinct, often with a pronounced cornice at distal margins of Br
(Fig. XCII. 2), in this as in other respects closely resembling Gissocrinus.
Crotalocrinus, Austin (1842; syn. Anthocrinus, Miiller, 1853), Gotland,
England, and N. America ; arm-branches united by lateral processes from
each Br, so as to form aflexiblenetwork, which may be continuous all
round the crown, or divided into 5 broad arm-fans. The family is referred
to the Camerata by Wachsmuth and Springer (1888); but the resemblance
to Marsipocrinus is homoplastic, and the connection with Cyathocrinidae
scarcely admits of question. The Crotalocrinidae might be called the
Adunata of the Dicyclica, just as Platycrinus and its allies are of the
Monocyclica. F A M I L Y 8. C O D I A C R I N I D A E . Cyathocrinoidea with no anal
THE CRINOIDEA 177
plates in dorsal cup ; with dichotomous aims relatively slightly developed.

Genera—Codiacrinus, Schultze (1867 ; Follmann, 1887), Devonian, Ger-
many (Fig. XCIII.). Lecythiocrinus, White,
(1880), Coal Measures of Illinois and Kansas.
Both genera little known ; Codiacrinus is
compared by Schultze with Myrtillocrinus,
by W & Sp. with Achradocrinus. F A M I L Y 9.
CUPRESSOCIUNIDAE. Cyathocrinoidea with
IS5S5? FIG. XCIII.
Analysis of cup of Codiacrinus
no anal plates in dorsal cup ; anus piercing Schultzei. * shows position of anus.
tegmen ; arms unbranched (or [?] forking few
times) ; stem square in section, with an axial and 4 peripheral canals (cf.
Lecythocrinus, p. 175). Genera—Cupressocrinus, Goldfuss (1826 ; synn.
Halocrinus & Cijpellocrinus of Steininger; see W . & Sp.', 1886, and
Neumayr, 1889), Devonian, Germany and England (Fig. X C I V ) . A
massive form with basin-shaped cup ; IBB fused (by some held to be a
proximale, Fig. X C I V . 3); a stout arm, composed of a few larê Br in
single series, rests on a facet the full width of each R ; large ambulacrals
cover the arm-grooves and are taken for pinnules by Zittel ; the solidity of
the close-fitting arms renders a plated tegmen unnecessary, but the 5 orals
FIG. XCIV.
Cupressocrinus (after L.
Schultze). All two-thirds nat.
size. 1, C. inflatus, complete
crown. 2, C. abbreviatus, ventral
surface of calyx, slightly modi-
fied ; shows "consolidating ap-
paratus " of five plates (A), here
regarded as orals, between which
are the passages (v.g) for organs
of the ventral groove other than
the food-groove ; a.c, axial canal
of radial; As, passage for rectum.
3, infrabasal circlet of same, from
below, showing sutural .surfaces
(s) for basals, axial canal, and
peripheral canals (p.c).
characteristic of Cyathocrinoidea are retained as a frame (" consolidating

apparatus'" of authors) around the ventral surface of the cup, post. 0
being larger than the others and pierced for the rectum (Fig. XCIV. 2).
Myrtillocrinus, Sandberger (1855, syn. Ancyrocrinus, Hall, see p. 134,
Fig. LI.), Devonian, Germany, and N. America ; may have closer affinities
with Gasterocomidae. F A M I L Y 10. G A S T E R O C O M I D A E . Cyathocrinoidea with
anus in side of cup, at a level varying with the genus, either above or
below x, which is always within limits of cup. Arms apparently small,
borne on a narrow horseshoe-shaped facet, with distinct axial canal. O
for most part covered by A m b , post. 0 a large madreporite. IBB small,
often fused into 3 plates or 1. Stem usually of Cupressocrinid type.
Genera—Gasterocoma, Goldfuss (1839, W . & Sp., 1886 ; Jaekel, 1895 ;
synn. Epactocrinus and Ceramocrinus, J. Miiller, 1855), Devonian, Ger-
many ; anus below x, which is in line with R R ; IBB fused into one.
Nanocrinus, J. Miiller (1856, Schultze, 1867), Devonian, Eifel ; like
12
178 THE CRINOIDEA
Gasterocoma, but ant. R small, without facet; r. ant. R with 2 facets. Scolio-
crinus, Jaekel (1895), Devonian, Eifel; still more bilateral, in that ant.
and 1. ant. R R are larger than the rest, and
alone bear arms ; anus below r. post. R,
and x between post. B and r. post. B.
Achradocrinus, Schultze (1867), Devonian,
Eifel (Fig. X C V . ) ; x below anus, and
FIG. XCV. resting on post B ; IBB 5 ; stem round,
Analysis of cup of Achradocrinus
with single canal. Hypocrinus, Beyrich
ventrosus.
(1864), Carboniferous, Timor ; differs from
Achradocrinus in having IBB fused to 3 ; referred by most authors to
Cystidea Aporita.
S U B - O R D E R 2. Dendrocrinoidea. Dicyclica Inadunata with a thin
flexible tegmen, or with the ventral surface almost entirely occupied by
a large anal tube or ventral sac (the latter name being needed if the
extension contained more than the mere rectum); orals inconspicuous or
entirely atrophied in the adult ; no madreporite; radial facet often wide,
so that the distinctness of arms from dorsal cup is not maintained ; arms
dichotomous, the dichotomy often irregular, leading up to a pinnulate
stage.
Whereas the genera of the Cyathocrinoidea all have the arms either
quite distinct from each other above the level of the patina, or at least
not united by supplementary plates, the Dendrocrinoidea gradually attain
a stage of development in which the arms are thus partially united.
Below this stage we may draw a somewhat arbitrary line, separating the
former as a grade, Distincta, from the latter grade—Articulata. This
line happens to correspond with the break between Palaeozoic and
Mesozoic time. W e deal first with the Dendrocrinoidea Distincta.
F A M I L Y 1. D E N D R O C R I N I D A E . Dendrocrinoidea with regularly dich-
otomous, non-pinnulate arms, with anal x, and large R A in its
.1 .IBr
Rs
<QPQ>Q&Merocrinus. Ottawacrinus.
<%<%~%WoDendrocrinus.
nur-
W<P<PPo Homocrinus. FIG. X C V I . Thenarocrinus.

Dendrocrinidae. Analyses of cups.
primitive position as inferradial (Fig. XCVI.); stem quinquepartite.

Genera—Merocrinus, Walcott (1883), Ordovician, N. America and England,
resembles Iocrinus (p. 145) in all but the presence of IBB ; anal tube-sup-
ported by the left shoulder of r. post Rs. Ottawacrinus, W . R. Billings
THE CRINOIDEA 179
(1887), Ordovician, Canada; x rests on post. B, R A immediately above

r. post. B ; r. post Rs is above general level of R R and may be lBr r These
two genera suggest that R A of Dicyclica may not be strictly homologous
with R A of Monocyclica. Dendrocrinus, Hall (1852), Ordovician and
Silurian, N. America ; large anal sac with folded plates making wide anal
area in cup (see also Fig. X X V I . 2, 3). Homocrinus, Hall (1852. em.
Bather, 1893), Silurian and Devonian, N. America and Europe ; R A
rhomboid and smaller. Thenarocrinus, Bather (1890), Silurian, England ;
large sac, anal area widened by R A sinking between BB. F A M I L Y 2.
BOTRYOCRINIDAE. Dendrocrinoidea with arms bifurcating in two main
rami with armlets or pinnules ; R A usually small and quadrangular
or absent. This family connects Dendrocrinidae with Decadocrinidae,
and it is difficult to diagnose it so as to include all of the closely
related forms. Genera—Botryocrinus, Angelin (1878, em. Bather, 1891 ;
syn. Sicyocrinus, Ang.), Silurian and Devonian, Gotland, England, Canada;
small R A large anal sac, often coiled ; arms range from irregularly
dichotomous, through ramuliferous, to pinnulate (Fig. X C V I L , see also
Figs. III., XIIL, and X X L ) . Gothocrinus, Bather (1893), Silurian, Gotland,
has a cup like Dendrocrinus with ramuliferous arms. Mastigocrinus,
Bather (1892), Silurian, England, has very long,finelydichotomous arms,
,KA
FIG. X C V I L FIG. XCVIII.

Analysis of cup in Botryocrinus. Analysis of cup in Atelcstocrinns.
no RA (for anal sac, see Fig. XLVIII.). Gastrocrinus and Rhadinocrinus,

Jaekel (1895), Devonian, Germany, are, respectively, like a Botryocrinus
with cirri in whorls of 5 (Fig. X V I L 1), and a Gothocrinus with minute
ramules. Cosmocrinus, Jaekel (1898), Devonian, Germany and N. America,
has broad cup of Botryocrinus type, arms pinnulate, and with ramuli on the
inner side of the two main rami. Vasocrinus, Lyon (1857, em. W . &
Sp., 1879), Devonian to Carboniferous, N. America, scarcely differs from
Botryocrinus. Barycrinus, Meek & Worthen (1868, em. W . & Sp., 1879),
Carboniferous, N. America and England, has heavier cup-plates and large
stem-lumen. Goniocrinus, Miller & Gurley (1890), Waverly Group,
Iowa has no R A , and has cirri like Gastrocrinus. Atelestocrinus, W . & Sp.
(1886), Carboniferous, N. America, is distinguished by absence of an arm
from ant. R ; large R A supporting rt (Fig. XCVIII.); arms ramuliferous.
Streptocrinus, W . & Sp. (1886 ; redescr. Bather, 1893 ; syn. Ophiocrinus,
Ang. non Salter), has branched arms, coiling inwards, with pinnule-like
processes arising irregularly from sides of Br ; no R A , anal sac coiled.
F A M I L Y 3. L O P H O C R I N I D A E . Dendrocrinoidea with only 1 ramus to each
arm, with ramuli springing from the alternate sides of every second Br ;
with no R A , but x supporting on its shoulders 2 plates of a delicate
anal sac. Genus—Lophocrinus, H. v. Meyer (1858 ; redescr. Jaekel,
1895 ; syn. 1 Carduocrinus, v. Koenen), Upper Carboniferous, Germany.
i8o THE CRINOIDEA
A similar evolution of arm-structure to that seen in Botryocrinidae

produced a long series of genera with pinnulate arms, for the most part
clearly forking into two rami, and rarely branching more than once
again, but in some genera branching more often. All atfirsthad an
anal area more complicated than that of Dendrocrinus, in that a fresh
plate (rt) was inserted between x and r. post. R so as to rest on R A ,
while a corresponding plate (It) appeared on the left of x. F A M I L Y 4.
S C A P H I O C R I N I D A E (= Poteriocrinidae, Auctt, greatly restricted). Dendro-
crinoidea with dichotomous, usually much branched, pinnulate, stout arms,
with facet occupying nearly full width of R ; with x, R A , rt, and It, in
anal area of cup, supporting a large plicated sac (Fig. XCIX.). Carbon-
iferous of N. America and Europe, a few Devonian. Genera—Scaphio-
crinus, Hall (1858, em. W . & Sp., 1886 ; synn. Hydriocrinus, Trautschold;
Abrotocrinus, Mill. & Gurl.), and Poteriocrinus, Miller (1821, em. W . & Sp.,
1881), differ in little but the greater definiteness and less width of the
facet in the latter; each has a long anal sac (Fig. X X V I . 4). Woodocrinus, de
Koninck (1854 ; synn. Philocrinus, de Kon.; Pachyhcrinus, W . & Sp.), has
shorter cup, arms, and sac. In Aulocrinus, W . & Sp. (1897), the sac forks.
Zeacrinus, Hall (1858, em. W . & Sp., 1886), has a short, stout sac, around
Poteriocrinus. FIG. XCIX. Zeacrinus.

Scaphiocrinidae. Analyses of cups.
which the wide arms fit closely. Coeliocrinus, White (1863), and Hydreiono-
crinus, de Kon. (1858), differ from Zeacrinus in having the sac respectively
balloon-shaped and mushroom-shaped. Bursacrinus, Meek & Worthen
(1861 ; syn. Synyplwcrinus, Trautschold), has arms like Zeacrinus, but no
anal except x in the cup ; it is in the latter respect the morphological
equivalent of Graphiocrinus (infra). F A M I L Y 5. S C Y T A L E C R I N I D A E . Den-
drocrinoidea with forked, pinnulate, slender arms ; anal structures as in
Scaphiocrinus. Genera—Scytalecrinus, W . & Sp. (1879, syn. Dactylocrinus,
Sladen non Quenst), and Decadocrinus, W . & Sp. (1879), both Carboniferous,
differ chiefly in shape of cup, conical in the former, saucer-shaped in the
latter, which thus leads on to : F A M I L Y 6. G R A P H I O C R I N I D A E . Dendrocrin-
oidea with forked pinnulate arms and saucer-shaped cup, concave at base,
and containing x, but no R A (Fig. C ) . In many points resemble the earlier
Encrinidae, but have not such thick cup-plates or large muscle-fossae.
Middle and Upper Carboniferous. Genera—Graphiocrinus, de Koninck
(1853), Aesiocrinus, Miller & Gurley (1890), Delocrinus, Miller & Gurley
(1890 ; syn. Ceriocrinus, White non Desor). In this and the succeeding
families the biserial arrangement of Brfirstassumes prominence ; it had
already appeared as an occasional gerontic character at the distal end oi
the rami, but now is found in all except their most proximal portions,
accompanied by shortening of the arm. F A M I L Y 7. C R O M Y O C R I N I D A E .
Dendrocrinoidea with simple or bifurcating, stout, pinnulate, usually
THE CRINOIDEA 181
biserial arms ; with cup- bowl- or saucer-shaped, composed of stout plates,

R R having muscle-fossae gradually more pronounced; with x always, and
R A usually, present in cup, R A often supporting'rt (Fig. C). There is
much confusion in the nomenclature of this and allied families, and the
following names may not be tised in what will ultimately prove the correct
sense. Genera—Cromyocrinus, Trautschold (1867), and Eupachycrinus,
Meek & Worthen (1855, em. W . & Sp., 1886), Middle and Upper Car-
boniferous, Europe and N. America, are closely allied ; x, R A , and rt in
anal area. Agassizocrinus, Shumard ex Troost M S . (1853 ; syn. Astylocrinus,
C. F. Roemer), Kaskaskia group, N. America, is a Cromyocrinus that loses
its stem in adult life, while IBB fuse to a solid mass (cf. Edriocrinus,
p. 191). Tribrachiocrinus, M'Coy (1847, redescr. R. Etheridge,fil.,1892 ;
syn. Pentadia, Dana, pars), Permo-Carboniferous, Australia, has 1. and r.
Graphiocrinus. l'hialocrinus. Cromyocrinus.
S5
fS^fe®? caorro:
Delocrinus. Eitpachycrtnuz.
&roroY<wKrisocrinus.
®sg>m>
F I G . C. Tribrachiocrinus.
Analyses of cups of Graphiocrinidae, Cromyocrinidae, and Encrinidae.
pairs of IBB fused ; single arms borne by ant, r. post., and 1. post.
R R ; whether the other R R bore arms is a moot point. Phialocrinus,
Trautschold (1879, em. R. Etheridge,fil.,1892, non Eichwald; syn.
Pentadia, Dana, pars), Permo-Carboniferous, Australia, Russia, India ;
differs from Acsiocrinus and Ceriocrinus in little but greater thickness of
cup-plates, especially R R , and has, as they, only x in cup. Ulocrinus,
Miller & Gurley (1890), Upper Carboniferous, N. America, has large
R A , but very small x, which rises partly above level of R R (Fig. XXIX.).
From these genera we pass almost insensibly to : F A M I L Y 8. E N C R I N I D A E .
Dendrocrinoidea with forked, pinnulate, biserial arms, saucer-shaped cup,
with stout plates and well-developed muscle-fossae ; with no anals in cup,
and with sac diminished or absent (Fig. C ) . Genera—Stemmatocrinus,
Trautschold (1867), Upper Carboniferous Limestone, Russia, has IBB fused
into one. Erisocrinus, Meek and Worthen (1865), Lower to Upper Car-
boniferous, N. America, has 5 small IBB covered by the stem, and x rests
on upper surface of adjacent r. and 1. post. RR. Encrinus, C. F. Schulze
182 THE CRINOIDEA
(1760, synn. CMocrinus and [T] Calathocrinus, v. Meyer, Flabellocrinus,

Klipstein, [?] Cassianocrinus, Laube, [?] Traumatocrinus, Wohrmann, which
— Porocrinus, Dittmar non Bill.), Trias, Europe, has 5 minute IBB, a
lofty plated tegmen, small tube, but no distinct anal plate.
Another line of evolution, probably continuing that of the Graphio-
crinidae, introduces the Articulate Grade of Dendrocrinoidea, of which
the most important family and thefirstto appear is the F A M I L Y 9.
PENTACRINIDAE. Dendrocrinoidea with pinnulate, uniserial arms, forking
once or dichotomising many times, either regularly, or irregularly so that
the minor branches become pinnulate ramuli; with a small, usually
depressed patina, in which IBB are often minute or atrophied in adult
(pseudomonocyclic, or, as Bigot has recently expressed it, "cryptodi-
cyclic"); but theflexibletegmen extends some way up the arms, so
that the proximal IBr, and sometimes some IIBr, are incorporated loosely
in the dorsal cup ; a slight anal tube or cone, but no distinct anal plates
in either cup or tegmen; stem pentagonal or sub-pentagonal, usually
with cirri in whorls of 5. Genera—Dadocrinus, v. Meyer (1847 ; see v.
Koenen, 1887-95), Trias, Middle Europe, has a round or sub-pentagonal
stem without cirri, pinnulate arms forking once, 2 IBr, which are united
by several small iBr. Holocrinus, W . & Sp. (1886, em. Jaekel, 1893),
Trias, Germany, has whorls of cirri, slender arms forking once, 3-4 IBr,
not united by iBr, but tegmen stretches up to about IBr, cup high and
constricted above. The family characters become more definite in later
forms, which may be associated as a S U B - F A M I L Y — P E X T A C R I N I N A E ; IBB
always minute or atrophied ; stem bears cirri in whorls attached to the
epizygal of a syzygial pair ; its internodes transversed by 5 ligament-
bundles, which are interradially disposed and give rise to a more or less
petaloidfigureon the joint-faces \ root-attachment may exist in young,
but is relinquished in adult (Fig. CI.). Genera—Pentacrinus, Blumenbach
(1804 ; synn. Polyceriis, Fischer, 1811, pars; Extracrinus, Austin, 1847 ;
[?] Chladocrinus, L. Agassiz; see especially Quenstedt, 1875), Lias and Jura,
Europe. Petaloid sectors of stem linear with delicately crenulate edges ;
cirri elliptical or compressed in section, in close-set whorls; I B B present in
adult; R R prolonged downwards over proximal columnals, the prolonga-
tions being jointed ; each arm has at least 4 rami with large pinnulate
ramules on one side only. Isocrinus, v. Meyer (1837 ; synn. /sis, Lin-
naeus, pars; Cainocrinus, Forbes ; Picteticrinus, de Loriol ; Cenocnnus and
Neocrinus, Wyv. Thomson ; and Pentacrinus, sensu P. H. Carpenter1),
Trias to Recent, now chiefly Caribbean and Pacific. Sectors of stem dis-
tinctly petaloid, with coarsely crenulate edges ; cirri circular in section,
the whorls further apart (Figs. X V I . 4, 5 ; X V I L 2, 3) ; I B B are visible
in various Jurassic species, but become obsolete in later times (cf. Fig. XI.);
B B may form a complete circlet (on which feature Cainocrinus was based),
or may be minute and separated by R R ; IBr 2, non-pinnulate ; arms
isotomous or nearly so ; sacculi occur sparingly. See Guettard (1761),
J. Miiller (1843), P. H. Carpenter (1884), and Fig. XXIII. 3, 5, on p. 117.
Balanocrinus, Agass. in Desor (1845 ; em. de Lor. 1879), Trias to Eocene.
1
Carpenter chose to ignore all writers on Crinoidea before J. S. Miller. For
the history of these names, see Natural Science, April 1898.
THE CRINOIDEA 183
has columnals of circular or basaltiform section, with crenellations round the

edge only, not along the sides of the sectors. Austinocrinus, de Loriol (1889),
Cretaceous ; columnals have a joint-surface like that of Isocrinus, but with
hner striae radiating from the petals to the circular periphery. Metacrinus,
t I- ?rP* ( 1 8 8 4 ) ' W ' Pacific> differs from Isocrinus in having 5-8 IBr,
of which IBr2and 3 always, and IBr5 ^ 6 usually, are united by syzygy,
while each, except IB ri and the hypozygals, bears a pinnule ; B B form a
complete circlet. The members of this sub-family live in colonies, but
can move about and anchor by the cirri at the distal end of the stem.
Pentacrininae. 1, Pentacrinus fossilis, portion of stem, patina, and portion of arm, showing
rami, ramuli, and pinnules (p). 2, the same ; portion of a cirrus and articular facet of a cirral.
3, the corresponding parts of Isocriwus asteria. 4, Metacrinus Moseleyi, cup and proximal por-
tion of an arm. 5, Isocrinus pendulus, cup seen from below, with portion of stem, bearing cirri,
still attached to it, and with proximal brachials. 6, a radius of the same, showing isotomy of arm.
7, Isocrimis amblyscalaris, joint-surface of an internodal columnal. 8, the same of Balanocrinus
subteres. 9, the same of Pentacrinus fossilis. 10, the same of Isocrinus asteria. (From Bather,
after P. H . Carpenter, de Loriol, von Meyer, and original.) 2, 3, 7, 8, 0, and 10 are slightly
enlarged.
The stem is least specialised in Balanocrinus, most in Pentacrinus, in
which it attained a length of 18 feet (Quenstedt thought 70). F A M I L Y
10. U I N T A C R I N I D A E . Dendrocrinoidea in which the arms fork once on
IBr.,, are long and pinnulate, with numerous syzygies, and are incor-
porated in their proximal regions, together with proximal pinnules, in
the dorsal cup, by means of iBr, illBr, and interpinnulars; there is
no stem, but a centrale. Genus—Uintacrinus, Grinnell (1876), Upper
Cretaceous, N. America, Germany, and England (Fig. CIIL), has a rela-
tively largeflexibletheca and long arms. It was free-swimming and
possibly pelagic. IBB usually obsolete. For detailed account, see Bather
(1896). F A M I L Y 11. M A R S U P I T I D A E . Dendrocrinoidea (?) with pinnulate
184 THE CRINOIDEA
FIG. CII.
Isocrinus asteria. (From A.
Agassiz, after P. H. Carpenter.)
Rather less than half nat. size.
THE CRINOIDEA 185
arms, short in proportion to cup, borne on a sharply defined radial facet,

and forking on IBr2 (further branching unknown); they are loosely
1 FIG. CHI.
Uintacrinus sorialis, Upper Cretaceous of America, {j nat. size. 1, from the side. 2, from
below, c, centrale; B, basals; 11, radials; llic\, first primibrach; A.r, primaxil; 1, 2, 3, etc.,
.secundibrachs, bearing p, pinnules, some of which are included in the walls of the cup, viz.
f.p. ; s, syzygy. The intercalated plates, which bind these elements together, are shaded.
united by iBr, but do not merge in the dorsal cup. Cup large, com-
posed of 5 RR, 5 BB, 5 IBB, and a large centrale, with no trace of a
stem. Genus—Marsupites, J. S. Miller ex Mantell MS. (1821 ; synn.
1 Fin. civ.
Marsupites testudinarius. 1, the cup from the side, showing the character of the ornament;
(from Brit. M u s . specimen, E201S), x $. 2, the radials and proximal region of the arms (from
Brit. M u s . 0482), nat. size. C, centrale ; /, fulcral ridge of radial facet; p, pinnules ; s,
syzygies. Other letters as usual.
Sitularia, Cumberland; Marsupiocrinus, de Blainville), Upper Cretaceous,

England and Germany (Fig CIV. ; see also Fig. XVIL 4). The relations
of the "enus are not yet clear. FAMILY 12. BATHYCRINIDAE. Dendro-
186 THE CRINOIDEA
crinoidea (?) in which the arms fork once on IBr2 : IBr1 ana 2 and *11
IIBr, except HBr 3 , 6, and 9, are united in pairs by trifascial articulation
(apud Carpenter, see Fig. XXIII. 2), which may become syzygial (apud
Danielssen) ; only the distal brachial of each pair bears a pinnule, and
there are no pinnules on thefirstfew pairs ; the arms are loosely incor-
porated in the cup to half-way up IIBr.5 ; lax has large muscle-fossae on
strong wing-like processes (cf. Fig. XVIII. 6). B B fused in adult to a
single discoidal ossicle ; R R also become closely united ; IBB obsolete.
Interambulacral areas of tegmen contain
scattered small plates, and sometimes each
has a large plate, which may be an oral.
Columnals dicebox-shaped and twisted,
with bifascial articular surfaces; each
said by Danielssen to be formed by
fusion of two columnals ; those in the
younger, proximal region are thin and
discoidal. The root branches. G e n u s —
Bathycrinus, W y v . Thomson (1872 ; see
P. H. Carpenter, 1884, and Danielssen,
1892; syn. Ilycrinus, Danielssen & Koren,
1877), North Atlantic and Southern
Ocean, at 750-1500 fathoms (Fig. C V ) .
Carpenter places this in the Bourgueti-
crinidae on the grounds of its resem-
blance to Rhizocrinus, while admitting
Fio. CV.
•Bathycrinus. 1, crown of B. Aldri-
chianus, nat. size (after P. H . Car-
penter). 2, 3, and 4, B. Catpenteri F I O . CVI.
(after Danielssen). 2, new radials and Transverse section of the dorsal nervous
arms on an old base and stem, x 4 system in Bathycrinus Caiyenteri, diagram-
diam. 3 and 4, stem fragments, nat. matised from Danielssen. IR, interradial cords
size, pn, pinnules ; rt, root - cirri; which pass up between radials; R, radial cords,
Stj, proximal region of stem; St*, connected by re, the ring-commissure.
median"ditto
that the ;differences
Stg, distal ditto.
between the
two genera are much greater than
their resemblances." If the absence of a proximale have the value
claimed for it by Wachsmuth & Springer, the two genera must go into
different orders. The interradial axial nerve-cords correlated with the B B
forkfirstwithin the sutures between R R , and, in Carpenter's opinion, the
basi-radial strands take the place of a ring-commissure ; but Danielssen
describes a ring-commissure (see Fig. CVI.). There'are 3 water-pores
in each IR. The crown separates very easily from the B B and stem,
and may be replaced by a fresh crown (Fig. CV. 2). Sacculi occur. (See
also Fig. LIII.)
THE CRINOIDEA 187
O R D E R 2. Flexibilia, Zittel
(= A R T I C U L A T A , W . & Sp. non Miiller).
Dicyclica in which proximal Br are incorporated in the dorsal cup,

either by their own sides, or by iBr, or by a finely plated skin, but
never rigidly ; plates may occur between R R . Tegmenflexible,with
distinct A m b and numerous small iAmb ; mouth and food-grooves remain
supra-tegminal and open. The top columnal is a persistent proximale,
often fusing with IBB, which are frequently atrophied in the adult.
Arms non-pinnulate (Grade Impinnata), or pinnulate (Grade Pinnata),
but always uniserial.
As in the case of the Distincta and Articulata among the Dicyclica
Inadunata, so the line between the grades Pinnata and Impinnata corre-
sponds roughly with that between Palaeozoic and Mesozoic time. But
in the present order the grades are more self-contained and the gap
between them greater. In fact, we are by no means certain that they
are rightly described as mere grades ; in other words, that the Pinnata
are the lineal descendants of Impinnata. The two divisions may have
arisen from Inadunata independently, springing from pinnulate and non-
pinnulate forms respectively.
GRADE 1. Impinnata.
Flexibilia, in which all plates of the crown are united by loose
suture or muscular articulation. IBB 3, the primitive r. post, remaining
as the small unfused IB. Br usually united by waving sutures, the lower
edge of each frequently with a projection thatfitsinto a depression on
the plate below, and often becomes a separate patelloid plate. Arms
isotomous, or rami may bear ramules on one or both sides, but no
pinnules. Ventral groove wide and shallow ; axial canal separated from
it in proximal region. 5 0, between which food-grooves pass to the
mouth. Stem round ; proximal columnals very short, and usually wider
than the others.
M a n y of the earlier genera can be distinguished from Dicyclica
Inadunata only by the greater thickness and more elaborate sutural
union of their plates, and the greater width and less length of the arms.
It is the combination of massiveness withflexibilitythat characterises
the Grade. There is never an elaborate anal sac. Within the Grade
Impinnata can be traced the evolution of heterotomous arm-branching of
two types, also an increase in number of iBr. The genera seem to
mergeinto one another, and are as yet too ill-defined to be grouped into
families on a sure genetic basis. The following arrangement represents
similarities of structure rather than lines of descent.
F A M I L Y 1. I C H T H Y O C R I N I D A E . Impinnata with no iBr, with.isotomous
arms,closely abutting by their sides. Genera—Pycnosaccus, Angelin (1878;
syn. Oncocrinus, Bather), Silurian, Gotland, England, and N. America, has a
cup like that of Barycrinus, with x and R A , and with strong axial folds
(Fi". C V I L ) ; arms, though abutting above, are distinct below and do
i88 THE CRINOIDEA
not interlock ; columnals solid, moniliform, alternating in thickness.

Lecanocrinus, Hall (1852), Silurian and Devonian, N . America and Europe,
differs only in greater smoothness of
cup and approximation of arms,
which m a y even interlock by the
alternating edges of the Br. Cyrtido-
<JEy C5 d> crinus, Angelin (1878), only k n o w n
FIG. CVII. from cup, which appears to be like
Analysis of cup in Pycnosaccus. that of Lecanocrinus, but is said to
(After Bather.)
have 4 B B . Clidochirus, Ang. (1878),
Silurian, Gotland ; arms abut, but do not interlock ; no R A , but 3 anals
in vertical series rest on truncate post. B. Mespilocrinus, de Koninck
(1853), Lower Carboniferous, Belgium, England, and N . America, differs
from last-mentioned in having each arm curved
over to the right, so that they all fold with a
sinistral twist (as seen from above) ; IBr x wedge-
shaped, broader on left. Nipterocrinus, Wachs-
m u t h in M e e k & Worthen (1868), Carboniferous,
N . America, should perhaps come here. Ichthyo-
crinus, Conrad (1842), Silurian, N . America and
Europe, has no anals ; arms abut all round and
interlock by edges of Br (Fig. CVIIL). F A M I L Y 2.
GAZACRINIDAE. Impinnata (?) with a single large
iBr in each interradius, the posterior (anal) resting
on truncate edge of large post. B ; arms isotomous ;
tegmen of 5 O of Cyathocrinoid type, surrounding
a peristome which is covered by fused proximal
A m b , and supporting A m b along their edges ;
food-grooves fork on the tegmen (Fig. CIX.). CV1I
Genus — Gazacrinus, S. A . Miller (1892 ; syn. icMiyocrinus piriformis,
Idiocrinus, W . & Sp.), Silurian, N . America, is slightly restored from Brit.
r J 1 L-L. i~« \ -c -i TA- • -i Mus. 40214. (Nat. size.)
referred to the Camerate Family Dimerocrmidae
by W . & Sp. (1897). Its dorsal cup does not differ essentially from that of
Anisocrinus (infra), but the number of I B B is uncertain. T h e tegmen,
IIBr
Gazacrinus. (Diagrammatised from Wachsmuth & Springer), x 2 diam. 1, G. inornatus,

tegmen with almost all ambulacrals removed. 2, G. ventricosus, dorsal view. 3, same, side
view, with proximal ambulacrals (P) in position. As, passage for rectum through posterior
oral; v.g, ventral grooves passing between edges of orals. Other letters as usual.
scarcely of either Flexible or Camerate type, suggests recent descent from
inadunata. F A M I L Y 3. T A X O C R I N I D A E . Impinnata with iBr, which usually
THE CRINOIDEA 189
are few and have the proximal larger than the rest; with isotomous
arms which may abut but do not interlock; anals form a well-defined
vertical series. Genera—Gnorimocrinus, W . & Sp. (1879, em. Bather,
1899), Silurian, Gotland ; arms distinct, with 0-4 small iBr, and
sometimes a few illBr ; post. B reaches up to top of patina, between
it and r. post. R is a R A , supporting the greater part of x, which bears
a vertical series of 1 or 2 rows. Anisocrinus Angelin (1878), Silurian,
Gotland, has abutting but not interlocking arms, a very large proximal
iBr, with small triangular piece above; x differs from iBr only in
resting on truncate edge of large post. B ; no RA. Taxocrinus, Phillips
in Morris (1843; synn. Isocrinus, Phill. non v. Meyer; Cladocrinus,
Austin non Agass. ; Euryalecrinus, Anst. ; Forbesiocrinus, de Kon. non W .
& Sp.), Silurian to Carboniferous, Europe and N. America, has arms
more distinct, with few or no iBr, and occasional small illBr and illlBr ;
anals form a vertical series resting on truncated post. B, and seem to
FIG. CX.
Diagrams of the arm-branching in Taxocrinidae and Dactylocrinidae.
1, Taxocrinus tubereulatns; 2, Lithocrinus ; 3, Calpiocrinus; 4, Dactylo-
crinus ; 5, Synerocrlnus ; 6, Onychocrinus exsculptus. These do not form
a continuous evolutionary series, but their relationship may be indicated
thus—
have supported a small free tube (Figs. CX. 1, and XXXVII.). Homalo-
crinus, Ang. (1878), Silurian, Gotland, has very small BB, abutting arms,
large proximal iBr, followed by 1 or 2 in vertical series, occasionally 2
illBr, anals as iBr but resting on post. B ; except for the isotomy of its
arms, this genus closely resembles Calpiocrinus. F A M I L Y 4. D A C T Y L O -
CRINIDAE. Impinnata with iBr either few or numerous ; with hetero-
tomous arms, the rami bearing raniules; with anals in vertical series.
Genera—Calpiocrinus, Ang. (1878), Silurian, Gotland and England, has
minute often obsolete IBB, but fairly large B B ; iBr few and variable,
illBr occasionally present; anals 3-5, x resting on the small post. B ; the
IIBr rami bear unbranched ramules on their inner sides, the proximal
ramule much larger than the rest (Fig. CX. 3). Lithocrinus, W . & Sp.
(1879, emend. Bather, 1899 ; syn. Forbesiocrinus, Ang. non. de Kon.),
Silurian, Gotland, differs from Calpiocrinus in larger size of BB, greater
number of iBr, branching of ramules; the latter characters make the
arms less apposed to one another (Fig. CX. 2). Dactylocrinus, Quenstedt
IQO THE CRINOIDEA
(1876, based on Dimerocrinus oligoptilus, Pacht; probably includes Aristo-

crinus or Callawaycrinus, Rowley, 1895), Silurian (?) and Devonian,
N.-W. Europe and N. America; iBr few, proximal large ; x rests on large
truncate post. B, a little to the right, and supports numerous smaller
plates in somewhat irregular vertical series ; the IIIBr rami bear ramules
on the sides towards the middle of the dichotom, the proximal ramule
branches again (Fig. C X . 4).
Synerocrinus, Jaekel (18 9 7),
Carboniferous, Europe, has arms
like Dactylocrinus, except that no
ramules branch ; it also differs in
having 3-8 iBr, perhaps more, with
occasional illBr and illlBr ; x rests
on post. B (Figs. CX. 5, and CXI.).
This genus probably includes the
Belgian species erroneously referred
by de Koninck to Taxocrinus nobilis
when erecting Forbesiocrinus. Euryo-
crinus, Phillips (1836), Carboni-
ferous, England, is probably a close
ally, but its arms are not well
known. Onyclwcrinus, Lyon &
Casseday (1859), Carboniferous, N.
America and Ireland, has a large
proximal iBr followed by small
plates, often numerous, merging
with the tegmen and ventral cover-
ing of the arms, but leaving the
arms more free than usual, in the
sub-order; IIBr rami bear branch-
ing ramules, either along each side
or in clusters at end, but the
FIG. CXI. heterotomy is always bilateral, not
Synerocrinus incurvus, from Brit. Mus. unilateral as in all the genera just
E6707. 1, from the right anterior side, x J. mentioned—a fact suggesting that
2, joint-surface of a brachial, x 3 diam. 3, a
radial, showing articular surface for first primi- Onyclwcrinus should form a distinct
brach, and on either side the surfaces of loose family or, at least, sub-family (Fig.
suture with interbrachials, x 3. B, basals,
which pass under the cup, the larger posterior n v c\ . a n a l s 3.5 r p o H r m n n r>r>ct T*
F A M I L Y 5.
basal is .just visible on the left; dl, fossa for ^ v ' °J > a n a l s "* ° resting o n post. &
S A G E N O C R I N I D A E .
<lorsal ligament; mf, muscle-fossa ; pt', surface (see also Fig. X V I L 4 ) . Impinnata with
for attachment of patelloid plate (pt). Other over 20 iBr, 6 or more illBr, and
letters
variableas usual.
number of illlBr; arms isotomous or almost so, to VIBr
or beyond ; anals not a distinct series, but represented by greater width
or number of iBr in post. IR. Genera—Sagenocrinus, Austin (1843),
Silurian, Europe and N. America, has R A sunk between post, and
r. post. BB, so that proximal iBr is supported between post. B and R A
(Fig. XXIVa). In " Forbesiocrinus Agassizi," Carboniferous, N. America,
which may be placed in this family, post. B supports 2 iBr, and there
are considerably more iBr in this IR. Patelloid plates are richly
THE CRINOIDEA 191
developed, but are absent from Sagenocrinus. Otherwise the two genera
agree closely.
The following genera are placed provisionally in the Impinnata :—
Edriocrinus, H a U (1859), Devonian, N. America (Fig. CXII.), when young
is attached by B B , but is
free-floating in adult; B B
become fused into a bowl-
shaped mass, oupporting 5
R R and x ; arms broad, with
low Br, isotomous. Cleio-
crinus, E. Billings (1856 ; see
W . & Sp., 1886), Ordovician,
Canada ; IBB and B B hidden FIG. CXII.
by stem; R R small and sepa- Edriocrinus piriformis, nat.
rated by a large pentagonal size. (After Hall.) 1, from
interradial ; arms isotomous to side, showing concavity for
attachment at end of fused
about VIIBr, and all appear basals (B). 2, the cup from
to interlock and to be joined above, showing anal (x) and
facets of radials.
by close suture ; post. IR sup-
ports a vertical series of anals, which reach the full length of the arms.
Rhopalocrinus, W . & Sp. (1879), is based on " Taxocrinus gracilis,"
Schultze, Devonian, Eifel; it perhaps belongs to Dicyclica Inadunata.
GRADE 2. Pinnata.
Flexibilia with BB and RR united by close suture, RR and proximal
Br by muscular articulation or syzygy ; pseudomonocyclic ; arms pinnu-
late and either simple or isotomous ; axial canal separate from ventral
groove throughout; lax is generally IBr2, rarely IBrj ; 5 O present in
early stages and sometimes in adult, but usually atrophy; anals do not
form part of the dorsal cup in the adult. Stem round, pentagonal, or
elliptical in section, proximal columnals often forming a widened cone.
This group is confined to Mesozoic and later times, and there is no
evidence that it is descended from the Palaeozoic Impinnata; it may be
an offshoot from Triassic Dicyclica Inadunata, from which it is dis-
tinguished by the mode of growth of the proximal columnals.
F A M I L Y 1. A P I O C R I N I D A E . Pinnata in which the patina consists of 5
B B and 5 R R ; arms incorporated to a very variable extent in the cup,
and iBr may be present; columnals round or pentagonal in section, their
joint-surfaces marked with radiating striae, and sometimes tubercles in the
middle ; no cirri ; root, when present, encrusting. (For fossil forms, see
de Loriol, 1883.) Genera—Millericrinus, d'Orb. (1840 ; synn. Ceriocrinus
and Pomatocrinus, Desor ex Konig), Trias (?) to Lower Cretaceous, Europe ;
IBr, united to R by muscular articulation, and to lax by close suture; arms
isotomous, free from IBr, or proximal Br united by tegmen, or a few smaU
iBr developed ; except for the proximale, the upper columnals are rarely
widened (Fig. X V I L 7). In some species (Fig. LIL) the crown breaks off
from the root, the stem is gradually resorbed, and a free-floating stage attained.
Apiocrinus, Miller (1821), Jurassic, Europe; IBrx united to R probably
by ligament, not by muscular articulation, and to lax by incomplete
192 THE CRINOIDEA
syzygy ; IIBrj united to lax by articulation ; arms isotomous, incorporated

in cup at least up to IIBr.{ ; iBr few and irregular ; the upper columnals
widen gradually, and, with the proximale, form a cone passing into the
cup (Fig. X V I L 5, 6). Guettardicrinus, d'Orbigny (1840), Upper Jurassic,
differs from Apiocrinus only in the union of IIB^ to lax by close suture,
the incorporation of a greater number of IIBr in the cup, and the presence
2 1 3
Fio. CXIII.
Calamocrinus Diomedae. 1, the crown and proximal portion of the stem from the right
posterior intorradius, x <j. 2, the root, nat. size. 3, the interior of the basal circlet, from
above, showing the anchylosed sutures (S) and the axial cords (or) radiating from the central
chambered organ, x f. (After Agassiz.)
of more iBr ; it is the acme of this line of development. Acrochordocrinus,
Trautschold (1859 ; synn. Cyclocrinus, d'Orb. non Eichw. ; Mespilocrinus,
Quenst non de Kon.), Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous; columnals only.
Calamocrinus, A. Agassiz (1890,-92), 392-782 fathoms, Galapagos Is. and B.
of Panama (Fig. CXIII.). Patina distinct, owing to restriction of facet to
§ width of R ; B B tend to be fused ; R R laterally united by ligament;
r. and 1. post. R R slightly longer than the others. IBrx united to R by
THE CRINOIDEA 193
muscular articulation, and to IBr2 by incomplete syzygy. Arms hetero-

tomous; each gives off 5 unbranching rami nearly as stout as the main
stem, 2 to right and 3
to left, or vice versa; the
first main-axil is the
10th or 11th brachial,
AmbN
succeeding branches are
at much greater inter-
vals ; pinnules occur
below I Ax, on IBr. R „
or IBr4i 6_ 7 9 those
being as a rule epizy-
gals. There are dis-
tinct A m b and adAmb,
both in arms and teg-
men. The proximal
region of the arms is
fixed by the tegmen,
IBr..
30 that the grooves of
the proximal pinnules
rise from the tegminal p2 pl,'
food groove (Fig. -co
P3
ax
XXIV.). Small iBr FIG. CXIV.
Tegmen of Calamocrinus Diomedac, with the arms and pin-
rest on shoulders of R R
nules cut off down to the level at which they become fixed in
a n d m e r g e into i m p e r - *'ie catyx- Amb, ambulacrals or covering-plates"; As, anus;
ax ax a
< • . . » ! -L > * ' canal of arm ; cc, coeliac canal of arm ; fg, food-groove
torate i A m b , a n d these of anterior arm where it joins the tegminal food-groove ; IBr,
1-iaaa intn T»riT>i'fa-tv->nc. primibrach ; iAmb, interambulacrals, both perforate and im-
pasb miu p o i n e r o u s perforate . pljfirstor p ,. oxima i pinnule ; p2, second ; p3, third
i A m b ; 5 imperforate pinnule ; stc, subtentacular canal of anterior arm ; w.p, water-
1 i i. ii. • i J- i pores. (After Agassiz), x 2s.
plates at the interradial
angles of the peristome are taken by Agassiz for 0 (Fig. C X I V ) .
Stem long, smooth; root encrusting (Fig. CXIII. 2). F A M I L Y 2.
BOURGUETICRINIDAE. Pinnata in which the patina consists of 5 B B
Fio. cxv.
Bourgueticrinus. 1, B. aequalis (from Brit. M u s E6705). 2, ventral view of same (from
Ef,706) 3 ioint-surface of proximale (P), by which it articulates with adjoining columnal (C).
4, vertical median section of B. ellipticus (after d'Orbigny). All x 4 diam.
13
194 THE CRINOIDEA
forming a closed ring and 5 R R

with high muscle-plates ; arms in-
corporated to a very slight extent
in the cup ; and then only loosely
without development of iBr ; all
columnals, or all except those in
the proximal region, have ellipti-
cal joint-surfaces with a grooved
and toothed fulcral ridge in the
long diameter and ligament-fossae
on either side of it; each colum-
nal is twisted so that the ridge at one end
lies at an angle to that at the other end ; cirri
m a y be present at the root end or in the
middle of the stem. Sacculi occur in recent
forms. Genera—Bourgueticrinus, d'Orbigny
(1840), Cretaceous, Europe and Alabama (Fig.
C X V . ) ; sides of cup vertical or sloping in-
wards above; B B about half height of R R ;
radial facet small, horizontal, with small
dorsal ligament - fossa ; IBr^ and 2 laterally
connected with adjoining rays, arms un-
k n o w n ; proximale enlarged, circular ; colum-
nals of proximal region circular, widening
upwards ; those of middle and distal regions
twisted, elliptical; fulcral ridge continuous
around axial canal, ligament-fossa broad and
shallow; cirri rare except at root. Meso-
crinus, P. H. Carpenter (1881), Cretaceous, Rliisocrinus lofoten-
sis, North Sea, about
Sweden, Germany ; sides of cup slope out- twice nat. size. (From
wards ; B B short; radial facet large, slopes Narrative of the Cmi.se
upwards to centre, with larger ligament-fossa ; of H.M.S. "Challcn-
!/cr.")
arms u n k n o w n ; proximale small and circular;
proximal columnals circular, narrowing up-
wards ; the rest as in Bourgueticrinus, but liga-
ment-fossa deeper ; cirri sometimes numerous.
Ehizocrinus, M . Sars (1864,-68; synn. Coiw-
crinus, d'Orb. ; Democriuus, Perr.), Eocene
to Recent; Atlantic, 73 to (?) 1900 fathoms :
sides of cup slope slightly outwards ; B B
high, m a y be 7 times height of R R , often
fused ; radial facet slopes upwards to centre,
with small ligament - fossa ; IBr x mi 2 free
laterally, arms not forking; proximale thin
and discoidal; proximal columnals discoidal,
those of middle region slender, fulcral ridge
broken at axial canal, around which the
ligament-fossa is concentrated (Fig. X L I X .
7 ) ; no cirri except at root (Fig. C X V I . ; see
THE CRINOIDEA 195
also X , XXIII. 4). F A M I L Y 3. A N T E D O N I D A E . Pinnata in which the

patina consists of 5 small BB, not forming a closed circlet, and R R with
large high muscle-plates and facet approaching horizontal ; cavity enclosed
by R R is minute ; mouth endocyclic ; proximal Br loosely incorporated in
cup ; columnals as in Bourgueticrinidae, but usually lost in the adult, ex-
cept the proximale and adjoining columnals which fuse with one another
and with IBB to form a single ossicle, the " centrodorsal," which bears
cirri; root when present, encrusting. 0 and x present in brephic stage,
but not in adult Sacculi almost always present. (See structural details of
Antedon, Figs. I X , XV., XVIII. 2, 3, 4, XIX., X X X . , XXXIII., X L V L ,
XLVII., X L I X . 8, 9, LIV., LV.) Genera— Thiolliericrinus, Etallon (1859),
Jurassic and Cretaceous of Switzerland, France, and Portugal (Fig.CXVII.);
scarcely differs from Mesocrinus, except in the reduction of B B and
presence of a cirriferous centrodorsal at the top of the fairly stout stem;
our knowledge of this most important form is due to de Loriol The
remaining Antedonidae retain the portion of stem below the centrodorsal
only in the brephic stage, while their B B further diminish during geo-
logical periods, their adcentral portions fusing into a small 10-rayed plate,
FIG. CXVII.
Thiolliericrinu.i. 1, T.flexuosus,
cup seen from below, no basals
visible (from Brit. Mus. 49222«).
2, T. Eibeiroi, from the side,
showing basals and facets for
cirri (reconstructed from de
Loriol's figures). CD, centro-
dorsal, still bearing facet (t>£)
for attachment to stem, x 2
diam.
the " rosette," which lies above the chambered organ, and in some species
of Antedon is all that remains of BB. There is also traceable in the arms
a gradual attenuation and, in many cases, increase of forking, with a
partial or entire loss of calcified covering-plates. Antedon, de Fremin-
ville (1811 ; synn. Alecto, Leach; Comatula, Lamarck, pars; Hibernula,
Fleming ; Phytocrinus, de Blainville ; Solanocrinus, Goldfuss ; Hyponome,
Loven ; Geocoma, Fraas non d'Orb. ; et alia), Lias to Recent, almost all seas,
littoral to 2900 fathoms. Arms fork once or more ; A m b usually present,
especially on pinnules. The genus is divisible into 9 groups, differing in
arm-structure and distribution. Eudiocrinus, P. H. Carp. (1882 ; syn.
Ophiocrinus, Semper non Salter), Neocomian (?) to Recent, Pacific and B. of
Biscay, 50 to 900 fathoms ; differs from Antedon only in non-forking of
arms. Promachocrinus, P. H. Carp. (1879), Pacific and South Sea, 70 to
1800 fathoms; 10 R R , probably a persistent meristic variation from
more than one species of Antedon. F A M I L Y 4. A T E L E C R I N I D A E . Pin-
nata with patina of 5 B B forming closed circlet and no rosette, 5 R R
with high muscle-plates; arms fork once, IIBr long, with no pinnules
on first 8 or 16 ; no stem, but acorn-shaped centrodorsal, with cirri
alternating in 5 vertical double rows; sacculi present Genus —
Atelecrinus, P. H. Carp. (1881), Cretaceous (?) to Recent, tropical Atlantic
196 THE CRINOIDEA
and Pacific (Fig. CXVIIL). F A M I L Y 5. A C T I N O M E T R I D A E . Pinnata with

dorsal cup and centrodorsal on the Antedonid plan, but differing in the
following points:—Mouth exocyclic and gut much coiled, with con-
sequent larger cavity between R R , small muscle-plates, and facet approach-
ing the vertical; further asymmetry shown in unequal and variable
tegminal food-grooves, and in occasional ungrooved structure of some
posterior rami, which may be shorter than the rest and without podia;
no sacculi; no calcified A m b ; proximal pinnules have a terminal serrated
margin—" comb " ; centrodorsal discoid, with cirri few, almost limited
to its margin, and sometimes atrophied. Genus—Actinometra, Miiller
(1841, em. P. H. Carp., 1887 ; synn. [1] Comaster, L. Agassiz ; Comatula,
FIG. C X I X
Fio. CXVIIL Thaumatocrinus renoratns, from the anal
Atelecrinus balanoides, with two ide. aa, anal appendage; uu, interambula-
cirri partly preserved aud arms rals; at, anal tube; 6, basal; 62, second
imperfect. (From A. Agassiz, after >rachial; cd, centrodorsal; i, interradial; r,
P. H. Carpenter.) x 2 diam. adial. (After P. H. Carpenter.) x >f.
pars; Plutnogenia, Lov<m), Lower Jurassic to Recent, almost all seas,
littoral to 800 fathoms. Divisible into 8 groups, differing in arm-
structure and distribution. F A M I L Y 6. T H A T J M A T O C R I N I D A E . Pinnata
with cup of 5 B B forming a closed ring, and 5 R R separated by 5 inter-
radials resting on B B ; Br not incorporated in cup ; arms do not fork ;
5 0, separated from cup-plates by relatively large i A m b ; no A m b ; no
sacculi ; anal tube in post I R ; post, interradial followed by 5 plates
in vertical series forming a free appendage (Fig. CXIX.). Genus—
Thaumatocrinus, P. H. Carp. (1883), a unique individual, probably young,
South Sea, 1800 fathoms. Differs greatly from all other Pinnata; the
structure of the cup is as in Xenocrinus (p. 165), the anal appendage is
paralleled in some Taxocrini (cf. Fig. XXXVII.).
THE CRINOIDEA 197
F A M I L Y 7. E D G E N I A C R I N I D A E . Pinnata with patina of 5 R R only,

B B having been overgrown by R R and absorbed by a continuance of such
a process as produced the rosette of Antedon. R R united by close suture,
often fused. IBr2 axillary, united to IBrx by syzygy or fusion. Rami
10, robust, incurving. Stem short; columnals cylindrical, high, with
joint-surface granulate, or marginally striate; no cirri ; root encrusting,
lobed. All European (see de Loriol,
1883, and Jaekel, 1891). Genera—
Eugeniucrinus, J. S. Miller (1821; syn.
Symphytocrinus, Konig ; Caryophyllites,
Auctt. pre-Linn.), Bathonian to Lower
Cretaceous (Fig. C X X ) . Patina cylin-
drical or clove - shaped, with shallow
depression for viscera ; radial facets
separated by processes ; lax rising above
origin of IIBr into a 3-sided spine,
which perhaps helped to support the
tegmen; IIBr small. Torynocrinus,
Seeley (1866 ; synn. Cyrtocrinus, Jaek. ;
? Hemicrinus, d'Orb.), Upper Jurassic to
Lower Cretaceous ; patina and proximale
fused, the ventral surface bent to one side
and bearing stout arms. Gammarocrinus,
Quenst. (1858 ; syn. Sclerocrinus, Jaek.),
Upper Jurassic ; patina massive, concave
below. Gymnocrinus, de Lor. (1879, em.
Jaek., 1891); Upper Jurassic ; lax re-
markably developed. Phyllocrinus, d'Orb.
(1849), Bajocian to Neocomian ; R R have
small facets and long spines. Tormocrinus,
Jaek. (1891), Eocene, and Trigonocrinus,
Bather (1889), Oxfordian, have very
small radial facets, rounded spines, and
a deep tubular cup-cavity; the latter
differs in the loss and atrophy of certain FIG. CXX.
rays. Dolichocrinus, de Loriol (1891 ; Eugeniacrinus caryophyllatus, partial
syn. Tetanocrinus, Jaek.), Upper Jurassicreconstruction ; (x 2 diam.), and in-
R R form a tube 10.mm. long, 2*25 m m . terior view of a primaxil(x 3 diam.),
wide, with interradial re-entrant angles on which are seen the articular facets
(IIBr') for the secundibrachs ; the
at its base; the radial facets are of latter are only partially known. Other
Bourgueticrine or Antedonid type, and if letters as usual. (Based on the obser-
B B were present, as de Loriol supposes, thevations genusofmust
Jaekel.)
be removed from
this family. F A M I L Y 8. H O L O P O D I D A E . Pinnata with patina of 5 RR,
usually fused, and enclosing a relatively wide cavity. B B presumably as in
Eugeniacrinidae. 0 large, surrounded by a few iAmb. lax fused to IBrx
in adult, and supports stout, incurved, unbranching rami; no stem ;
attachment by base of patina. N o sacculi. The arm-structure led Jaekel
(1891) to combine these forms with the Eugeniacrinidae. Genera—
Holopus, d'Orb. (1837), Tertiary of Italy, Recent, Caribbean Sea, shallow
198 THE CRINOIDEA
water (Figs. C X X I . and XXXIV.). Cyathidium, Steenstrup (1846 ; syn.

Micropocrinus, Michelin), Uppermost Cretaceous to Miocene, Denmark
and Italy. F A M I L Y 9. E U D E S I C R I N I D A E .
Pinnata (?) with patina of 5 R R , enclosing
funnel-shaped cavity open below, resting
on a solid mass which m a y represent
fused B B or a proximale. lax articulated
to IBrx, and supporting 2 stout rami
which abut on adjoining rami. Axial
cords lie close to inner walls of R R .
Genera—Eudesicrinus, de Loriol (1882) ;
and Cotylederma, Quenst (1852 ; syn.
Cotylecrinus, E. Deslongch.), both Lias.
Jaekel would place these genera near
the Plicatocrinidae ; they are usually
referred to Eugeniacrinidae or Holo-
podidae.
FIG. CXXI. O R D E R 3. Dicyclica Camerata

Adult Holopus Eangi, from anterior. (= C A M E R A T A , W . & Sp. pars).
(From A. Agassiz, after P. H. Carpenter.)
Enlarged by one-twelfth.
Dicyclica in which all IBr and usually
IIBr are incorporated in the dorsal cup by iBr, atfirstloosely, but
afterwards by close suture. I B B always the primitive 5. A plate
always between r. and 1. post. R R , resting on post. B, and followed by
others leading up to the anus. Mouth and ambulacra subtegminal. Arms
pinnulate.
F A M I L Y 1. R E T E O C R I N I D A E . Dicyclica Camerata with R R and Br sepa-
rated by supplementary plates irregular in size, shape, and arrangement, and
forming depressed interradial areas, the posterior of which is divided by a
single vertical series of prominent plates leading from postB to the eccentric
anus. Genus—Reteocrinus, Billings (1859 ; see W . & Sp., 1897), Ordo-
vician, N. America (Fig. CXXII.); 2-3 IBr ; about 6 IIBr, of which the
pinnules, borne from IIBr2 onwards, are alsofixedin the interradial areas ;
the pinnule borne by H B r 2 is in some species represented by a ramus,
partly fixed ; the rami m a y branch again after becoming free, and are
uniserial or slightly in zigzag ; tegmen a low dome of minute irregular
plates; stem pentagonal. F A M I L Y 2. D I M E R O C R I N I D A E . Dicyclica Camerata
with R R in contact except at posterior side, with 2 IBr and a varying
number of IIBr, separated by a large proximal iBr, which rests on
shoulders of R R and supports 2 plates, usually followed by smaller
ones merging into iAmb ; post IR wider, and its proximal plate (anal)
supports 3 plates followed by others, and leading up to anus, which
has no tube ; illBr usually present. Genera—Ptychocrinus, W . & Sp.
(1885, em. 1897), Ordovician, N. America; arms fork twice, are slender and
uniserial as in Reteocrinus. Orthocrinus, Jaekel (1895), Devonian, Germany ;
arms fork once, are free from lax, stout and uniserial. Dimerocrinus,
Phillips (1836 ; synn. Glyptaster and Thysanocrinus, Hall em. W . & Sp.,
THE CRINOIDEA 199
1897 ; Eucrmus, Ang.), Silurian, Europe and N. America (Fig. CXXIII.);

arms fork once or twice, are stout, biserial, and directed upwards. Cyplw-
cnnus, S. A. Miller (1892 ; syn. Hyptiocrinus,W. & Sp.), Silurian, Indiana ;
FIG. CXXII. FIG. CXXIII.

Eeteocrinus Onealli, anterior view. Dimerocrinus decadactylus, from
p, pinnules; p, fixed pinnules; Brit. Mus. E0707 ; seen from pos-
other letters as usual. (After terior interradius. nn, nodals of
Wachsmuth & Springer.) x I. stem, x 2 diam.
arms fork at least once, are stout, biserial, and pendent, thus exposing
the tegmen which is spinous. F A M I L Y 3. L A M P T E R O C R I N I D A E . Dicyclica
Camerata with a dorsal cup. in general structure like that of Dimero-
crinidae, but with asymmetry* introduced by the
development of an anal tube and consequent
bulging of IR, and shifting of mouth anteriorly.
All from Silurian, N . America. Genera —
Lampterocrinus, C. F. Roemer (1860, W . & Sp.,
1897); I B B large, anchylosed ; anal tube cen-
tral ; arms supposed to be 5 rami bearing alter-
nate ramules, but are not known beyond IIIBrx
(Fig. CXXIV.). Siphonocrinus, S. A. Miller
(1888, em. W . & Sp., 1897); IBB small; rectum
forms an asymmetric protuberance below, then
curves subtegminally either to a central anal
tube, or right across to an anterior opening at FIG. CXXIV.
or even beneath the arm-bases.
F A M I L Y 4. R H O D O C R I N I D A E . Dicyclica Cam- lMmpterocrimts UnMsMs,
erata with R R separated by a single distinct from posterior interradius. IB,
plate in each IR, followed by well-defined iBr J ^ S ^ S ^ S
regularly arranged (some individuals of Lyrw- c F. Roemer.) x f.
crinus have R R not quite separated, and
some species of Diabolocrinus have not the single distinct interradial);
the anal area is not always distinct, and but rarely has a vertical series of
plates. IBr, 2, in all except the rather doubtful Anthemocrinus. Arms free
200 THE CRINOIDEA
above IIBr (except in Thylacocrinus); illBr may or may not be present.

The plates of the tegmen are small and usually irregular. The family
begins in the Ordovician, probably as an independent development from
Reteocrinidae or similar forms, and runs parallel to the Dimerocrinidae
through the Silurian, but, unlike them, persists to Carboniferous times.
There is seen in it an increase in definiteness of iBr, and the origin of
biserial arms, which are usually isotomous but exceptionally bear ramules.
Genera—Rhaplianocrinus, W . & Sp. (1885 ; syn. Coelocrinus, Salter),
Ordovician, N. America, Gt. Britain, has uniserial arms and numerous iBr
and illBr. Archaeocrinus, W . & Sp.
(1881), Ordovician, N. America, has
Br in zigzag, numerous iBr more
regular in arrangement, with no verti-
cal series in anal IR (Fig. C X X V ) .
Diabolocrinus, W . & Sp. (1897), Ordo-
vician, N. America, has the larger
and more regular iBr surrounded by
supplementary plates ; the anus is
at the end of a strong, subcentral tube ;
the arms bear ramules. Lyriocrinus,
Hall (1852 ; syn. Marsupiocrinus, Hall
non de Blainv. nee Phill.), Silurian, N.
America and England, has but 2 rami
Fio. CXXVL
Thyhicocrinus Vannioti (from Brit.
Mus. E6642). Seen from posterior inter-
Ft radius. Owing to slight crushing all
Fio. CXXV. live infrabasals (IB) are seen, and the
Archaeocrinus desidcratus, from the left absence of a stem-facet m a y be noted.
posterior radius. (Diagrammatised from Supplementary plates are shaded. The
Wachsmuth & Springer.) x A. section of an arm with pinnules (jm) is
after Oehlert, x J.
to each ray, biserial ; iBr, 1 + 2+1, not always quite separating RR.;
anal area usually of similar structure. Anthenwcrinus, W . & Sp. (1881).
Silurian, Gotland, has only one IBr, and thefirstlarge iBr is followed by
only 1 or 2 small ones ; the biserial armc fork 2 or 3 times. Diameno-
crinus, Oehlert (1891, em. Jaekel, 1895), Devonian, France and Germany,
has repeatedly isotomous arms, with Br in zigzag ; 6-8 IIBr, and a lon«
narrow series of iBr. Thylacocrinus, Oehlert (1878), Devonian, France
and N e w York (Fig. C X X V L ) , has arms fixed up to IIIBr and sometimes
IVBr, after which follow long unbranched biserial rami ; supplementary
plates occur between allfixedbrachial series ; stem minute or (?) absent.
Lahuseniocrinus, Tschernyschew (1892,-93), Lower Devonian, Ural
appears allied to the preceding, but base and free orachials are unknown.
THE CRINOIDEA 201
Rhipidocrinus Zittel (1879, ex Beyrich, M S . ) , Devonian, Germany, has

stout uniserial rami giving off biserial ramuli on alternate sides. Acantho-
ermm G. F. R o e m e r (1850, em. Jaekel, 1895), Devonian, Germany, does
not (litter greatly from the next genus. Rhodocrinus, J. S. Miller (1821,
restricted W . & Sp., 1881), Carboniferous and (?) Devonian, Europe and
FIG. CXXVll.
Gilbertsocrinus. 1, G. lyonanus (=G. dispansus, W . & Sp.), ventral view, showing the
tegminal appendages and the proximal portions of the arms emerging from beneath them.
2, G. tuberculosa, the appendages mostly broken off, but more of the arms preserved. 3, G. cat-
caratiis, showing h o w the appendages of the European forms are double where they issue from
the tegmen. 4, G. typus, patina from below; ap, tegminal appendages ; ap', their points of
origin, showing central canal; Ax, primaxil; Br, pinnulate arms, which issue from the dorsal
cup at Br'. Other letters as usual. (All after Wachsmuth & Springer.) x §.
N . America ; has a vertical series of anals and isotomous arms, all the
free parts of which or only the finials are biserial. Condylocrinus,
Eichwald (1859, em. Tschernyschew, 1893), Lower Devonian, Ural,
differs, if at all, in iBr series, which r u n s — 1 , 1, 2, 3. Ophiocrinus,
Salter (1856 ; non Charlesworth, nee Semper, nee Angelin), Devonian,
S. Africa, has numerous iBr and several illBr; IIIBr free and in zigzag.
Gilbertsocrinus, Phillips (1836; synn. Ollacrinus, Cumberland M S . ;
Goniasteroidocrinus, Ly. & Cass.; Trematocrinus, Hall), Devonian and
Carboniferous, Europe and N . America (Fig. C X X V I L ) , distinguished by
small pendent arms, and large, branching, horizontal, hollow extensions
of the interambulacral areas of the tegmen, of uncertain function.
The following incorrect or indeterminable N a m e s m a y be added to those

already quoted as synonyms or vncertae sedis:—
Adelocrinus, Phillips (1841), Devonian, Britain, is probably syn. of either
Hexacrinus or Arthracantha (see Whidborne, 1899).
Allionia, Michelotti (1861), syn. of Antedon.
Aporocrinus, Austin (1842), is an Agelacrinid, fide label on A. gyratus in
Bristol Museum.
Aspidocrinus, Hall (1859), Silurian, N e w York ; encrusting root of a crinoid.
Asteria, Auctt. vett, a Pentacrinoid columnal (=Pentacrinos, Agricola).
Asterias, Linn, pars (1758); syn. of Antedon and Actinometra.
Asteriatites, Schloth. (1813) ; A. pennatus and A. rosaceus, syn. of Antedon.
Asterocrinus, Miinster (1838), "aus dem Orthoceratiten-kalk bei Elbersreutli,"
if a Crinoid at all, is an Inadunate.
202 THE CRINOIDEA
Astrios, Troost, nom. nud. (1850) ; not known.

Astrocoma, de Blainville (1830); syn. of Antedon, and Actinometra.
Astrocrinus, Cumberland (1829),fideWachsmuth & Springer, not known.
Astropodia, Llhuyd et Auctt. pre-Linn., for Crinoid arms; but Ure (1797)
applied it also to various cup-plates, and Defrance (1819) to Apiocrinus.
Atoerinus, M'Coy (1844 or 1862), Carboniferous, Ireland ; referred to Platy-
crinus by de Koninck & C. F. Roemer, to Cyathocrinus by Wachsmuth
& Springer. The former probably right.
Balanocrinus, Troost, nom. nud. (1850) ; syn. of Lampterocrinus.
Bohemicocrinus, Waagen & Jahn (1899), Silurian, Bohemia ; cup alone known,
probably Carpocriniis or Desmidocrinus ; R R shaped much as in Barrandeo-
crinus.
Caleidocrinus, Waagen & Jahn (1899), Ordovician, Bohemia; like Taxocrinus,
but apparently no anal between R R , and no anal ridge.
Calocrinus, Steininger (1849), Devonian, Eifel. Dicyclic Inadunate ; IBB fused ;
no anal; perhaps a Cupressocrinus.
Campanulites, G. Troost, nom. nud. (1850).
Centrocrinus, Worthen (1890), non Austin & Meek & Worthen, ncc W . & Sp. ;
? syn. of Gazacrinus.
Codonocrinus,Troost, nom. nud. (1850); syn. of Pterotocrinus, apud Shumard (1866).
Comatulina, d'Orbigny (1852), Oxfordian, C. costata=Solanocrinus, Goldf., which
is syn. of Antedon.
Comaturclla, Miinster (1839); syn. of Antedon.
Conocrinus, Troost, nom. nud. (1850); syn. of Alloprosallocrinus, apud. W . & Sp.
Cophinus, Murcliison, ex Kouig M S . (1839), Silurian, England. Impressions of
stems.
Crumenaecrinus, Troost, nom. nud. (1850).
Cupulocrinus, d'Orb. (1850), based on Scyphocrinus heterocostalis, Hall (1847),
which is referred by Wachsmuth & Springer to Flexibilia Impinnata.
Cyprcssocrinus, a variant and possibly preferable spelling of Cupressocrinus.
Cystocrinus, C. F. Roemer (1860), Silurian, Tennessee. Stem only known, see
Fig. L. 2.
Daemonocrinus, Troost, nom. nud. (1850) ; syn. of IHcrotocrinus, apud Shumard
(1866).
Decacnemos, Bronn ex Linck (1837); syn. of Antedon.
Decadactylocrinus, D. D. Owen, nom. nud. (1843); syn. of Heterocrinus, apud
Shumard (1866).
Decameros, d'Orbigny ex Linck (1850); syn. of Antedon.
Dinwrphicrinus, d'Orbigny (1849), based on Platycrinus pentangularis, Miller ;
syn. of Orophocrinus, p. 84.
Doliolocrinus, Troost MS., fide Hall (1858) ; D. ovalis is syn. of Dichocrinus
simplex, Shumard.
Donacicrinus, Troost, nom. nud. (1850).
Echinocrinus, L. Agassiz, 1841, and T. & T. Austin (1842); not a crinoid, but an
echinoid = Archaeocidaris, M'Coy, 1844.
Emperocrinus, Miller & Gurley (1895), Silurian, Indiana ; probably syn. of
Anthemocrinus; but has 3 IBB, and was placed by its authors with
doubt in Taxocrinidae.
Encrinos, Agricola (1558), a stem-fragment composed of Pcntacrini or Asteriae
(q.v. supra).
£nirochns, Agricola (1558), a stem-fragment composed of Trochitae (q.v. infra).
THE CRINOIDEA 203
Ganymeda, J. E. Gray (1834); centrodorsal of Antedon, apud L. Agassiz (1841).

Gaurocrinus, S. A. Miller (1883), Ordovician, N . America; referred by Wachs-
m u t h & Springer part to Reteocrinus, part to Ptychocrinus.
Glenotremites, Goldfuss (1832), centrodorsal of Antedon.
Gnathocrinus, T. & T. Austin, nom. nud. (1842). The genotype G. fusiformis
is proved by Austin's M S . drawings to be syn. of Millericrinus Pratti.
Goldfussia, N o r m a n (1891, non Castelnau, 1843), proposed for Comatula vel Corn-
aster multiradiata, Goldf. now Linn., nee Lam., a quite unrecognisable form.
Grammocrinus, Eichwald (1859), Ordovician ; columnals incertae sedis.
Halophenix "of our British Museum," fide Cumberland (1826); syn. of
Pentacrinus.
Hehnintholithus entrochus, Linn. (1768) ; stems of various Palaeozoic Crinoids.
Helmintholithus portentosus, Linn. (1768); syn. of Pentacrinus.
Hertha, v. Hagenow (1840); centrodorsal of Antedon.
Icosidactylocrinus, D. D. Owen, nom. nud. (1843) ; referred to Glyptocrinus by
Shumard (1866).
Kallispongia, Wright (1877) ; larva of Antedon.
Koninckocrinus, Seeley, nom. nud. (1864) ; syn. of Torynocrinus and Acrochordo-
crinus.
Medusacrinus, T. & T. Austin, nom. nud.,fideWachsmuth & Springer (1881).
Microcrinus, E m m o n s (1858), Eocene, N . Carolina ; probably centrodorsal of
Atelecrinus.
Mitrocrinus, Miller & Gurley (1894), Ordovician, Tennessee ; based on a six-
rayed individual, probably abnormal, and a Periechocrinid or Carpocrinid.
Pachyantedon, Jaekel (1891), Upper Cretaceous, N . Germany. Based on impres-
sion of stout arms, and a few cirri; Br and cirrals in zigzag.
Pachycrinus, Eichwald (1840), Carboniferous, Russia ; columnals only, in part
a syn. of Platycrinus (see p. 132).
Pachyocrinus, E. Billings (1859), Ordovician, Canada; founded on a single base,
with no diagnostic features.
Pentagonites, Rafinesque (1819), based on pentagonal columnals, probably of a
Heterocrinid.
Perischodomus magnus, Tornquist (1894) ; syn. of Adelocrinus hystrix, Phill.
Petinocrinus, Hall (1859), Geol. Iowa, vol. i. Suppl. p. 49. Not seen.
Phialocrinus, Eichwald (1860), Ordovician, Russia ; encrusting roots with ridged
under surface (see p. 133).
Platysphaerites, Trenkner (1868), doubtfully crinoidal.
Proteuryale, J. Miiller ex C. F. Roemer M S . (1855); syn. of Cylicocrinus con-
fiuentinus, apud Jaekel (1895).
Pterocoma, L. Agassiz (1835); syn. of Antedon.
Rhodocalix, Trenkner (1868), doubtfully Crinoidal.
Shumardocrinus, Miller & Gurley (1895), based on imperfect specimens of
Steganocrinus concinnus.
Solacrinus, L. Agassiz (1835), for Solanocrinus, Goldf. (1832), which is syn. of
Antedon.
Sphenocrinus, Eichwald (1856), quinquepartite columnals.
Sycocrinns, T. & T. Austin (1843) ; the authors' M S . drawings suggest that
S. clausus=Lageniocrinus, S. Jacksoni=Cryptocrinus, and S. anapepta-
menos=Hypocrinus.
Syringocrinus, E. Billings (1859), Ordovician, Canada ; stem of Dendrocystis.
Tetracrinus, T. & T. Austin, nom. nud. (1842, non Miinster). Not known.
204 THE CRINOIDEA
Tetramerocrinus, T. & T. Austin (1843) ;.shown by labels and M S . to be syn.

of Melocrinus or Mariacrinus.
Thalamocrinus, Miller & Gurley (1895), Silurian, Tennessee. Cup alone
known ; like Bactrocrinus or Homocrinus, without R A .
Trianisites, Rafinesque,fideL. Agassiz (1841); not known.
Triplaricrinus, Goldfuss, M S . label for Hexacrinus pateraeformis,fideL. Schultze
(1867).
Trochita, Auctt. vett, a round columnal with radiating striae.
VJetavicrinus, Waagen & Jahn (1899), Silurian, Bohemia ; if monocyclic, must
be a Batocrinoid ; and if each Br bears more than one pinnule, is probably
a Carpoci'inid.
Xenocrinus, Jahn (1892) non Miller; altered to Zenkericrinus, Waagen &
Jahn (1899), Silurian, Bohemia ; based on an imperfect cup, which does
not differ from Mariacrinus (p. 161).
A few of the Terms used by some other writers, and not previously alluded
to, m a y be correlated with those of the present work :—
Subradialia, de Koninck and Americans = B B of Dicyclica.
Subradiale, Jaekel = R A [and presumably all Ri] in Monocyclica Inadunata.
Subanale, Jaekel=RA in Dicyclica Inadunata.
Azygos plates, Billings et alii = anals in general, and R A in particular.
Costalia=IBB in Marsupites (J. S. Miller) ; I B B & B B in Dendrocrinus (Hall);
B B in clearly dicyclic Inadunata and Flexibilia, and in Dimerocrinus
(J. S. Miller, Hall) ; B B of all Crinoidea (Loven); Ri in Heterocrinus
(Hall); R R in Scyphocrinus, Lyriocrinus, Macrostylocrinus (Hall); R R &
IBri in monocyclic or pseudomonocyclic Camerata and Articulata (J. S.
Miller, Hall) ; R R & IBr in Cladocrinoidea only (Jaekel); IBr in all
Crinoidea (Bather in earliest papers ; Wachsmuth & Springer, 1897) ;
iBrx in Eucalyptocrinus (Hall).
Scapula, J. S. Miller, Hall ; Radiale articulare, L. Schultze, Zittel = the
proximal plate in a ray thajt has an articular facet for the arms, therefore
m a y be R, IBr^ IBr2, or IAx.
Radialia, Miiller, Zittel ; Primary Radials, Wachsmuth & Springer (1879-81)
= all plates in a ray up tofirstforking, i.e. R & IBr up to IAx.
Brachialia of 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc. order, Miiller, Zittel, Wachsmuth & Springer
before 1890 ; articles brachiaux, de Koninck = free Br only.
Brachialia, Dibrachialia, Tribrachialia, Jaekel = IBr, IIBr, IIIB"
Brachialia, P. H . Carpenter, before 1890 = Finials.
Radialia distichalia or Distichalia, Miiller, Zittel, Waagen & Jahn ; Secondary
Radials, Wachsmuth.& Springer (1879-81) ; Dicostalia, Jaekel=IIBr.
Distichalia, P. H. Carpenter (1879), Wachsmuth & Springer (1897) = IIBr.,
fixed or free.
Palmaria, Huxley (1877), P. H.'Carpenter (1879), Wachsmuth & Springer (1897)
= IIIBr.
Postpalmaria of 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc. order, Carpenter, Wachsmuth & Springer
(1897) = IVBr, VBr, VIBr, etc.
The corresponding terms for supplementary plates—Intercostal, Interscapular,
Interradial,l Interaxillary, Interdistichal, Interpalmar, and Interbrachial—have
also been used in diverse senses.
For Literature of Crinoidea see p. 211.

C H A P T E R XII.
THE EDRIOASTEROIDEA.1
CLASS IV EDRIOASTEROIDEA, E. BILLINGS (1854,-58;

H U X L E Y , 1877; and B A T H E R , 1899)
( = THYROIDA, Chapman, 1860; A G E L A C R I N O I D E A , S. A. Miller,
1877-83; Worthen, 1883; C Y S T A S T E R O I D E A , Steinmann, 1888;
F. Bernard, 1893; T H E C O I D E A , Jaekel, 1895).
Not divided into Orders.
PELMATOZOA in which the theca is composed of an indefinite

number of irregular plates, some of which are variously differen-
tiated in different genera; with no subvective skeletal appendages,
but with central mouth, from which there radiate through the
theca five unbranched ambulacra, composed of a double series of
alternating plates (covering-plates), sometimes supported by an
outer series of larger alternating plates (side-plates or flooring-
plates). Pores between (not through) the ambulacral elements,
or between them and the thecal plates, permitted the passage of
extensions from the perradial water-vessels. Anus in posterior
interradius, on oral surface, closed by valvular pyramid. Hydro-
pore (usually, if not always, present) between mouth and anus.
Reducing the characters of the Edrioasteroidea to their simplest
expression, one may imagine a schematic type of the following
nature : — A flexible theca of sack form, composed of numerous
irregular, polygonal plates deposited in the integument, probably
with the stroma-strands between them still plainly visible (cf.
Stromatocystis); it would have a mouth in the centre of the upper
surface and would be attached by some indefinite portion of the
lower surface; the anus, with its valvular covering, would lie on
the upper surface, and there would probably be a hydropore
between it and the mouth. So far this type would present primi-
tive characters like those of the earlier Amphoridea, from which
1
206 THE EDRIOASTEROIDEA
one m a y suppose it to have been derived. B u t the structure and

relations of the ambulacra, even in their least specialised form, at
once remove the type from primitive simplicity, and place it on a
road different from that traversed by other Pelmatozoa. T h e evi-
dence suggests the existence of a circumoesophageal water-ring, with
five perradial canals, and their associated nerves and blood-vessels,
passing between or below the thecal plates, and underlying a
ciliated food-groove, which was covered by an alternating series
of movable plates (covering-plates = ambulacrals of Crinoidea, but
probably not those of Echinoidea and Asteroidea). Pores between
the plates lining or flooring the groove (adambulacrals of Pelma-
tozoa, but perhaps = superambulacrals of Asteroidea) permitted
the passage either of podia or ampullae. In Cystidea, Blastoidea,
and primitive Crinoidea, on the other hand, there w a s a free exit
for the ambulacral organs only through the peristome; in fact,
Blastoidea and Cystidea present no evidence that they possessed
perradial water-vessels and podia at all.
As J
Fio. II.
Cystaster granulatus, from pos-
Fio. I. terior, showing oral surface in per-
spective. The t w o left-hand rays
Stromatocystis pentangular is, oral surface. retain the covering-plates, which are
As, anus; 0, peristomial plates; c.j>, covering- lost from the others. Lettering as
plates ; s.p, side-plates; in, interambulacrals. in Fig. I. (Reconstructed from Hall's
(Reconstructed from Poinpeckj'-s figures.) ligures.) x 3 diam.
Slightly enlarged.
T h e primitive sack form did not long persist, but the follow-
ing characters were, as a rule, impressed upon it: a sessile habit,
the consequent assumption of a circular,flattenedform, the differ-
entiation of the upper and under surfaces, the development of
marginals or concentric frame-plates, and the tendency to increase
the food-gathering surface by spiral coiling of the ambulacra in
either sinistral or dextral direction. According to the varied extent
of these several modifications, the Edrioasteroidea are divisible into
3 families—Agelacrinidae, Cyathocystidae, Edrioasteridae. B u t
to these must be added a fourth, Steganoblastidae, in which the
development of a short stem was correlated with greater concentra-
tion and regularity of the thecal elements.
THE EDRIOASTEROIDEA 207
F A M I L Y 1. A G E L A C R I N I D A E . Edrioasteroidea with a theca composed

mostly of thin plates, flexible, attached temporarily or permanently by
the greater part of the aboral surface ; with ambulacra confined to the oral
surface. Genera—Stromatocystis, Pompeckj (1896), Cambrian, Bohemia,
seems to have had a somewhat flexible theca of non-imbricate plates
(Fig. I.). Kays straight and extending to the margin, imposing on the
theca a subpentagonal outline ; composed of stout and long alternating
side-plates, along the outer margins of which are pores [for podia 1]
while along their inner margins is a groove, protected by minute
covering-plates. Four large and m a n y small plates [modified side- and
covering-plates] surround and cover the mouth. Interambulacrals hex-
agonal, united by stroma-strands. Under side of theca composed of
irregular plates, without evidence of stroma-strands, and larger towards
the middle. T h e animal was probably sessile on its under surface, but
perhaps not fixed permanently. Cystaster, Hall (1872, Thecocystis, Jak.),
Ordovician, Ohio, is also primitive (Fig. II.). Theca sac-like, composed of
minute plates, not always attached (?) ; rays straight, composed of alternat-
ing covering-plates supported on side-plates ; no hydropore observed.
Hemicystis, Hall (1852), Ordovician and Silurian, N . America and
Bohemia, shows an advance on Cystaster in the imbrication of the
thecal plates, and their differentiation into larger interambulacrals,
and a zone of smaller marginals. This leads on to Agelacrinus
and its allies Streptaster and Lepidodiscus, all which are characterised
by the curvature of the rays, sinistrally, dextrally, or both, by the
elaboration of the marginal zone, and by their flattened sessile habit,
being usually attached to brachiopod shells. T h e type-species of
Agelacrinus is the Devonian A. hamiltonensis, V a n u x e m (1842), (Fig.
III.), in which the anterior and two left-hand rays curve sinistrally,
the two others dextrally ; the interambulacrals are large, non-imbricate,
and radiately ridged; there is a border of large plates, with an outer
border of small plates. Lepidodiscus, M e e k & Worthen (1868), Ordovician

to Carboniferous, has imbricating interambulacrals and a border of small
imbricating plates; plates forming the floor of the ambulacra, and a pen-
tagonal internal frame around the mouth, have been described by Miller &
Faber (1892), but more details are needed; Hall figures right posterior
ray as dextral, and the rest as sinistral (Fig. IV.); other arrangements
m a y obtain, but the rays adjacent to the anus always curve towards it.
T h e Devonian Haplocystis, G. F. Eoemer (1855), is k n o w n from an internal
cast, apparently proving that the ambulacra were floored by a single
row of plates [? fused adambulacrals], between the edges of which were
pores [for passage of podia]. T h e Ordovician Streptaster, Hall (1872),
has all its rays sinistral. Discocystis, Gregory (1896), based on Echino-
discus optatus, Worthen & Miller, is doubtful.
F A M I L Y 2. C Y A T H O C Y S T I D A E . Edrioasteroidea with the theca composed
on the oral surface of five deltoids surrounded by marginals, but below
of a fused solid mass of stereom, with irregular longitudinal sutures ; per-
manently attached by the aboral surface as by an encrusting root ;
ambulacra confined to oral surface. Genus—Cyatlwcystis, Schmidt (1880),
Ordovician, Esthonia (Fig. V.), is not far removed from Stromatocystis and
Cystaster, but the trend of its evolution is quite away from that of either
Edrioaster or Agelacrinus. Upper ambulacral surface of theca bordered
by a pentagonal frame of 4 0 marginals ; rays straight, with a single
series of covering-plates; five larger plates cover the mouth. T h e
minute plates that formed the theca of Cystaster are here fused into solid
masses ; thus there arise between the ambulacra 5 large A, and below the
marginals a massive cup, fixed to some foreign body by its base, and
occasionally marked by obscure longitudinal sutures, irregular in number
and position, but never more than 5. Anus, with pyramid of 5 plates,
lies between a A and the adjacent marginals ; no hydropore observed.
FIG. V.
Cyathocystis Plautinae. 1, two
individuals growing on a pebble of
rolled coral, and seen from the side.
(After Schmidt.) Nat. size. 2,
oral surface. As, anus ; A, inter-
ambulacrals fused into deltoids;
mm, marginals; cp, covering-plates,
partly removed from the posterior
rays exposing fp, which are not a
distinct series of flooring-plates,
as represented, but ledges project-
ing from the under side of the
deltoids. (Diagrammatised from
Schmidt.) x 3 diam.
FAMILY3. EDRIOASTERIDAE. Edrioasteroidea with flexible theca com-
posed of thin plates ; attached, if at all, by a small central portion of the
excavate aboral surface ; ambulacra pass on to aboral surface. Genera
Aesiocystis, Miller & Gurley (1894), Ordovician, Kentucky, has a sub-
pentagonal theca, with height two-thirds the width; rays wide and straight,
with large covering-plates ; interambulacrals non-imbricate. Podial pores,
madreporite, and abactinal surface u n k n o w n ; but the genus appears to
connect this family with the more primitive forms of Agelacrinidae.

Edrioaster, Billings (1858), Ordovician, Canada (Fig. VI.), also includes
" Agelacrinites Buchumus," Forbes (1848), from Wales. Theca about half
as high as wide, depressed slightly at oral pole. Rays curved, all or
some sinistral or dextral, passing on to under surface of theca; a m b u -
lacral grooveflooredby alternating plates [? adambulacrals], between which
were pores [1 for podia] ; with covering-plates, i.e. ambulacrals, over
the groove. Interambulacrals non-imbricate. Under-surface of theca
excavate, its central region composed of a flexible membrane set with
minute imbricating plates, and in a frame of about 11 large plates.
Whether the animal was attached by the central part of this membrane
is doubtful; immediately round the centre this is evaginated infivelobes,
apparently caused by the pressure of some internal organs [? gonads],
amb—-. amb
Fio. VI.
Edrioaster Bigsbyi. 1, oral surface, with covering-plates (amb) on the anterior and left
anterior grooves, but removed from the others, which show only the side- or flooring-plates
(ad), between which are pores (p). The greater part of the subpentagonal peristome (ps) is
roofed by enlarged covering-plates, ia, interambulacrals, one of which is a madreporite (M).
2, section across the same specimen through the right anterior radius and left posterior
interradius. The covering-plates are removed except just over the peristome, and in the am-
bulacrum seen in section on the left. /, frame of stouter plates ; m, membrane with imbricating
plates, tlirown into five lobes (I). 3, section across an ambulacrum, with plates in situ
covering ventral groove (vg). Dotted surfaces are the natural edges of the plates, ruled surfaces
are cut through the plates. (All slightly diagrammatised from a specimen belonging to the
Canadian Geological Survey.) 1 and 2 are nat. size.
which must have acquired pentamerous symmetry. Dinocystis, Bather
(1898), Uppermost Devonian, Belgium, has a slighter frame on the aboral
surface, and the surrounding region composed of a thinflexibleintegument
containing narrow imbricating ossicles ; otherwise like Edrioaster.
F A M I L Y 4. S T E G A N O B L A S T I D A E . Edrioasteroidea, with a rigid theca
composed of plates relatively larger and thicker than in other families of
this class ; these include elements comparable to the R R and B B of
Blastoidea ; B B attached to a stem, probably short ; ambulacra descend
into the radials. Genus—Stegaiwblastus, Whiteaves (1897, originally
described as Astrocystites, n a m e preoccupied), Ordovician, Canada (I .g.
VII.). T h e remarkable resemblance to Asteroblastus, insisted on by its
founder, suggested the reference of Steganoblastus to the Protoblastoidea
(Bather, 1 8 9 9 ) ; but the ambulacra are n o w k n o w n to have essentially
the same structure as in Edrioaster, while the absence of brachioles m a y
be maintained with confidence. Theca piriform, its plates strongly marked
14
2IO THE EDRIOASTEROIDEA
with axial folds, and consisting of: B B (5 ?, sutures not clear); R R , 5,

alternating with B B , and receiving the distal ends of the ambulacra;
interambulacrals, one large one and an uncertain number of smaller ones,
in each interradius ; 5 slightly-pitted plates of spear-head shape, stretching
up between the ambulacra to the oral pole and simulating O of Crinoidea
or A of Blastoidea, but perhaps being only proximal covering-plates.
T h e anus pierces one interambulacrum, and slightly disturbs the
pentamerous symmetry of the theca. F r o m the m o u t h 5 ambulacra
stretch about half-way d o w n the theca ; the adambulacrals (side- or
flooring-plates) appear almost anchylosed, but the pores between them
are very clear, and one can trace the original median line of suture ;
the ambulacrals or covering-plates were stout, at least in the proximal
1 Fio. VII. 2
Steganoblastus ottauaensis, slightly restored from the type-specimens, and x 3 diam. 1,
oral surface ; 2, from 1. post, radius, adamb, adambulacrals or side-plates; amb, ambulacrals
or covering-plates, mostly removed ; As, anus surrounded by small plates; B, basal; IR, large
median interradial; 0, 5 orals or proximal ambulacrals; j>, pores between side-plates: R,
radial; 67, fragment of stem.
regions, where they seem to have combined with the spear-head plates to
form a solid roof over mouth and food-grooves. Stem small, round, with
lumen less than half the diameter. Fifty years ago Steganoblastus would
have been described as a generalised or synthetic type, with Cystid,
Blastoid, Crinoid, and Asteroid affinities ; it is simpler to regard it
as a specialised Edrioasteroid, in which features c o m m o n in stalked
genera of other classes have been evolved independently under similar
conditions of existence.
Cyclocystoides, Billings and Salter (1858), Ordovician of N . America
and Britain (Fig. VIII.), probably belongs to this class, though not to any
of the recognised families. It is hardly well enough k n o w n to m a k e
the type of an order as yet. A ring of stout ossicles, more regular than
that seen in Agelacrinus and Edrioaster, forms a frame between which are
stretched two thinly plated membranes, rarely preserved. The dorsal

membrane contains irregular non-imbricating plates (Miller & Faber,
1892). T h e plates of the ventral membrane (apud J. Hall, 1866) were
delicately reticulate, and arranged in
numerous rays passing from a central
pyramid of minute plates [mouth?].
Eccentrically, between two rays, is an
oval opening [anus?]. Outside the
frame is a border of smaller plates
as in Agelacrinus. T h e animal was
not permanently sessile [but could
probably fix itself like a limpet].
T h e classificatory position here

assigned to the Edrioasteroidea
is not that usually accepted b y
zoologists, although m a n y have FIC. VIII.
given t h e m equal, nearly equal. cydocystokus saitrri. A,, supposed
Or greater classificatory value reP"n of anus- mm, frame of larger mar-
cs / i • gmals. The plated aspect ot the flooring,
Under VariOUS n a m e s (see heading, as seen through the opening*, is based on
nnB\ ITTL . Miller & Fuber; otherwise the figure is
p. 2 0 5 ) . Whatever m a y eventu- copied from iiaii. x •,-.
ally prove to be the value of the
characters insisted on in the present w o r k or in others, even if
there be traced a closer connection with Diploporita than is as yet
apparent, the Edrioasteroidea can never be thought a less distinct
or less homogeneous group than, say, the Blastoidea. T h e zoologi-
cal importance of the Edrioasteroidea is another reason for raising
t h e m to this position. M a n y zoologists, e.g. Forbes, Billings, N e u -
m a y r , Steinmann, have regarded t h e m as connecting either the
Echinoidea or the Asteroidea with the Cystidea. O n the hypothesis,
ever becoming m o r e probable, that all eleutherozoic Echinoderms
are descended from s o m e pelmatozoic ancestor or ancestors, then
the Edrioasteroidea are alone a m o n g Pelmatozoa in presenting a
type of a m b u l a c r u m from Avhich the holothurian, stellerid, and
echinoid types m a y readily be derived.
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Nouv. M e m . Soc. Nat. Moscou, vol. xiv. pp. 101-180, pis. xii.-xviii.
(Carboniferous Crinoidea.)
87. Volborth, A. v. 1842. (Ueber der Echinoencrinen.) Bull. Scient. Acad
Imp. Sci. St-P^tersbourg, vol. x. pp. 293-303, pis. i. and ii.
88. 1844. (Ueber die Arme der bisher zu dem armlosen Crinoiden
gezahlten Echino-Encrinen.) Bull. Classe Phys.-Math. Acad. Imp. Sci.
St-Pe'tersbourg, vol. iii. No. 6, columns 91-96, with 1 plate.
89. 1846. (Ueber die russischen Sphaeroniten, eingeleitet durch einige
Betrachtungen ueber die A r m e der Cystideen.) Verhandl. Mineral. Ges.
St. Petersburg, 1845-46, pp. 161-198, pis. ix., x.
90. 1870. (Ueber Achradocystites und Cystoblastus eingeleitet durch
kritische Betrachtungen ueber die Organe des Cystideen.) M e m . Acad.
Sci. St-Petersbourg (7), vol. xvi., No. 2, 15 pp.
91. Wachsmuth, C, and Springer, F. 1879-1886. (Revision of the Palaeo-
crinoidea.) Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, for 1879, pp. 226-378,
pis. xv.-xvii.; for 1881, pp. 177-411, pis. xvii.-xix. ; for 1885, pp. 225-364,
pis. iv.-ix. ; for 1886, pp. 64-226. (Index to all genera and species of
Palaeozoic Crinoids, with references to literature.)
92. 1897. (North American Crinoidea Camerata.) M e m . Mus. Harvard,
vol. xx. and xxi. (Contains also chapters on morphology and classifica-
tion of Crinoids iu general.) For other writings see under 10.
93. Woodicard, H. 1880. (Notes on the Anomalocystidae, etc.) Geol. Mag.,
n.s., dec. ii., vol. vii. pp. 193-201, pi. vi.
94. Worthen, A. H., with Meek; F. B. ; Miller, S. A.; Wachsmuth, C.;
Barr is, W. H. ; Springer, F., and others. 1866-90. Palaeontology of
Illinois, in Geol. Survey Illinois, vols, ii., iii., v., vi., vii., and viii.
(Palaeozoic Echinoderma, especially Pelmatozoa, with references to the
numerous preliminary papers in Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia.
Vol. viii. contains complete Index and a Bibliography of A. H . ^Vorthen,
both by /. Lindahl.)
95. Zittel, K. A. v. 1879. Handbuch der Palaeontologic. I. Band. Palaeo-
zoologie, I. Band, 1 Abth., pp. 308-560, Miinchen. (All fossil Echino-
derma.)
96. 1895. Grundzuge der Palaeontologie (Palaeozoologie), 8vo, viii.
and 971 pp., Miinchen. First portion translated as "Text-Book of
Palaeontology,'' by C. R, Eastman, 1896, with revision for Pelmatozoa by
C. Wachsmuth and others, 8vo, N e w York. Reissue, 1900, London.
See also Nos. 5, 21, and 36 in Literature of Echinoderma generally (p. 35).
C H A P T E R XIIL
ELEUTHEROZOA THE HOLOTHURIOIDEA.
GRADE B. ELEUTHEROZOA.
CLASS I. HOLOTHURIOIDEA.
„ II. STELLEROIDEA.
„ III. ECHINOIDEA.
ECHINODERMA in which the theca, which may be but slightly or
not at all calcined, is not attached by any portion of its surface,
but is usually placed with the oral surface downwards or in the
direction of forward locomotion. Food is not conveyed by a
subvective system of ciliated grooves, but is taken in directly by
the mouth. T h e anus w h e n present is typically aboral and
approaches the mouth only in a few specialised forms. T h e aboral
nervous system, if indeed it be present at all, is very slightly
developed. T h e circumoesophageal water-ring m a y lose its connec-
tion with the exterior m e d i u m ; the podia (absent only in some
exceptional forms) m a y be locomotor, respiratory, or sensory in
function, but usually are locomotor tube-feet.
A s explained on p. 33, the genetic affinity between the three
classes n o w to be dealt with is not so obvious as that between the
classes of Pelmatozoa. S o m e writers have taken the Holothurioidea
to be the most primitive class of Echinoderms, or at least to be
widely separated from the Stelleroidea and Echinoidea. Without
denying a large measure of truth to such statements, it is here
maintained that all these three classes bear the impress of a Pelma-
tozoic ancestry. A n d , though they arose from the Pelmatozoan
stem, probably at different periods, and possibly from different
branches thereof, yet the trend of the evolution of each was in the
same direction—a direction opposed to that of the Pelmatozoa.
A t any rate the plain facts set d o w n in the above definition
are conveniently connoted and emphasised by the adoption of the
term Eleutherozoa, whatever be the precise systematic value attached
to it. In discussing the Eleutherozoan classes, the order followed
is from the more primitive to the more specialised.
218 THE HOLOTHURIOIDEA
C L A S S I. H O L O T H U R I O I D E A , C. T. v. S I E B O L D (1848) *
(= FISTULIDES, Lamarck, 1801 ; S C Y T O D E R M A T A , Burmeister, 1837;
ASCIDIASTELLA, T. & T. Austin, 1840 ; S C Y T A C T I N O T A , Bronn,
1860).
O R D E R 1. Actinopoda.
„ 2. Paractinopoda.
Eleutherozoic Echinoderms normally elongate along the oro-anal

axis, which axis and the dorsal hydropore lie in the sagittal plane
of a secondary bilateral symmetry. The calcareous skeleton, which
may be entirely absent, is usually in the form of minute spicules,
sometimes of small irregular plates with no trace of a calycinal or
apical system; to these is added a ring of pieces radiately arranged
round the oesophagus. Ambulacral appendages take the form of:
(1) circumoral tentacles, (2) sucking-feet, (3).papillae; of these (1)
alone is always present. The gonads are not radiately disposed.
The Holotb'irians have long been known to man. Many of
the common o/ms are large and conspicuous animals, which are
frequently caught in the dredge or thrown up on our shores. It
is generally supposed that these are the marine animals to which
Aristotle gave the name of oXodovptov, from which their present
scientific name has been derived. Pliny, mentioning a species of
Cucumaria, calls it Cucumis marinus, or sea-cucumber, a name often
applied to Holothurians at the present day.
Belon, in 1553,firstdescribed a Holothurian, recognising some of
its affinities to the starfish and sea-urchins ; and Rondelet, two years
later, gave somefiguresof two species. Bohadsch, Pallas, Fabricius,
Cuvier, and others increased our systematic and anatomical know-
ledge of this group during the later part of the eighteenth century.
In 1816 Tiedemann published an excellent account of the
anatomy of Holothuria tubul-osa, Gmel. (12), and since then the
study of the structure, development, and classification of the class
has been greatly extended by a large number of naturalists, amongst
whom one may mention A. Baur (1), Selenka (7), Semper (10), Joh.
Miiller, Metschnikoff, and Kowalevsky. Within recent years the
finer anatomy and histology of Holothurians have been studied by
0. Hamann (3), H^rouard (4), Cuenot, and many others, and their
embryology by Selenka (7), Semon (9), and Bury (2). Our
knowledge of that most interesting group, the Elpidiidae, dates
almost entirely from the publication by Th6el of the Report on
the collections made during the Challenger Expedition (11). The
family Pelagothuriidae has only lately been described by H.
Ludwig (6). A n admirable and comprehensive treatise on the
1
By E. S. Goodrich, M. A.
THE HOLOTHURIOIDEA 219
1.—Ilolothuria forskali, D . Ch., opened along the right side of the median "dorsal" line;
the blood-vascular system is not represented ; 2.—Left side view ; and 3.—Anterior view.
4.—Calcareous ring of H. forskali; the anterior ends are turned inwards.
5.—Diagram of the water-vascular system of H. forskali. illustrating the Actinopod plan.
6.—Larva of a Holothurian. (After Balfour.) 7.— Auricularia larva ; and 8.—Barrel-
shaped larva of Synapta digitata. (Both after S e m o n ; cf. Chapter VIII., Figs. III. & XVII.)
9.—Portion of the intestine with the accompanying blood-vessels and rete mirabile of
Holothuria tubtdosa. (After Tiedemann.)
10.— Left side view of Ankyroderma affine, Dan. and Kor.; and
11.—Spicules of the same. (After Danielssen and Koren.)
a, anus ; an, anchor ; a.v, anti-mesenterial blood-vessel; br, brim ; c.b, ciliated band ; e.c,
circular water-vascular canal; cl, rectal "cloaca" ; c.o, Cuvierian organs ; c.v, collateral blood-
vessel ; d.mes, dorsal mesentery ; g, gonad ; i, intestine ; i.p, interradial piece ; l.d.r, left dorsal
radius ; l.v.r, left ventral radius yl.r.t, left respiratory tree ; m, mouth ; md, madreporite; m.r,
median ventral radius; m.v, mesenterial blood-vessel; ot, otocyst; p, podium; p.c, podial
canal; pp, papilla ; p.v, Polian vesicle ; r.cc, radial canal; rd, spatulate rod ; r.d.r, right dorsal
radius; re, rete mirabile; r.p, radial piece; r.r.t, right respiratory tree; r.v.r, right ventral
radius; s.c, stone-canal; sp, spicules; t, tentacle; t.a, tentacle ampulla ; t.c, tentacle canal;
x, oesophagus.
structure, development, and taxonomy of the Holothurioidea has

recently been written by the same author (5), to whose works the
present account is greatly indebted.
A s a typical example of the Holothurioidea the c o m m o n Cotton
spinner, Holothuria forskali, Delle Chiaje (H. nigra, auctt.), m a y be
taken. It is about 20 cm. long, almost cylindrical in shape (Fig. I. 2),
pale yellowish-brown beneath, and black above. T h e "ventral"
or lower surface is covered with closely set retractile podia, by
means of which the animal creeps along (2, p ) ; the lateral and
" dorsal" surfaces are covered with small and large conical papillae
(2, pp). T h e five "radii" running longitudinally from mouth
to anus are scarcely distinguishable on the outer surface; there
are two dorsal radii (bivium), and one median ventral, and two
lateral ventral radii (trivium). Near the anterior end the body-
wall is produced into an irregular brim (2, br); beyond this the
animal terminates in a smooth pale-coloured area, in the centre of
which lies the mouth, somewhat ventral in position (2 and 3, m ) .
Surrounding the mouth is a set of twenty semi-retractile tentacles
(2 and 3, /). W h e n in a state of contraction the brim closes
over the retracted tentacles and mouth. T h e anus is situated at
the posterior pole of the animal.
The body-wall of Holothuria is thick, tougb, and leathery.
Externally a thin transparent cuticle covers the epidermis, which is
not ciliated, and is composed of a layer of columnar cells, with
scattered gland cells and sensory cells. T h e thick underlying cutis
is formed of connective tissue cells and numerous fibres lying in a
homogeneous ground substance. Wandering cells are found in the
cutis, while the greater part of the pigment is in its outermost layer.
Below the cutis is the layer of circular muscles (Fig. II. 5, cm)1
interrupted at the radii, except immediately round the anus, where
it forms a sphincter muscle. A paired band of longitudinal muscles
runs along each radius from the posterior end of the animal to
the anterior (Fig. II. 1 & 5, l.m); here it is attached to the radial
plate of the calcareous ring to be described below. Internally the
body-wall is lined with ciliated coelomic epithelium.
T h e skeleton of Holothuria forskali consists chiefly of calcareous
spicules, knotted or branching rods, and perforated discs (Fig. II.
6, A, B), secreted by connective tissue cells and forming a thin
layer in the outer region of the cutis, especially on the papillae and
ambulacral appendages (podia and tentacles). Spicules m a y also be
found in the connective tissue throughout the body, and they are
very numerous in the wall of the stone-canal and madreporite. A
large perforated plate is situated at the extremity of each podium.
A ring of ten calcareous pieces surrounds the oesophagus; the five
radial pieces are notched and larger than the interradial (Fig. I. 4).
1
This figure refers to the allied species Holothuria tubulosa, Gmelin.
The nervous system consists of a " superficial" ring surrounding the

mouth and giving off five radial nerves which run backwards to the
posterior end. T h e tentacles and viscera are supplied by nerves
from the ring; the podia by branches from the radial nerves. T h e
ring and the radial nerves are sunk below the surface, and lie on
the inner side of the cutis. A n epineural canal lies outside the
radial nerves. Following each radial nerve on its inner surface is
a small " deep " nerve, from which are supplied the muscles of the
body-wall (Fig. II. 4).
T h e water-vascular system consists of a circular canal sur-
rounding the oesophagus behind the calcareous ring, and giving
off five radial canals (Fig. II. 5, ex and r.c). Each radial canal
passes forward between the calcareous ring and oesophagus, and
then outwards, through the notch in the radial piece, to the body-
wall ; it then runs backwards below the radial nerve. T h e radial
canals send off a branch on either side to supply a pair of tentacles,
each tentacle being provided with a long ampulla freely projecting
into the body-cavity (Fig. I. 5, t.a, and Fig. II. 5). A Polian
vesicle is attached to the circular canal in the left ventral in-
terradius. Branches are given off from the radial canals in the
body - wall to supply the podia and papillae; small ampullae are
here present. A twisted stone - canal lying in the median dorsal
line leads from the circular canal to a madreporite, pierced with
m a n y small apertures, and lying in the body-cavity at the anterior
edge of the dorsal mesentery (Fig. I. 1 and 5, s.c and md).
T h e alimentary canal is looped (Fig. I. 1, i, and Fig. II. 1),
coiled in the direction of the watch-hand as viewed from the anterior
end, and supported almost throughout by a mesentery attached to the
body-wall. T h e mouth leads into a wide oesophagus, which narrows
on passing backwards out of the calcareous ring. A scarcely dis-
tinguishable stomach succeeds the oesophagus and passes into the
long intestine, which finally ends in a rectal " cloaca" opening at
the anus. T h e oesophagus, stomach, and part of the intestine
form thefirstregion of the alimentary canal, running backwards
and supported by the median dorsal mesentery. Near the hinder
end of the body the intestine and mesentery cross over from the
dorsal interradius to the left lateral dorsal interradius, u p which
they run. Near the anterior end this second section of the
intestine, with its mesentery, crosses to the right ventral inter-
radius, d o w n which the third and last portion of the intestine runs
straight to the anus. R o u n d the oesophagus, bounded externally
by the calcareous ring and the radial canals, a portion of the coelom
is incompletely shut off from the general body-cavity (Fig. II.
5, pr); connective tissue strands run across it from one wall
to the other. T h e enlarged rectum, or cloaca, is fastened on all
sides to the body wall by muscular strands (Fig. I. 1, cl).
Opening into the anterior and dorsal region of the cloaca by a

c o m m o n duct are the respiratory trees, two large tubes which give
Fio. II.
1.—Transverse section of one of the Holothurinae. (Modified from Ludwig and Lang.)
2.—Transverse section of the body-wall of Holothuria impatiens, Forskal.
8.—(A) "table " and (23) " biscuit" spicule of the same.
4.—Transverse section of the radius of an Actinopod Holothurian. (After Lang.)
5.—Left side view of the anterior region of Holothuria tubulosa, Gmel., from which the
left side of the body-wall has been removed.
C.—(A) perforated disc, and (B) branching rod spicule of Holothuria forskali.
a, ampulla; a. v, anti-mesenterial blood-vessel; b, " biscuit" spicule ; b. r, blood-vessel; b.w,
body-wall; c, coelom ; car, calcareous ring ; c.c, circular canal; e.ep, coelomic epithelium ; r.w,
circular muscles ; cp, podial canal; ct, cutis ; d.mes, dorsal mesentery ; d.n, deep nerve; ep,
epidermis ; ep.c, epineural canal; 17. gonad ; g.d, genital duct; g.p, genital pore ; i, intestine ;
l.d.r, left dorsal radius ; l.m, longitudinal muscles ; Lines, left mesenterial; l.r.t, left respira-
tory tree ; I. v.r, left ventral radius ; md, madreporite ; m.r, median ventral radius ; m. 1; mesen-
terial blood-vessel; p, podium ; p.c, pseudhaemal canal; p.n, podial nerve ; j>r, peripharyngeal
coelom ; p.v, polian vesicle ; r.c, radial canal; r.d.r, right dorsal radius ; r.mes, right mesenterial
fold; r.r.t, right respiratory tree; r.v.r, right ventral radius; s.n, superficial nerve; t, tentacle ;
t.a, tentacle ampulla; ta, "table" spicule in 2.
off numerous side - branches ending blindly in tufts of slender
twigs (Fig. I. 1, l.r.t and r.r.t). Coming off from the base of the
left respiratory tree are a large number of long slender pro-

cesses, the Cuvierian organs (Fig. I. 1, c.o). These remarkable
organs, formed of spirally coiled fibrous tissue covered with a
layer of modified coelomic epithelium which secretes a sticky
substance, are shot out of the anus through the wall of the cloaca
by the living animal w h e n irritated. T h e organs swiftly elongate,
forming adhesive white threads, to which this Holothurian owes its
n a m e of Cotton-spinner.
The blood-vascular system consists of a circular vessel round
the oesophagus, giving off five radial vessels which run between
the water-vascular canal and the pseudhaemal canal, covering the
radial nerve internally. T h e anterior region and genital organs
are supplied from the circular vessel. T h e alimentary canal is
provided with two longitudinal trunks coming from the circular
vessel—one, the "dorsal" or mesenterial vessel, runs along the
region where the mesentery is attached to the intestine; the other,
the " ventral" or antimesenterial, runs along the alimentary canal
on the opposite side (Fig. II. 1 and 5, m.v and a.v). A cross
vessel passes from the mesenterial vessel on the first region of
the intestine to the antimesenterial vessel on the second region.
In connection with the mesenterial vessel (especially along the
second region of the intestine) is an extensive and rich plexus of
blood-vessels, the rete mirabile, overlying the left respiratory tree
(Fig. I. 9). Blood lacunae extend in the walls of the alimentary
canal, respiratory trees, gonads, and other parts.
A closed pseudhaemal system extends over the inner surface
of the nerve ring and radial nerves.
The body-cavity forms a continuous coelomic space lined
throughout by epithelium, which is generally ciliated.
The sexes are separate in this species. T h e genital organs consist
of a bunch of tubes, with free blind ends lying in the coelom, and
uniting at their base to open into a duct running forwards in the
dorsal mesentery (Fig. II. 1 and 5, g and g.d). T h e genital duct
opens by a median dorsal pore behind the tentacles (5, g.p).
Variation in the Holothurioidea. — In outward form the
more specialised and highly modified genera depart very widely
from the elongated and somewhat pentagonal shape which appears
to be the more primitive. In organisation, however, this group is
fairly constant, and clearly defined from the other classes of Echino-
derma. T h e epidermis is not ciliated in the adult. T h e body-wall
is remarkable for its thickness and leathery consistency, the cal-
careous skeleton being rarely in the form of plates or scales, and
more often as minute spicules of various shapes (there is no apical
system of plates). W h e n these spicules are of different kinds they
generally form distinct layers in the cutis—as, for instance, in
Holothuria impatiens, where the " tables " lie on the surface, whilst
the "biscuit" spicules are disposed in a thick inner layer

(Fig. II. 2 and 3, ta, b). T h e spicules are deposited by cells in
the cutis, and developfirstas small rods which become branched
at each end; by the increase of the number of branches and their
repeated fusion arise the innumerable varieties of spicules found in
different species of Holothurians. These calcareous bodies are of
great value to the systematist in classifying the smaller groups,
such as genera and species.1 Although their general characteristics
are fairly similar within the several families, the different shapes
of spicules are not sufficiently constant to be used as diagnostic
characters of such large divisions.
Very characteristic of the Holothurians is the calcareous ring
formed of radial and interradial pieces surrounding the oesophagus.
Occupying the same position as " Aristotle's lantern " in the Echi-
noids, it m a y possibly be homologous with that organ.
A well-developed muscular system is present in the body-wall,
whereby the animal can m o v e and alter its shape. T h e longitudinal
muscles, generally paired radial bands, often form special retractors
for the withdrawal of the anterior region of the body. In the
Synaptidae alone the circular muscles are not interrupted at the radii.
Although the nervous and water-vascular systems are distinctly
built according to the pentagonal radiate Echinoderm type, yet the
latter system is generally modified in relation to the very frequent
differentiation of a dorsal surface occupying the three upper interradii,
and of a flattened ventral surface or creeping sole occupying the
two lower interradii. T h e ambulacral appendages, the podia, m a y
become modified from typical sucking-feet into pointed papillae.
Either the tube-feet or the papillae m a y extend over the entire inter-
radial space. O n the other hand, both tube-feet and papillae m a y be
absent (Molpadiidae, Pelagothuriidae, and Synaptidae), and even the
radial canals m a y disappear in the adult (Synaptidae). T h e oral
tentacles, so characteristic of the Holothurians, are no doubt modified
ambulacral appendages homologous with the podia. T h e y vary
greatly in number and shape, and are of great taxonomic value,
being almost invariably more or less peltate in the Holothuriidae and
Elpidiidae, arborescent in the Cucumariidae, and digitate or pennate
in the Molpadiidae and Synaptidae.
T he Polian vesicle is usually single, and situated in the left
ventral interradius ; but there are sometimes more than one. T h e
stone-canal, generally single, lies in the median dorsal mesentery.
Although in some of the Holothuriidae, Elpidiidae, and Pelago-
thuriidae, and in the larvae of other forms, the stone-canal retains
its opening to the exterior in the median dorsal line, in most Holo-
thurians this condition is modified, in that the primitive madreporite
1
T h e structure of the spicules is liable to alter during the lifetime of the
individual (Herouard, Mitsukuri, Ostergren).
disappears, the connection with the body-wall is lost, and the canal
opens by a n e w madreporite into the body-cavity. In some species
numerous accessory stone-canals and madreporites m a y be developed
(Fig. II. 5, md).
T h e disposition of the organs in the radius, as seen in transverse
section, is distinctive (Fig. II. 4). T h e superficial radial nerve is
separated from the epidermis by the thick cutis and a space
(epineural canal). T h e deep radial nerve is separated from the
ambulacral radial canal by a pseudhaemal canal and the radial
blood-vessel. Over all lies the longitudinal muscle internally. This
arrangement resembles most that found in the Echinoidea.
T h e alimentary canal and the mesentery which supports it have
the dextral coil characteristic of Echinoderma, as described above
for Holothuria (p. 221).
T h e respiratory trees, organs quite peculiar to this class, are by
no means of universal occurrence, being absent in the Elpidiidae,
Pelagothuriidae, and Synaptidae. It is interesting to note, however,
that in certain of the Elpidiidae the rectum is provided with a
caecum, which m a y represent a vestige or a rudiment of the respira-
tory trees (Fig. III. 10, coe).
The Cuvierian organs (p. 223) appear to be modified branches
of the respiratory trees.
The Holothurioidea are distinguished from the remainder of the
Echinoderma by the structure of the genital organs. These always
consist of a single, or of a right and left, tuft of tubules leading into
a c o m m o n duct, which runs in the dorsal mesentery and opens to
the exterior in the median dorsal line near the anterior extremity
of the body. There is no axial organ or sinus, and no trace of
radial structure in connection with the gonads (see p. 24).
A s a rule, the genital products are shed in the sea, where fertilisa-
tion and development take place. Rarely, as in Chiridota rotifera
(Pourt.) and Phyllophorus urna (Grube), the young develop in the
body-cavity of the parent. Brood chambers are formed in Psolus
ephippifer ( W . Thomson) and some species of Cucumaria.
A total and almost equal segmentation of the fertilised egg leads
to the formation of a ciliated blastula and gastrula, from which is
developed the characteristic Auricularia larva (Fig. I. 6, 7). T h e
free-swimming Auricularia has an alimentary canal provided with a
mouth and anus, and the cilia are restricted to a single large
circumoral band and a small adoral band within the mouth. T h e
archenteron n o w gives rise to the hydro-enterocoel, opening by the
primary stone-canal at a pore a little to the left of the median
dorsal line. Later the circumoral ciliated band becomes greatly
folded, and then converted into the circular ciliated rings of the
barrel-shaped larva or pupal stage (Fig. I. 8). T h e mouth shifts
to the anterior pole, round which are developed the tentacles as the
15
first appendages of the water-vascular system. The radial canals

and podia (when present) are now formed, and the young Holo-
thurian assumes the adult form. Rarely the Auricularia stage is
omitted, the ciliated gastrula developing more or less directly into
the barrel-shaped larva.
Very little is known of the extinct Holothurians. Some spicules
have been found, many of which belong to the Synaptidae, in
deposits ranging from the Carboniferous to Tertiary strata.
With advancing knowledge the Classification of the Holothurians
has undergone many changes since it wasfirstattempted at the
beginning of this century. It now appears to befirmlyestablished
on deep-seated structural characters. In 1815 Oken divided the
few species then known according to the shape of the bod}T, whilst
soon after Lamarck made use of the tentacles as a taxonomic
character, a system afterwards perfected by Grube, who founded
the family Aspidochirotae for forms with peltate tentacles (Holo-
thuriidae), and Dendrochirotae for forms with arborescent tentacles
(Cucumariidae). Cuvier and others followed Oken, taking into
account the occurrence and distribution of the podia ; and Brandt
divided the Holothuria into Pedatae with podia, and Apodes
without podia. Selenka, in 1867, following Jaeger, formed the two
orders Pneumophora and Apneumona, the first for the modern
Holothuriidae, Cucumariidae, and Molpadiidae, provided with re-
spiratory trees or " lungs," the second for the Synaptidae without
" lungs." Th6el adopted the orders Apoda and Pedata, adding the
order Elasipoda for the newly discovered Elpidiidae. Ludwig has
clearly shown that the classifications founded on the mere presence
or absence of podia or of respiratory trees are artificial; first,
separating off the Synaptidae, which differ in important respects
from all the other families, as the Paractinopoda, he divides the
remainder of the Holothurians, the Actinopoda, into five families,
as shown in the following table : —
ORDER 1. Actinopoda. Radial canals sup-

plying tentacles and podia.
A. With respiratory trees.
(a) With podia f !>M- J' HOLOTHURIIDAE.
I FAM. 4. CUCUMARIIDAE.
(b) Without podia F A M . 5. MOLPADIIDAE.
B. Without respiratory trees.
(a) With podia F A M . 2. ELPIDIIDAE.
(b) Without podia. F A M . 3. PELAGOTHURIIDAE.
O R D E R 2. Paractinopoda. Neither radial
canals nor podia. Tentacles
supplied from circular canal.
FAM. SYNAPTIDAE.
O R D E R 1. Actinopoda, Ludwig.
The five radial canals of the water-vascular system, springing from
the circular canal, supply the tentacles and podia (Fig. I. 5).
FAMILY 1. HOLOTHURIIDAE. Body more or less flattened ventrally

to form a creeping sole. M o u t h generally somewhat ventral in position.
Spicules chiefly in the form of tables, rods, and perforated plates. Cal-
careous ring of five radial and five interradial pieces. Ambulacral
appendages present in the shape of tube-feet, papillae, and peltate tentacles
(generally twenty). Respiratory trees well developed. S U B - F A M I L Y 1.
SYNALLACTINAE. N O tentacular ampullae. Stone-canal single, and joined
to the body-wall. N o rete mirabile. G e n e r a — A . W i t h genital tubes in
a right and left bundle—Pseudostichopus, Theel; Paelopatides, Theel;
Meseres, Ludwig; Synallactes, Ludwig; Bathyplotes, Ostergren. B.
Genital tubes in a tuft on the left side only—Mesothuria, Ludwig.
S U B - F A M I L Y 2. H O L O T H U R I I N A E . Well-developed tentacular ampullae.
Stone - canals often numerous, and with complex madreporites not con-
nected with the body-wall (exc. Holothuria lactea). T h e left respiratory
tree is enveloped in a vascular network, the rete mirabile. Cuvier's
organs often present. G e n e r a — A . W i t h genital tubes in a tuft on the
left side only—Muelleria, Jager, mostly tropical ; Labidodemo.;, Selenka,
tropical; Holothuria, Linn., to which genus belong the British Cotton-
spinner described above (p. 220), and H. edulis, one of the kinds of edible
Trepang. B. W i t h genital tubes in a right and left tuft—Stichopus,
Brandt.
T h e Holothuriidae are characterised not only by the possession of well-
developed respiratory trees, and of from fifteen to thirty peltate tentacles
(formed of a thick stem branching at its extremity), but also by the
absence of retractor muscles, and of auditory vesicles. T h e tube-feet and
papillae m a y be in double radial rows, as in Labidodemas, in several rows,
as in Stichopus, or scattered, as in Holothuria. T h e calcareous ring is
generally composed of short, compact pieces; it appears to be absent in
Paelopatides and Synallactes. T h e anus in Pseudostichopus is situated in
a deep vertical furrow, whilst in Muelleria it is surrounded by five
pointed, calcareous plates. T h e longitudinal muscles are in paired bands,
except in Pseudostichopus.
The Holothuriinae are a well-differentiated group distinguished by
the possession of large tentacular ampullae projecting freely into the
body-cavity (Fig. II. 5, La), internal madreporites (5, md), and a vascular
plexus surrounding the left respiratory tree. T h e Synallactinae, on the
other hand, are in m a n y respects intermediate between the former
sub-family and the Elpidiidae. T h e absence of tentacular ampullae,
and of the rete mirabile, and the presence of a single stone-canal con-
nected with the body-wall and probably retaining its primitive opening
to the exterior, are all characters uniting the Synallactinae to the
Elpidiidae, with which they have indeed been classified (Ostergren).
F A M I L Y 2. E L P I D I I D A E . Body generally flattened ventrally. M o u t h
more or less ventral Tentacles, ten to twenty, more or less peltate. Ventral
tube-feet and dorsal papillae present (exc. Capheira). Often auditory

vesicles on the radial nerves. Stone-canal single ; madreporite frequent y
opening to the exterior. Respiratory trees absent (or rudimentary).
Fio. III.
1.—Left side view of Deima valid tint, Theel. (After Theel.)
2.—Ilyodacmon maculatus, Th. (After Theel.)
3.—(A) C-shaped spicule of Scotoplancs albida, Th. ; (B) wheel of Pannychia mosclcyi, Th.;
(C) four-armed spicule of Elpidiarigida,Th. (After Theel.)
4.—Peniagone wyrillii, Th. (After Theel.)
6.—Psychropotes longicanda, Th. (After Theel.)
6.—Ventral view of Elpidia glacialis, Th. (After Theel.)
7 and 8.—Side view and oral view of Pelagotli uria natatrix, L u d w . (Modified from Ludwig )
9.—Section through the madreporite and genital papilla of Ilyodacvwn maculatus T h
(After Theel.)
10.—Portion of the intestine and rectal "cloaca,' with its caecum, of Benthodvtes
sanguinolenta, Th. (After Ludwig.) *
a, anus; br, brim ; b.w, body-wall; cl, rectal " cloaca" ; coe, caecum ; d, disc • d a dorsal
appendage ; g.d, genital duct; g.h, genital aperture ; g.p, genital papilla ; t, intestine • m
mouth ; op, opening
Calcareous ring ofof five
pore canal;
or tenp,pieces.
tube-foot;Spicules
p.c, pore various,
canal; }ip,frequently
papilla • »rinanterior
the
process ; r, ray of the disc ; s, creeping sole ; s.c, stone canal; t, tentacle.
form of wheels and four-rayed spicules, S U B - F A M I L Y 1. P S Y C H R O P O T I N A E
Body surrounded by a brim. M o u t h quite ventraL Dorsal papillae
usually small. Tube-feet small, as a rule on the three ventral radii
Calcareous ring incomplete, the interradial pieces being represented b y
small spicules. Genital tubes in a right and left tuft. Genera—Psychro-

trephes, Theel; Euphronides, Thdel; Psychropotes, Theel, Fig. III. 5 ;
Benthodytes, Theel. S U B - F A M I L Y 2. D E I M A T I N A E . M o u t h sub - ventral.
Papillae large and numerous. Tube-feet large, generally only on the lateral
ventral radii. Calcareous ring of five radial and five interradial pieces.
Genital tubes in a right and left tuft. G e n e r a — A . W i t h a row of large
papillae above the lateral ventral podia. Median ventral podia rudimentary
or absent. Twenty tentacles—Deima, Thdel (Fig. III. 1); Oneirophanta,
Theel; Orphnurgus, Theel; Scotodeima, Ludwig. B. Without a distinct
row of lateral ventral papillae, fifteen to twenty tentacles. W h e e l
spicules—Laetmogone, Theel; Ilyodaemon, Theel (Fig. III. 2 ; Pan-
nychia, Theel; Capheira, Ludwig. S U B - F A M I L Y 3. E L P I D I I N A E . M o u t h
generally sub-ventral. Papillae usually few and large. Podia only on
the lateral ventral radii. Calcareous ring of five radial pieces. Genital
tubes in one or two tufts. G e n e r a — A . W i t h ten tentacles—Parelpidia,
Thdel; Elpidia, Thdel (Fig. III. 6 ) ; Scotoplanes, Theel; Kolga, Dan.
and Koren; Irpa, Dan. and Koren; Peniagone, Theel (Fig. III. 4) ;
Scotoanassa, Theel. B. W i t h more than ten tentacles—Achlyonice,
Theel; Enypniastes, Theel.
The Elpidiidae are a deep-sea group of wonderfully diverse outward
form. T h e body is generally flat or even concave ventrally; it is often
produced along its lateral edge into a brim, which m a y be posterior (as in
Scotoplanes), anterior (as in Elpidia purpurea, Theel), both anterior and
posterior (as in Scotoanassa), or all round (as in the Psychropotinae).
T h e mouth m a y be quite ventral, and some w a y behind the anterior
edge of the body (Fig. III. 5). T h e anus is terminal, dorsal, or ventral.
Tube-feet occur on the ventral radii only, and are often remarkable for
their large size and paired arrangement (Fig. III. 6), resembling the feet
of a segmented animal. T h e dorsal papillae also m a y be distinctly
paired and very large (Fig. III. 1). Peculiar posterior dorsal appendages,
sometimes of huge size (Fig. III. 5), are developed in Euphronides and
Psychropotes. Somewhat similar anterior appendages occur in Peniagone
(Fig. III. 4). These outgrowths of the body-wall are often supplied with
right and left canals from the radial, water-vascular system. T h e most
characteristic spicules are C-shaped, four-armed wheels (Fig. III. 3),
and perforated plates. T h e calcareous ring is generally but slightly
developed ; in the Elpidiinae the five radial pieces only are represented
as single-branched spicules. Auditory vesicles or otocysts are sometimes
situated in the Elpidiinae along the circular and radial nerves, but chiefly
along the lateral ventral radii. Of great interest is the relation of the
stone-canal to the body-wall in this family. T h e primitive condition in
which it opens by a single pore in front of the genital aperture is found
in Elpidia (some species), Kolga, and other genera. In some forms, e.g.
Laetmogone and Ilyodaemon (Fig. Ill, 9), it opens by a number of pores to
the exterior. T h e external opening has been lost in Irpa, Benthodytes,
and others, the canal opening to the coelom, but being still connected
with the body-wall. There are no retractor muscles, and no Cuvierian
organs. Although the Elpidiidae differ from the preceding family by the
generally simple, unpaired structure of the longitudinal muscles (p. 224),
and the absenco of well-developed respiratory trees (pp. 222, 225), yet
they are undoubtedly closely related to them, and more especially to
the Synallactinae,
F A M I L Y 3. P E L A G O T H U R I I D A E . Body cylindrical, and produced at the
base of the crown of tentacles into an umbrella-like disc, drawn out
into long slender rays. Mouth and anus terminal. N o podia ; branches
of the tentacle canals extending into the rays of the disc. N o retractors
and no respiratory trees; a single stone-canal opening to the exterior.
Right and left tufts of genital tubes. N o calcareous skeleton. G e n u s —
Pelagothuria, Ludwig (Fig. III. 7 and 8), represented only by a remarkable
free-swimming Holothurian, Pelagothuria natalrix, recently discovered in
the Pacific. The thirteen to sixteen tentacles are forked and beset with
papillae, and the disc is produced into a corresponding number of rays,
each containing a branch of the tentacular canal. These rays m a y repre-
sent the modified tentacular ampullae of the Holothuriidae; or the disc
may be derived from the anterior brim, which occurs in the two preceding
families. The five radial vessels are normally developed, in spite of the
absence of podia The longitudinal muscles are in simple bands. Neither
calcareous ring nor calcareous spicides are developed.
This highly modified form undoubtedly belongs to the Actinopoda,
since there are radial canals, and the circular muscles are interrupted
at the radii. The absence of respiratory trees, and of free tentacular
ampullae, and the simple longitudinal muscles remove it from the Mol-
padidae; whilst thefirstof these characters, combined with the absence
of podia and retractors, separate it from the Cucumariidae, With the
Elpidiidae, on the other hand, it has many characters in common, such
as the single stone-canal opening to the exterior, the simple longitudinal
muscles, the absence of respiratory trees, and the reduction of free ten-
tacular ampullae and the calcareous ring. Pelagothuria, therefore, is
probably a free-swimming form derived from an Elpidiid ancestor.
F A M I L Y 4. C U C U M A R I I D A E . Podia generally tube-feet only and no
papillae. Mouth and anus terminal or dorsal Tentacles eight to thirty,
branched. Tentacle ampullae rudimentary or absent Madreporite in-
ternal. Calcareous ring offiveradial and five interradial pieces. Re-
tractor muscles. Longitudinal muscles generally simple. Respiratory
trees well developed. Cuvierian organs rare. Right and left tufts of
genital tubes. Spicules chiefly rods and knobbed, perforated plates.
Genera—A. With distinct creeping sole. Ventral podia restricted to
radii — Colochirus, Troschel; Psolidium, Ludwig ; Theelia, Ludwi"
(Fig. IV. 10); Psolus, Oken (Fig. IV. 8). B. Without distinct creeping
Bole—Thyone, Oken (Fig. IV. 11); Orcula, Troschel; Phyllophorus, Grube ;
all with scattered podia (generally). With podia more or less restricted
to the radii; Cucumaria, Blainville (Fig. IV. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 ; Pseudo-
cucumis, Ludwig; Actinocucumis, Ludwig; Echinocucumis, Sars; Sph".ero-
thuria, Ludwig (Fig. IV. 9). C. Flask-shaped, with mouth and anus close
together—Rhopalodina, Gray (Fig. IV. 7).
The Cucumariidae are distinguished by the possession of delicate re-
tractile arborescent tentacles (Fig. IV. 3 and 4). Frequently the two
median ventral tentacles are smaller than the others (Fig. IV, 3), as in species
Fio. IV.
1.—Cucumaria pentactes (Linn.), opened along the right of the median dorsal line ; the
right respiratory tree has been cut short. 2.—Spicule; 3.—Oral view; and 4.—Left side view
of the same.
5.—Inner view of a retracted C. pentactes, from which the dorsal region of the body-wall
has been removed, and the viscera extracted, to s h o w the action of the retractor muscles.
6.—Portion of the calcareous ring of Ornda tenera, L u d w . (After Ludwig.)
7.—Diagrammatic drawing of Rhopalodina Ictgeniformis, Gray. (After Lang.)
8 . — " Dorsal" view of Psolus antarcticus (Philippi). (After Theel.)
9.—Left side view of Sphaerothuria bitentaculata, L u d w . (After Ludwig.)
10.—Theelia ambulatrix, Bell.
11.—Thyone fusus (O. F. Miiller).
re, anus; a. v, anti-mesenterial blood-vessel; b.w, body-wall; ca.r, calcareous ring; c.c, circular
water-vascular canal; el, cloaca ; g, gonad ; g.d, genital duct; g.p, genital pore ; i, intestine ;
i.;>, interradial piece ; l.d.r, left dorsal radius ; l.r.t, left respiratory tree ; l.v.r, left ventral
radius ;TO,month ; m.r, median veiitral radius ; m.v, mesenterial blood-vessel; p, podium ;
p.v, polian vesicle ; r.c, radial canal; r.d.r,rightdorsal radius ; r.m. retractor muscle ; r.p,
radial piece ; r.r.t,rightrespiratory tree; », creeping sole ; s.c, stone canal; t, tentacle.
of Cucumaria and Psolus; in other cases several tentacles m a y be small,

and these m a y even form an inner ring surrounded by an outer ring
of large tentacles, as in Phyllophorus and Pseudocucumis. T h e stone-
canal m a y be single or multiple. Five powerful retractor muscles, reach-
ing from the body-wall to the radial pieces of the calcareous ring
(Fig. IV. 1 and 5, r.m), serve to invaginate the anterior region of the body
so as to withdraw the mouth and tentacles out of sight (Fig. IV. 5). T h e
body-wali in the anterior region is thinner and often devoid of podia
(Fig. IV. 11). Every stage is exhibited between the arrangement of the
podia in a double row along the radii, as in Cucumaria pentactes
(Fig. I V 4), and their distribution over the interradial areas, as in Thyone
fusus (Fig. IV. 11). In Theelia they are nearly, and in Psolus entirely,
reduced on the "dorsal" surface. This is correlated with the develop-
ment of a very distinct creeping sole, to which the podia are restricted
(Fig. IV. 10 and 8). In these genera the calcareous deposits in the dorsal
region form large plates or scales ; five triangular so-called " oral" plates
close over the introverted anterior region, and small plates m a y surround
the anus. In Colochirus and Actinocucumis somewhat similar valves are
developed in front. Although the spicules m a y be in the form of large
perforated plates, sometimes produced into spines, as in Sphaerothuria
bitentaculata, Ludwig (Fig. IV. 9), they are more usually rods or knobbed
buttons and plates (Fig. I V 2).
T h e calcareous ring in the Cucumariidae is very well developed, the
pieces being large, and frequently m a d e u p of several plates fitting
together. T h e radial segments, to which the retractors are attached, are
generally produced backwards into two long processes (Fig. IV. 6). A
more or less pronounced bilateral symmetry is often brought about by
the unequal development or fusion of the pieces. Cuvierian organs
have been described in Cucumaria frondosa and C. nigricans. T h e genital
tufts are paired, and lead into a duct which usually opens to the exterior
on a papilla within the circlet of tentacles (Fig. IV. 1 and 3, g.p).
In Sphaerothuria (Fig. IV. 9) the dorsal surface is reduced, the
mouth and anus being approximated and the ventral radii m u c h curved ;
this process is carried to an extreme in the extraordinary genus Rho-
palodina (Fig. IV. 7), where the body has assumed a flask-shape, the
mouth and anus are close together at the small end, while the radii are
bent round. This appearance misled the early observers, w h o described
Rhopalodina as having ten radii.
Whilst the Cucumariidae resemble the Holothuriidae in the possession
of well-developed respiratory trees, they differ markedly from all the
preceding families in the shape of the tentacles and the r>resence of
retractor muscles.
F A M I L Y 5. M O L P A D I I D A E . Neither tube-feet nor papillae. T h e
posterior region generally tapering. M o u t h and anus terminal. Generally
fifteen simple or digitate tentacles. Tentacle ampullae. well developed.
Calcareous ring of five radial andfiveinterradial pieces. Single stone-
canal with an internal madreporite. Longitudinal muscle bands more
or less paired. Respiratory trees present; Cuvierian organs rare.
Genital tubes in right and left tufts. G e n e r a — A . W i t h well-developed
retractor muscles ; tentacles digitate—Molpadia, Cuvier. B. Retractors

absent or rudimentary — Eupyrgus, Liitken ; Haplodactyla, Grube ;
Caudina, Stimpson ; Trochostoma, Dan. and Kor. ; Ankyroderma, Dan. and
Kor. (Fig. I. 10).
1.—Left side view of Synapta digitata, Mont.

2.—The same opened u p to the right of the median " dorsal" line.
3.—Diagram of the water-vascular system of S. digitata illustrating the Paractinopod plan.
4.— Ciliated urns; and
5.— Transverse section through the radius and otocysts of S. digitata. (After Cuenot.)
i>.—Anchor and anchor-plate of S. digitata.
~.—Wheel of Myriotrochus Rinkii, Steenstrup. (After Danielssen and Koren.)
a, anus ; an, anchor ; an.p, anchor-plate ; b.u; body-wall; c.c, circular canal; e-.e, coelomic
epithelium ; cm, circular muscles; c.u, ciliated urn ; d.mes, dorsal mesentery; e.s, epineural
sinus ; g.p, genital pore ; i, intestine ; l.g, left gonad ; m , mouth ; mes, mesentery ; n, nerve ;
o.c, otocyst; oe, oesophagus ; o.l, otolith ; ps.c, pseudhaemal canal; r, rectum ; r.g, right gonad ;
r.mcs, right mesenterial fold ; r.n, radial nerve ; s.c, stone-canal; st, stomach ; t, tentacle ; t.c,
tentacle canal; v.l.m, median ventral longitudinal muscle.
The Molpadiidae are rounded forms, with generally a tapering, tail-
like, posterior end. The tentacles are simple processes, or of lobed or
digitate shape. Their ampullae are large and free, except in Eupyrgus (T).
There are no podia, unless they be represented by the anal papillae. As
in the preceding family, the calcareous ring is well developed, often

bilaterally symmetrical, and with radial pieces strongly forked behind.
In Trochostoma and Ankyroderma the stone-canal is still connected with
the body-wall. Cuvierian organs have been described in Molpadia
chilensis, J. Mull. T h e calcareous spicules are very similar to those of
the Cucumariidae, except in Ankyroderma, which has peculiar anchor-like
spicules (Fig. I. 11), somewhat resembling those found in Synapta
(Fig. V. 6). Trochostoma has red calcareous deposits.
T h e presence of retractor muscles, the structure of the calcareous
ring, and the general anatomy of the Molpadiidae indicate their close
relationship to the Cucumariidae.
ORDER 2. Paractinopoda, Ludwig.
The five radial canals have disappeared in the adult. There are no
tube-feet or papillae, and the tentacles are supplied directly from the
circular canal (Fig. V. 3).
Body cylindrical and elongated. Mouth and

FAMILY, SYNAPTIDAE.
anus terminal. Tentacles pennate or digitate. Tentacle ampullae small
or rudimentary. Calcareous ving of five radial, and frequently more
than five interradial, pLv.es. O n e or more internal madreporites.
Auditory vesicles on the radial nerves. Circular muscles uninterrupted
at the radii. Longitudinal muscles as a rule unpaired. Neither respira-
tory trees nor Cuvierian organs. Ciliated funnels on the coelomic epi-
thelium. Genital tubes in right and left tufts, often hermaphrodite.
Calcareous spicules as wheels, anchors, etc. G e n e r a , — A Spicules various ;
no wheels in the adult. Synapta, Eschscholtz (Fig. V. 1 ) ; Anapta,
Semper. B. W i t h wheels—Chiridota, Eschscholtz ; Trochodota, Ludwig ;
Trochoderma, Theel; Myriotrochus, Steenstrup ; Acanthotrochus, Danielssen
& Koren.
The tentacles of the Synaptidae vary in number from ten to twenty-
five. W h e n they exceed ten in number there is usually a corresponding
increase in the number of the interradial pieces of the calcareous ring.
The radial pieces are often pierced anteriorly. There are some very
characteristic spicules, such as the many-spoked "wheels" (Fig. V. 7)
of some genera (and in the larva of Synapta), and the anchors and
anchor-plates in Synapta (Fig. V. 6, an, an.p). T h e perforated anchor-
plates lie in the cutis parallel with the surface, whilst the " s h a n k "
of the anchors rest against them, the " a r m s " projecting towards the
surface. They aid locomotion (Ostergren, 1897). A pair of auditory
vesicles, or otocysts, has been found at the base of the five radial
nerves in Synapta and other forms (V. ox). Sense organs, some pig-
mented and perhaps representing eyes, occur in some species on the
tentacles. T h e radial water-vascular canals, which are absent in the
adult, are temporarily developed in the larva (Fig. I. 8, r.cc). T h e
tentacular canals, coming from the circular canal, m a y branch and
supply several tentacles. T h e layer of circular muscles is not inter-
rupted at the radii, as in the Actinopoda. Retractor muscles are de-
veloped in some species of Synapta and Chiridota. Very remarkable are

the funnels or ciliated urns (Fig. V. 4, c.u) situated on the mesentery,
and sometimes also on the inner surface of the body-wall. These cup-
shaped organs, the function of which is obscure, are attached by stalks to
the epithelium, and m a y be joined together into large bunches (Chiridota).
The genera Synapta, Anapta, Chiridota, and Trochodota are herma-
phrodite. The genital pore is situated behind the tentacles (Fig. V. 2).
The absence of radial water-vascular canals, and of interruptions in the
circular musculature, as well as the presence of ciliated urns, distinguish
the Synaptidae from all the preceding families. T h efirstof these
characters has no doubt been secondarily acquired, since the canals are
present in the larva; correlated with this reduction is the method of
progression by means of the tentacles and of contractions of the body-
wall, accompanied by the entire disappearance of podia. O n the other
hand, the shape of the tentacles, the spicules, the presence of retractors,
indicate a distant relationship to the Molpadiidae.
Phylogeny of the Holothurioidea.—It has been shown above
that the Actinopod Holothurians fall into two groups. In the first,
containing the Holothuriidae, Elpidiidae, and Pelagothuriidae, the
tentacles are more 01 less peltate; the calcareous ring is radially
symmetrical and of simple structure, it m a y be reduced and even
absent; the stone-canal often retains its primitive opening to the
exterior; the genital tubes are sometimes restricted to the left side;
there are never retractor muscles. In the second group, containing
the Cucumariidae and Molpadiidae, the tentacles are simple or
branched, never peltate; the calcareous ring is m u c h developed,
with posterior prolongations, and often bilaterally symmetrical; the
stone-canal always opens internally; there are always right and left
tufts of genital tubes; retractors are generally developed. T h e
two groups, then, probably represent two diverging stems, arising
from a c o m m o n ancestor possessed Of respiratory trees. T h e Syn-
aptidae would appear to have come off far d o w n the Cucumarian
stem, perhaps in c o m m o n with the Molpadiidae. These relation-
ships m a y be expressed in the following diagram :—
Pelagothuriidae.
\ Elpidiidae.
\y^ —HrMhnriH-''
Holothurioidean__1—^
ancestor. I
\ >v """ Cucumariidae.
\ Molpadiidae.
Synaptidae.
Little is k n o w n concerning the origin of the class. It m a y ,

however, safely be conjectured that the Holothurians are derived
from an Echinoderm ancestor with five typically developed radii,
along which ran branches of the nervous and water-vascular systems,
the latter provided with podia. T h e outward bilateral symmetry
of the Holothurians seems to have been secondarily acquired in
connection with their free-moving m o d e of life.1
LIST OF WOUKS.
1. Baur, A. 1864. (Beitrage zur Naturgeschichte der Synapta digitata.)
Nova Acta Acad. Leop.-Carol, vol. xxxi.
2. Bury, II. 1889. (Studies in the Embryology of Echinoderms.) Quart.
Journ. Micr. Sci., n.s., vol. xxix. pp. 409-449, pis. xxxvii.-xxxix. 1895.
(The Metamorphosis of Echinoderms.) Op. cit. vol. xxxviii. pp. 45-135,
pis. iii.-ix.
3. Hamann, 0. 1883. (Beitrage zur Histologie der Echinodermen. I. Die
Holothurien (Pedata), u.s.w.) Zeit. f. Wiss. Zool. vol. xxxix. pp.
145-190, pis. x.-xii. (II. Das Nervensystem der Pedaten Holothurien.
Die Cuvierschen Organe. Nervensystem und Sinnesorgane der Ape-
daten), torn. cit. pp. 309-333, pis. xx.-xxii.
4. Hirouard, E. 1889. (Recherches sur les Holothuries des cStes de France.)
Arch. Zool. Exper. (2), vol. vii. pp. 535-704, pis. xxv.-xxxii.
5. Ludwig, H. 1889-92. (Die Seewalzen.) Bronn's Klassen und Ordnungen
des Thierreichs, Echinodermen, I. Klasse. [Gives a full Bibliography. ]
6. 1894. (Reports on an exploration by the Albatross
XII. The Holothurioidea.) M e m . Mus. Harvard, vol. xvii. No. 3.
7. Selenka, E. 1867. (Beitrage zur Anatomie und Systematik der Holo-
thurien.) Zeit. f. Wiss. Zool. vol. xvii. pp. 291-374, 4 pis.
8. 1876. (Zur Entwickelung der Holothurien.) Ibid. vol. xxvii. pp. 155-
178, pis. ix.-xiii.
9. Semon, R. 1888. (Die Entwickelung der Synapta digitata.) Jena. Zeitschr.
vol. xxii. pp. 175-309, pis. vi.-xii.
10. Semper, C. 1868. Reisen in Archipel der Philippines II. Theil. Vol. i.
Holothurien, Leipzig.
11. Thiel, Hj. 1882, 1886. (Report on the Holothurioidea.) Challenger
Reports, Zoology, vol. iv. part xiii., and vol. xiv. part xxxix.
12. Ticdemann, F. 1816. Anatomie der Rbhren-Holothurie, u.s.w. Fol.
Landshut.
See also Nos. 2, 3, 19, 25a, and 28, in Literature of Echinoderma generally,
Chapter VIII. p. 35.
1
See Chapter VIII. It should not be forgotten that the plane of symmetry of
the adult does not correspond exactly with that of the larva, and that the ali-
mentary canal and the mesentery are invariably twisted spirally from left to right.
C H A P T E R XIV.
THE STELLEROIDEA.1
CLASS II. STELLEROIDEA.

SUB-CLASS 1. ASTEROIDEA.
Order 1. Phanerozonia.
„ 2. Cryptozonia.
SUB-CLASS 2. OPHIUROIDEA.
Order 1. Lysophiurae.
„ 2. Streptophiurae.
,, 3. Cladophiurae.
„ 4. Zygophiurae.
THE class of the Stelleroidea includes the starfish, brittle stars,

sand stars, basket-fish, and branching stars, all of which are
characterised by a depressed stellate body composed of a central
disc, whence radiates a number of rays or arms. They have
radiately arranged genital organs (i.e. are actinogonidial); they are
not attached by the aboral surface, nor is the oral surface furnished
with ciliated food-grooves (i.e. are eleutherozoic); and they usually
have the podia limited to the lower half of the body (i.e. are
lysactinic), instead of having them continued upward to the apical
plates, as in typical sea-urchins (which are desmactinic). T h e
radial water-vascular vessels lie along the under sides of the arms,
and are exterior to the ambulacral ossicles. T h e aperture of
the water-vascular system or madreporite is not connected with
the apical plates, as it is in all the Echinoids except Echinocystis.
r~ This list of characters is quite sufficient to mark off the
Stelleroids from all other Echinoderms. T h e class is divided into
i two groups—the Asteroidea and Ophiuroidea—each of which is
usually ranked as a distinct class, but no definite line of separa-
- tion can be drawn between them. T h e two characters on which
reliance is generally placed are the presence of an ambulacral
1
By J. W . Gregory, D.Sc. M S . closed at end of 1896.
1
238 THE STELLEROIDEA
groove in the Asteroids and its absence in Ophiuroids; and the

restriction of the digestive and generative organs to the disc, and
consequent sharp distinction between body and arms, in the latter.
Thefirstcharacter is unreliable, as in the living Ophioteresis there
are no ventral plates, and a shallow ambulacral furrow is accord-
ingly present. O n e order of fossil Ophiuroids—the Lysophmrae
— h a s the same feature more strongly marked. T h e differentia-
tion of the body into disc and arms happens in most Ophiuroids,
but also in some Asteroids, e.g. Freyella. T h e restriction of the
digestive organs to the disc appears to offer a more reliable
character; but in Astrophiura the arms are sharply marked off
from the disc and contain no digestive caeca, while the ambulacral
ossicles are asteroid. Similarly the digestive and genital systems
of the Asteroids, Colpaster, and some species of Freyella must be
limited either to the well-marked disc, or at most to the bases of
the arms; while the arm structure is practically identical with
that of some Palaeozoic Ophiuroids. It must be remembered,
moreover, that the digestive sac of Ophiuroids is marked by a
series of radial bulgings, which m a y be homologous with the
radial caeca of Asteroids. T h e position of the madreporite is relied
on by Perrier, but it will not serve; in the Asteroids, Asterina,
and Palasteriscus it is ventral, as in most Ophiuroids.
N o t only is there no character which serves to separate the
Ophiuroids and Asteroids, but the whole structure of the body is
on the same plan in both groups. It consists in both of a central
disc and a series of (usually five) radial rays. T h e skeleton in
each ray consists essentially of two series of plates—the ambu-
lacral and adambulacral. T h e former lie internal to the radial
water-vascular vessel, and the furrow which this occupies is later-
ally protected by the adambulacral plates. Additional elements
m a y occur, but are not found in all members of either division.
The mouth armature consists of a ring round the mouth, formed
by the union of one or more pairs of ambulacral and adambulacral
plates for each arm, and bearing spines modified to serve as teeth.
T h e body is protected by accessory plates or granules in the integu-
ment ; these plates m a y be protected by spines and pedicellariae.
T h e alimentary system consists of a central digestive sac,
opening by a mouth at the centre of the ventral surface; the size
of the digestive sac is increased by radial bulgings, of which there
are as m a n y pairs as the Stelleroid has arms; these bulgings m a y be
short and limited to the disc or base of the arms, or extend u p
the arms. There m a y or m a y not be an anus.
The water-vascular system consists of a ring round the
oesophagus ; a radial vessel runs u p each a r m from the ring, which
also bears a series of Polian vesicles, or sac-like diverticula. T h e
radial vessels give off a pair of branches in each segment; each
THE STELLEROIDEA 239
branch ends in a podion, which m a y be pointed, or m a y end in a

sucker. Connected with each podion there m a y be a globular
ampulla (absent from some Asteroids, e.g. Brisinga and from all
Ophiuroids). T h e madreporite in either group is dorsal, marginal,
or ventral. The nervous system comprises a circumoesophageal
ring and a radial branch along each arm or ray.
T h e reproductive organs consist of strands connected with the
axial coelomic system ; there is a central ring whence a pair of
strands pass to each ray. A number of small gonads occur on
each strand; the gonads of each strand m a y be grouped into one
bundle, with a c o m m o n aperture at the margin of the disc (as in the
Asteroid Asterias and the Ophiuroid Ophiothrix); or they m a y occur
only at the bases of the arms, as in Freyella ; or they m a y occur as
a series of distinct gonads with separate apertures, as in Brisinga and
Ophiactis. In most Ophiuroids the gonads discharge into a bursa.
A s both Ophiuroids and Asteroids are therefore constructed
upon the same fundamental plan, as they contain the same varia-
tions from the typical arrangement, and as there is not a single
constant difference between them, it seems indispensable that they
should be united into one class, the S T E L L E R O I D E A , which m a y be
diagnosed as follows : —
Eleutherozoic, actinogonidial, and lysactinic Echinoderma in ^
which ambulacral plates lie internal to the radial ambulacral vessels. '
The madreporite is not connected with an apical system of plates. \
The body is more or less depressed, and is markedly stellate.
In spite of the fact that the separate treatment of the Asteroids
and Ophiuroids has led to m a n y unfortunate errors, and still
hampers the classification of the group, it seems advisable here
to consider the sub-classes separately.
SUB-CLASS 1. ASTEROIDEA.
The sub-class Asteroidea includes the Echinoderms k n o w n as

Starfish. The animals consist of a central body marked on the
ventral side by a series of radial furrows which are usually continued
outward along prolongations of the body k n o w n as arms. They
live on the sea-floor and creep about by means of suckers or podia in
the radial furrows, the side containing which is always placed down-
wards. T h e general aspect of starfish is therefore very different
from that of any of the previously described groups of Echinoderms.
They are closely related to the Ophiuroids, and no very satisfactory
line of demarcation can be drawn between the two sub-classes; but
the Asteroids usually have diverticula from the alimentary canal
extending along uhe arms, which pass gradually into the disc.
Before 1841 the Asteroids and Ophiuroids were always considered
members of one group. Thus J. H . Linck (23), w h o in 1733 began
the systematic study of the Stelleroids, included members of both

sub-classes in his group "Stella." H e separated the Asteroids as the
Stellaefissae,which he divided according to the number of arms or
rays into such divisions as Trisactis, Tetractis, Hexactis, etc. Linnaeus
in 1766 included both sub-classes as well as some unstalked
Crinoids in his genus Asterias, grouping all the starfish together as
"Stellatae." Lamarck in 1816 (21), de Blainville (1830 and
1834), Nardo and Brandt (1834), and L. Agassiz (1835) proposed
various divisions of Asterias, which these authors recognised to be
a family or order. In 1840 Gray's Synopsis, and Miiller and
Troschel's essay, Ueber die Gattungen der Asterien (35),firstprepared
the way for a scientific classification. In 1842 the latter authors'
System der Asteriden (36) laid the foundation for all later work.
After that date additions to our knowledge of the recent Asteroids
have been made by many authors, especially A. Agassiz, Barrett,
Bell, Danielssen, Fewkes, Forbes, Cray, Jullien, Koren, de Loriol
le Fort, Liitken, Marenzeller, Martens, Moebius, Perrier, Philippi,
Sars, Sladen, E. A. Smith, Stimpson, Studer, Thompson, Verrill,
Viguier. The fossil forms have been described by E. Billings, Eck,
Forbes, E. Fraas, Goldfuss, Heller, Hall, de Loriol le Fort, Miiller,
C. F Roemer, Salter, Simonowitsch, Stiirtz, Wright, and others.
The study of the anatomy of Asteroids received itsfirststimulus
from the researches of Joh. Miiller (34). The skeleton has been
described by Meckel (1828), Duvernoy (1848), Gaudry (13), and
especially Viguier (52). Perrier has devoted most attention to the
pedicellariae (1875 and 1884). The study of the visceral anatomy
was begun by Tiedemann, Delle Chiaje, and Meckel; and of the
nervous system by Krohn.
The present position of the
subject is due mainly to
Ludwig (25), Cuenot (8, 9),
and H a m a n n (17).
The embryology has
been worked out by many
authors, the study of the
early stages being unusually
easy; among contributions
to this branch of the subject
are those of Joh. Miiller
(1848 55), A. Agassiz
(1877), Ludwig (1882),
MacBride (1893 and 1894),
Actinal surface of Asterias mbens with a podion (a) ( 3 2 , 3 3 ) , a n d B u r y ( 1 8 8 9
enlarged. a n d lg95)
The principal classifications after those of Gray, and of Miiller

and Troschel, are those of Viguier (1878), (52), based on the oral
skeleton, of Perrier (1884 and 1894), (38), on the pedicellariae,

and of Sladen (1889), (48).
Structure of a Typical Asteroid.—The c o m m o n English star-
fish (Asterias rubens, L.) is a convenient type of the Asteroidea. It
has aflattenedbody composed of a central disc from which radiate
five arms (Fig. I.). T h e upper or abactinal surface of the B o d y is
covered by an integument or perisoma (Fig. II.), composed of a
network of calcareous rods, the meshes between which are closed
by tough membrane. T h e anus opens almost
in the centre of the abactinal surface.
Between the anus and one of the angles
between the rays occurs the madreporite, a
thick grooved plate, perforated by pores
leading to the water-vascular system.
The ventral surface of each A r m is tra-
versed by a broad groove ; since the grooves
radiate from the mouth to the ends of the FIG. II.
arms, the ventral surface is k n o w n as the Asterias rubens, part of abac-
tinal skeleton.
actinal surface. T h e mouth is at the centre
of this side of the body, and is surrounded by spines (the " mouth
papillae " ) . The grooves are occupied by four rows of suckers or
podia, and therefore correspond to the ambulacral areas of the
Echinoid. O n either side of the grooves are three rows of spines.
Dissection is necessary for the recognition of any further points
in the structure of the Asterias. B y the removal of some of the
podia, the ambulacral grooves m a y be seen to lie outside a series
of pairs of narrow plates—the ambulacral ossicles (Fig. III.). The
two series of ossicles meet
in the middle line ; laterally
they abut against a row
of adambulacral ossicles, be-
yond which are further rows
of interambulacral and mar-
Asterias rubens, ambulacral and adambulacral plates. ginal ossicles, all of which
a, apertures for podia. are comparatively small. T h e
ossicles are protected by spines and pedicellariae similar to, but
simpler than, those of Echinoidea.
The Oral Skeleton (or actinostomial ring) consists of a solid
calcareous ring around the mouth. It is composed of thirty plates
in a quinqueradiate starfish, there being always six times as m a n y
plates as there are rays. Each segment of the oral skeleton con-
sists of two pairs of ambulacral, and of one pair of adambulacral
ossicles. In Asterias the ambulacral plates are more prominent
than the adambulacrals, and project into the oral cavity. T h e
mouth armature is therefore on the ambulacral type (Viguier,
52).
16
The Alimentary System consists of a mouth at the centre of

the actinal surface of the starfish. The oesophagus is very short
Fio. IV.
Asterias rubens. I, ray from which the skin of the abactinal surface has been removed
and the outgrowths (c) displaced, showing the ambulacral ossicles (ao); the suckers (s)
g. gonads in ray II; a, anus; sp, stomach, the folded arrangement of the walls of which are
shown by removal of part of the upper wall at the base of ray V. From F. J. Bell Catcdoave
of British Echinoderms in the Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.). ^
and leads to a large stomach, which occupies most of the disc.

F r o m the stomach five branches pass off, one to each ray. Each
branch divides into two caeca, which lie one on either side of the
ray. F r o m the stomach a short rectum leads upward to the anus,
which opens on the abactinal surface at a little distance from the
centre. T w o small longitudinally folded diverticula from the
rectum occur below the anus. These rectal caeca occupy a
similar position to the " respiratory trees " of Holothurians, with
which they m a y be homologous.
T h e Water-Vascular System consists of a circular vessel round
the oesophagus (the circumoesophageal canal or water-vascular ring),
from which, in a five-rayed starfish, there are eleven offsets. T h e
most important are the five radial canals^ one of which passes
along each ray, just external to the ambulacral ossicles. F r o m
these radial canals branches are given off on either side; each
branch ends in a tubular podion, which consists of an internal
reservoir or ampulla situated above the ambulacral ossicles, and of
an external tube or sucker. Valves occur on the transverse branches,
and prevent water, expelled from the ampulla, returning into
the radial vessel; thev thus direct it into the sucker. T h e next
set of offsets from the circumoesophageal canal are five sac-like
"Polian vesicles," one in each interradius; they act as reservoirs
for the water-vascular system. T h e last (eleventh) vessel on the
circumoesophageal canal is the "stone-canal," which runs from
the base of one of the Polian vesicles to the upper surface of the
starfish. It expands above, and its upper end is attached to the
madreporite, through the pores in which water enters the water-
vascular system.
The circumoesophageal canal also supports nine tufts of
tubules k n o w n as Tiedemann's bodies; there is a pair of tufts
in each interradius, one on either side of the base of the " Polian
vesicle," but in the interradius containing the stone-canal there is
only a single Tiedemann's body.
The presence of a blood-vascular system in Asteroids is not yet
determined, the organs described as such belonging to the Pseud-
haemal System (cf. pp. 22, 26). T h e main organ in this system
is the "axial sinus," which is a rather thick vertical tube sur-
rounding the stone-canal. It communicates below with a ring (the
circumoesophageal pseudhaemal ring), which surrounds the mouth
and gives offfiveradial branches, which pass one along the upper
side of each ray. A t its upper end the axial sinus communicates
with the genital ring; attached to this ring are five pairs of short
processes, while an additional pair passes beside a prolongation of
the axial sinus leading to the madreporite. S o m e of the pores of
the madreporite open to the axial sinus, and there is no k n o w n
direct communication between the latter and the stone-canal.
Fio. V.
Brisinga coronata. Abactinal surface.
The Nervous System consists of three disconnected sets of

nerves. The most important set is composed of a circumoral
ring, from which a branch runs u p each ray between the rows of
tube-feet, and external to the pseudhaemal radial vessel. Each
branch gives off nerves to the tube-feet and ectoderm of its ray.
The second set of nerves consists of bands lying internal to the
radial branches of the first set; they lie along the perihaemal canal,
which surrounds the pseudhaemal vessel; the branches from these
nerves supply the muscles of the ambulacral ossicles. T h e third
group of nerves is abactinal in position; there is a ring round
the anus, giving off a branch along the upper side of each ray, and
innervating the muscles of the body wall.
T h e Genital Organs of Asterias consist of ten branched glands,
Fir.. VI.
Culrita grex.
a pair being situated on the dorsal side of each ray close to the
disc. Each gland has a separate aperture on the abactinal surface.
T h e only special respiratory organs are a series of long, tubular
prolongations of the body - cavity, k n o w n as papulae, dermal
branchiae, lymph gills, or branchial vesicles. In Asterias they
occur on all sides of the rays and disc.
The most interesting sensory organ of Asterias is a small
eye-spot on the terminal podion of each ray (Fig. X X V . on
p. 30). T h e animal has an olfactory sense, for it will follow
food, even after the eye-spots have been destroyed; the situation
of this sense is diffuse, for any part of a starfish arm that can
m o v e independently will follow food (Romanes); but Prouho
limits the sense of smell to a few podia near the end of the ray,
which he calls "palps."
The Variations in Structure from the typical genus are less

remarkable a m o n g the Asteroids than a m o n g the Echinoids and
Ophiuroids.
In shape the extremes are genera such as Brisinga (Fig. V.) or
Freyella, and Culcita (Fig. VI.). In the first two the arms are
numerous and slender, and sharply marked off from the disc. In
the last the body is bun-shaped, and the ambulacra extend for a
short distance over the abactinal surface.
The most conspicuous variation from Asterias in skeletal
structure is due to the presence of a series of thick plates round
the margin both of arms and disc. These marginal plates are
best developed in the order Phanerozonia. There m a y be two
series, one above the other, and k n o w n respectively as supra-
marginals and infra-marginals (Fig. VII. d and c); in some
genera intermarginal plates occur between these two series.
The spaces (actinal interbrachial
areas) between the marginal
plates and the ambulacral fur-
rows m a y be occupied by a
series of accessory plates, form-
ing a pavement like mosaic.
T h e accessory plates on the
abactinal side m a y be large or
small, equal or unequal. In
Fl0 VII some species the central plate
Segment of a m . of Astropecten irregularis, o, lS .la!*ge> a n d S O m e ° f t h e re "
supra-ambuiacrai plates; b, ambulacral plates; m a i n i n g plates a r e a r r a n g e d in
c and d, inferior and superior lateral plates; e. . , ° x . . _,, , °
dorsal plates with paxiiiae. circles round it. T h e plates of
three of these circles have been
regarded as the homologues of the calycinal plates of Crinoids, and
are accordingly sometimes named the radials, basals, and infra-
basals (but see p. 14). In Cnemidiaster v>yvillei the central, and
the so-called radials and basals are present; in Zoroaster fulgens
there are infra-basals as well. T h e order of development of these
plates is as follows:—First five plates appear round the centre
of the abactinal surface; these plates m o v e outwards to the arm-
tips, and form the terminals; a second ring appears, the plates of
which are the " basals "; the central plate next develops in the
centre of this ring; the radial circle follows, and after that come
the "infra-basals.". Between the plates of the last set and the
central some genera have additional plates, which cannot be
homologised with any in Crinoids.
The Oral Skeleton consists of a ring of plates round the mouth.
The ring is composed of as m a n y segments as the starfish has rays
and each segment is interradial, and forms an " oral angle " -it
consists of two sets of plates, usually three in number.
T h e oral skeleton is described as either ambulacral or adam-

bulacral, according as the ambulacral or adambulacral plates
are the more prominent. Viguier, in his important memoir on
the skeleton of the Asteroids, pointed out the existence of these
two types, and based his classification upon this character. A s w e
have seen, in the genus Asterias the oral skeleton consists of a
solid ring, in which the ambulacral plates form five prominences,
while the adambulacral plates are small, and occur in the angles
between them. Such a mouth-structure is described by Viguier as
"ambulacra!." In Pentaceros (Oreaster), on the other hand, the
ambulacral plates are inconspicuous, and the adambulacral plates
project into the buccal cavity and form the jaws. This type is
Viguier's "adambulacral mouth." In both cases above the adam-
bulacral plates is a basal, interbrachial, or oral plate which is
called by Viguier the odontophore, although it does not bear the
teeth; its value is of secondary importance.
T h e Pedicellariae of Asteroids are of four main types. T h e
simplest form consists of a row of pairs of small, sessile, opposable
spines; these are the "pseudo-pedicellariae." T h e members .of
the second set are "sessile." T h e next advance is the develop-
ment of a stalk; of these pedunculate pedicellariae there are
two varieties; (1) the "forficiform," in which the two hooks are
attached to the nearest end of the basal plate nearest to them;
(2) the " forcipiform," in which the two hooks cross one another
and are attached to the end of the basal plate furthest from them.
Perrier has used the pedicellariae as the basis of his classification
of the Asteroids, on the ground that they are the degenerate repre-
sentatives of organs once more important. Other authors, however,
regard them as modified and elaborated spines, in which case they
are of little taxonomic value.
Another type of spines occurs as part of the structures k n o w n
as " paxillae." Each paxilla consists of a thick plate supporting a
number of short, calcareous pillars, the summit of each of which
is covered by a group of small spines. In some Phanerozonia, such
as Astropecten, the paxillae occupy almost the whole abactinal
surface of the Asteroid (Fig. VII.).
T h e Water-Vascular System is on the same plan as in Asterias,
but there are the following modifications : — I n most starfish there
is a pair of Polian vesicles in each interradius; they rise from the
circumoesophageal vessel beside the Tiedemann's body. The
radial branches and its podia are simplified by the absence of
ampullae, as in Brisinga, or by the podia ending in points instead
of suckers, as in the Astropectinidae. Suckers are improvised in
such pointed podia by a contraction of the walls below the end.
T h e number of madreporites is very variable a m o n g the
Asteroids; in most of those with m a n y rays there are several
madreporites, but in the Solasteridae there is but one; on the

other hand, m a n y five-rayed starfish, such as Aderias capensis, have
more than one. T h e stone-canal is repeated,xespecially in forms
which reproduce asexually.
There is no anus in the Astropectinidae, the members of which
are more primitive than Asterias in m a n y respects. T h e radial caeca
of the stomach remain constant, but the rectal caeca vary in number
and arrangement; they are increased tofivein m a n y genera, and
in Culcita each of thefivecaeca branches into two.
The "papulae" or branchial vesicles, which, in Asterias, rise
from all parts of the external surface, are limited a m o n g Phaner-
ozonia to the abactinal surface, and to the area enclosed by the
supra-marginal plates.
The Genital Organs are, as a rule, less concentrated than in
Asterias. T h e glands are repeated along the arms ; in the simplest
cases each series discharges its products by a single sieve-plate.
T h e extreme case is in Brisinga, where there are a series of separate
glands along the arm, one pair to each segment, and each gland
discharges by a separate aperture.
In Asterina gibbosa the genital orifice is on the ventral or
actinal surface, as in Ophiuroids.
The development of the Asteroids is generally indirect, the larva
passing through a metamorphosis. T h e typical form of larva is
the Bipinnaria, which passes through an Auricularia stage and thus
resembles the larvae of the Holothurians rather than of the
Echinoidea or Ophiuroidea (see p. 5). In some cases the Bipinnaria
develops into a Bracliiolaria by the division of the frontal process
of the larva into three branches. In some genera, such as Asterina
(the development of which has been studied with especial care),
the Bipinnaria stage is never developed, although the larvae are
free-swimming and undergo metamorphosis. In other cases, e.g.
in Bldkiaster and Pteraater, the development is direct; in the
former case, the ova develop in "arcade-like spaces" between the
paxillae of the abactinal surface; in the latter there is a large
marsupium formed by the presence of a supra-dorsal m e m b r a n e
rising above the abactinal surface.
Asexual reproduction is not u n c o m m o n ; it results either from
a division of the body, approximately into halves, or by regrowth
of the disc from an arm that has been thrown off. T h e latter
method occurs especially in Linrkia, and with thefirstappearance
of the disc the starfish is said to assume the comet form.
Proceeding to the Systematic Description of the orders and families

we may sum up the foregoing characters in the following Diagnosis of
the Sub-Class.1 The Asteroidea are eleutherozoic, actinogonidial and
1
Emended from Bell (4), p. 19 ; the terms are explained, antea, p. 237.
lysactinic Echinoderms in which there is an ambulacral groove. T h e

arms generally pass gradually into the disc, but in some cases are ;
sharply marked off from it. T h e digestive system generally has an anus,
and shares in the stellate disposition of the body. Pentameric repetition
is more often exceeded in this than in any other class, and asexual repro-
duction is not u n c o m m o n . Respiration diffuse. T h e madreporic aperture
is generally abactinal.
This diagnosis at once sharply separates the Asteroids from all
Echinoderms except Ophiuroids, between which, as w e have seen (p. 238),
it is not possible at present to draw any precise line of separation. T h e
Asteroidea, however, always have an open actinal groove, whereas this
is exceptional a m o n g the Ophiuroidea; the arms usually pass gradually
into the disc, and generally contain throughout prolongations of the genital
and alimentary systems.
ORDER 1. Phanerozonia, Sladen.
Asteroidea with large marginal plates, and with the dermal branchiae
or l y m p h gills limited to the abactinal surface.
This order includes a group of starfish which began in the Cambrian
age and has lived on till the present time. Its members can be readily
distinguished by the large size of the marginal plates. T h e limitation of
the dermal branchiae to the abactinal surface is a more primitive con-
dition than that m e t with in the Cryptozonia. Embryological evidence,
and the greater importance of the order in the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic
eras also suggest that this is the simpler of the two orders of star-
fish.
T h e Palaeozoic genera appear to be normal members of this order,
and some of them m a y be included in existing families. They are, how-
ever, often all grouped together as an order, the " Palajasteroidea," and
separated from all the later, or " Euasteroidea." T h e character on which
this separation is based is the alternation of the ambulacral ossicles in the
former, whereas they are said to be always opposite in post-Palaeozoic
Asteroids. This character is of great importance a m o n g Ophiuroids, for
w h e n the ossicles are alternately arranged, they cannot be united into verte-
bral ossicles. B u t w h e n the ossicles are narrow, thin plates, closely packed
into two series, one on either side of a ray, and w h e n the separate ossicles
meet those of the other side only by their narrow ends, then alternation
is very likely to arise from growth pressure. In fact, one part of an
arm m a y have the ambulacral ossicles alternate, while in another part
they m a y be opposite. T h e character, moreover, is one on which little
reliance can be placed w h e n applied to fossils, for a slight movement is
sufficient to alter the relative positions of the two series. It is difficult
to explain the relative positions of the ambulacral ossicles in different
arms of the same Asteroid, except on the assumption that the two series
m o v e d past one another during the lateral bending of the arm. Alterna-
tion of the ossicles was probably an original character ; but as the arms
became flexible with the reduction of the external skeleton, and as the
ambulacral ossicles became narrower, greater freedom was gained by the

opposition of the two plates of a pair. T h e artificial nature of the
divisions based on this character is shown by Stiirtz's action in dividing
several of his families into halves and placing members of the same
family in two different orders. Thus he founded a family Palajechin-
asteridae for the genera Echinasterella and Palasteriscus, but he included
the latter among the division with alternate ambulacral ossicles, and the
former in the division in which these ossicles are opposite. A s the
" Palasasteroidea" include representatives of both Phanerozonate and
Cryptozonate Asteroids, and of several families of each, it is necessary to
dismember such an artificial group.
F A M I L Y 1. P A L ^ I A S T E R I D A E . Phanerozonia writh most or all of the
ambulacral ossicles alternate ; the madreporite is dorsal. Oral armament
adambulacral. Abactinal skeleton tessellate. Rays long, disc small.
This family includes a series of Asteroids occurring in the Lower
Palaeozoic. In most of them the ambulacral ossicles are alternate,
but in some cases these plates are opposite, either for a part, or for the
whole length of the arm. Hence this character does not seem to be of
the value assigned to it. T h e marginal ossicles are always conspicuous,
and, as far as is known, the madreporite is fairly small and dorsal in
position. T h e oral skeleton consists of a ring in which the adambulacral
plates are most conspicuous. There are two sub-families. S U B - F A M I L Y 1.
P A L . S A S T E R I N A E , in which the ambulacral ossicles are alternate. Genera
— Palceaster, Hall; Argaster, Hall; (I) Monaster, Eth. jnr. ; and (?)
Petraster, Billings pars. T h e genera are all Palaeozoic, ranging from the
Cambrian to the Devonian. A m o n g existing families the nearest ally is
the Archasteridae. S O B - F A M I L Y 2. X E N ^ S T E R I X A E , including those
with moifc of the ambulacral ossicles in opposite pairs. Genera—Xenaster,
Simonowitsch; Tetraster, Eth. jnr. & Nich.
F A M I L Y 2. P A L . < E A S T E R I N I D A E . Phanerozonia with alternate ambu-
lacral ossicles and small marginal plates. T h e oral armature is adam-
bulacral. T h e madreporite is abactinal. T h e rays are short and are
separated by large interradial areas. Genera—Pakeasterina, M ' C o y ;
Sclwenaster, M e e k & Worthen.
F A M I L Y 3. A S P I D O S O M A T I D A E . Phanerozonia with alternate ambula-
cral ossicles ; large marginal ossicles and large interradial areas ; rays
massive, petaloid, sub-petaloid, or tapering. O n the abactinal surface
there are large depressed areas between the marginal ossicles and the
outermost of the longitudinal series of large plates which run along the
arms. Genera—Aspidosoma, Goldf. (the type-species is A. Arnoldi, but
as this is imperfectly known, A. petaloides, Simonowitsch, m a y be
accepted provisionally) ; Palaeonectria, Stiirtz ; Palaeostella, Stiirtz ; Trich-
asteropsis, E c k ; Archasterias, Mull., m a y belong here, but the genus is
insufficiently known.
F A M I L Y 4. T A E N I A S T E R I D A E . Phanerozonia with alternate ambulacral
ossicles. There are neither disc nor interbrachial areas. T h e adambu-
lacral plates are large and act as marginal plates. T h e axes of the
marginal plates are parallel and the rays petaloid (as in Stenaster), or the
axes of the marginal plates are convergent; these plates bear spines on
their free ends, and the rays taper gradually (Taeniaster). G e n e r a —

Taeniaster, Billings ; Stenaster, Billings, pars (S. salteri, but not S. pul-
chellus); both Ordovician of Canada; Salteraster and Urasterella, M'Coy,
Silurian, England; Protasteracanthion, Stiirtz, Devonian, Germany.
F A M I L Y 5. A R C H A S T E R I D A E . Phanerozonia with opposite ambulacral
plates. There is an anus, but no super-ambulacral plates. Pedicellariae
are generally present. T h e abactinal plates are 6piniform or paxilliform.
The adambulacral plates are large. This family includes a large number
of Neozoic starfish, ranging from the Lower Oolites to the present day.
They have frequently been included with the Astropectinidae, from
which they differ by the presence of an anus, by the large size of the
adambulacral ossicles, and by the absence of supra-ambulacral plates.
There are four sub-families, including sixteen genera. S D B - F A M I L Y 1.
P A R A C H A S T E R I N A E , comprising those in which the branchial vesicles or
papulae are limited to an area at the base of the rays, and in which
the actinal interradial plates are absent or are very few in number.
Genera—Cheiraster, Studer ; Pararchaster, Sladen ; Pectinaster, Perrier ;
and Pontaster, Sladen. S D B - F A M I L Y 2. P L U T O N A S T E R I N A E , including
those with papulae scattered over the whole abactinal surface. There
are numerous actinal interradial plates. Genera—Crenaster, Per. (non
Ag.); Dytaster, Slad. ; Goniopecten, Per.; Lonchotaster, Slad.; Persephon-
aster, Mason & Alcock; Plutonaster, Slad.; Tethyaster, Slad. S U B -
F A M I L Y 3. P S E U D A R C H A S T E R F N A E , including those with a definite median
line of plates along the rays, and with the abactinal plates arranged
in series parallel to the central line. There are no pedicellariae.
Genera—Pseudarchaster, Slad.; Aphroditaster, Slad. S U B - F A M I L Y 4. A R C H -
A S T E R I N A E , including those in which there is a definite median line of
abactinal plates, and the remainder are arranged in oblique rows.
Pedicellariae present. Genera—Acantharchaster, Verrill ; Archaster, Verr.;
Isaster, Verr. T h e following genera are included by Sladen in this
family, but not divided among the sub-families :—Benthopecten, Verr. ;
Blakiaster, Per. ; Luidiaster, Stud.
F A M I L Y 6. P O R C E L L A N A S T E R I D A E . Phanerozonia with opposite ambu-
lacral plates; with thin lamelliform marginal plates, traversed by cribri-
form organs. There are two sub-families. S U B - F A M I L Y 1. P O R C E L L -
A N A S T E R I N A E , in which the cribriform organs are highly developed and
limited to a few plates, and there are no fimbriated channels in the
actinal interradial areas. Genera—Caulaster, Per.; Porcellanaster, W y v .
Thomson (Fig. VIII.); Styracaster, Hyphalaster, Thoracaster, and Pseud-
aster, Sladen. S U B - F A M I L Y 2. C T E N O D I S C I N A E , in which the cribriform
organs are simple and occur on the margins of each pair of marginal
plates ; continuations from the cribriform organs run through the actinal
interradial areas as "fimbriatedchannels." Genus—Ctenodiscus, Miiller &
Troschel. T h e most interesting features of this family are the develop-
ment of the cribriform organs, densely packed groups of small spinelets or
lamellae on some or all of the marginal plates. Their function is uncer-
tain, but, according to Sladen, " it is not improbable they act as percolators."
In some species of Astropecten the marginal ossicles are bordered by
fringes of small spines, which A. Agassiz has compared to the fascioles of
Spatangoids (see p. 319). In Ctenodiscus the grooves between the marginal

ossicles are bordered by bands of lamellae forming the simplest type of
cribriform organs. In the rest of the Porcellanasteridae these organs are
confined to a few special plates. In some species of this family the
anus opens on the summit of a small tube. It rises from the abactinal
surface of the starfish, and has been accordingly compared to the stem
of Crinoids, an homology which is quite inadmissible.
F A M I L Y 7. A S T R O P E C T I X I D A E . Phanerozonia with opposite ambula-
cral plates and paxilliform abactinal plates. Super-ambulacral plates are
present, and the adambulacral plates are compressed. There is no anus,
and pedicellariae are rarely present. The compressed adambulacral plates
and the presence of a series of super-ambulacral plates, which occur inside
Yio. V I I I .
Porcellanastcr caerulcus. Abactinal surface showing cribiiform organs and anal tube.
the arms above the ambulacrals, are the two most striking features of
the Astropectinidae. The position of the super-ambulacral plates is
shown in Fig. VII. There are two sub-families and nine genera.
S U B - F A M I L Y 1. A S T R O P E C T I N I N A E , including those members of the family
in which the adambulacral plates touch the infero-marginal plates
along the ray. The marginal and adambulacral plates do not correspond
in length or number. Genera — Astropecten, Schulze ; Bathybiaster,
Danielssen and Koren ; Craspidaster, Slad. ; Dipmcaster, Alcock ; Blakiastcr,
Per. (syn. Leptoptychaster, Smith), (Fig. IX.) ; Monaster, Phoxaster, and
Psilaster, Sladen. S U B - F A M I L Y 2. L U I D I I X A E . Astropectinidae with a
row of small plates separating the adambulacral and infero-marginal
plates. Genera—Astrellu, Per. ; Luidia, Forbes; Platasterias, Gray.
F A M I L Y 8. P E X T A G O X A S T K R I D A E . Phanerozonia with opposite a m b u -
lacral plates, large marginal plates, and tessellate abactinal skeleton.
T h e arms are short and the shape of the starfish is generally penta-
gonal. S U B - F A M I L Y 1. P E X T A G O X A S T E R I X A E . Pentagonasteridae with
rounded, polygonal, or paxilliform abactinal plates. Genera—Anthenoides,
Per.; Asterodon, Per.; Astrogonium, Miiller & Troschel; Calliaster, Gray ;
Calliderma, Gray ; Chitonaster, Slad.; Comptonia, Gray; Dorigona, Gray
(Nymphaster, Slad.) ; Goniodon, Per. ; Hoplaster, Per.; Iconaster, Slad. ;
Leptaster, Lor.; Mediaster, Stimps.; Metopaster, Slad.; Mitelephaster, Alcock ;
Mitraster, Slad. ; Nectria, Gray; Odontaster, Verr. (Gnathaster, Slad.) ;
Paragonaster, Slad. ; Pentagonaster, Schulze ; Phaneraster, Per. ; Pycnaster,
Slad.; Rosaster, Per.; Stephanaster, Ayres. S U B - F A M I L Y 2. G O N I O D I S C I N A E .
Pentagonasteridae with flat, stellate, abactinal plates. Genera—Goniodiscus,
FIG. IX.
Abactinal view of Hippasterias phrygiana.
Mull. & Trosch.; Leptogonaster, Slad. (included by Perrier in Archasteridae);

Stellaster, Gray ; Ogmaster, v. Martens. S U B - F A M I L Y 3. M I M A S T E R I N A E .
Pentagonasteridae with small, stellate, paxilliferous abactinal plates.
The plates of the actinal intermediate areas imbricate over one another.
Genus—Mimaster, Slad. Hoplaster, Per., is included by Sladen in the
Pentagonasteridae, but Perrier places it with Goniodon, Gnathaster, and
Asterodon, in a special sub-family of Archasteridae.
F A M I L Y 9. A X T H E X E I D A E , Per. Phanerozonia with opposite ambu-
lacral ossicles and massive marginal plates. Abactinal skeleton stellato-
reticulate ; the actinal intermediate plates bear large valvate pedicellariae.
Genera—Anthenea, Gray; Goniaster, Ag. (em. Per.); Hippasterias, Gray
(Fig. IX.).
F A M I L Y 10. P E N T A C E R O T I D A E . Phanerozonia with opposite ambu-
lacral ossicles and irregular marginal plates; the upper series are often
covered. The abactinal skeleton is reticulate, and the plates bear large
tubercles. There are no valvate pedicellariae on the actinal interradial
areas. Genera—Amphiaster, Verr.; Asterodiscus, Gray ; Choriaster, Liitken ;
Culcita, Ag. (Fig. VI.) ; Nidorellia, Gray ; Paulia, Gray ; Pentaceropsis,
Slad. ; Pentaceros, Schulze (Oreaster, Mull. & Tr.) ; Sphaeraster, Quenst. ;
Sphaerites, Quenst.
F A M I L Y 11. G Y M X A S T E R I I D A E . Phanerozonia with opposite ambu-
lacral ossicles and unequally developed marginal plates. Abactinal
skeleton tessellate, but its plates are irregular and only partially in
contact. The actinal interradial areas contain large plates. The whole
test covered with membrane. Genera—Asteropsis, Mull. & Tr.; Derm-
asterias, Per. ; Gymnasteria, Gray ; Lasiaster, Slad.; Marginaster, Per. ;
Porania, Gray ; Poraniomorpha, Dan. & Kor.; Rhegaster, Slad. ; Tylaster,
Dan. & Kor.
F A M I L Y 12. A S T E R I N I D A E . Phanerozonia with opposite ambulacral
ossicles, and with small, inconspicuous marginal plates, the axes of which
are convergent. Intermediate plates imbricate; those on the abac-
tinal side lamelliform. Pedicellaria absent. S U B - F A M I L Y 1. G A N E R I I X A E ,
with large marginal plates. Genera—Cycethra, Bell; Ganeria, Gray;
Lebrunaster, Per.; Radiaster, Per. S U B - F A M I L Y 2. A S T E R I N I D A E , in which
the marginal plates do not exceed the remaining plates in size. Dermal
branchiae arise from any part of the abactinal surface. Genera—Asterina,
Nardo, which has often been described as a typical Asteroid, and its embry-
ology carefully studied; Disasterina, Per.; Nepanthia, Gray ; Patiria, Gray.
S U B - F A M I L Y 3. P A L M I P E D I N A E , with dermal branchiae confined to the
radial regions. Genera—Palmipes, Ag.; Stegmaster, Slad. Tremaster,
Verr., is also assigned to this family.
ORDER 2. Cryptozonia, Sladen.

Asteroidea with the marginal plates small and inconspicuous or
absent; when present the upper and lower rows do not touch. Dermal
branchiae not limited to the abactinal surface. Ambulacral plates are
generally crowded and narrow. Either the ambulacral or adambulacral
plates are the more prominent in the oral skeleton.
This order is characterised by three main characters: (1) The
insignificance of the marginal plates, whence the name Cryptozonia;
(2) the occurrence of papulae or dermal branchiae beyond the abactinal
surface, whence the order is described as " adetopneusic" ; and (3) the
crowding and narrowness of the ambulacral plates, whence the order is
said to be " leptostroterate." The last character is not developed in some
Palaeozoic genera that appear to belong to this order.
F A M I L Y 1. P A L A E O C O M I D A E . Cryptozonia with alternate ambulacral
ossicles and numerous long free actino-lateral spines. There is a web
supported by a reticular calcareous skeleton. The adambulacral plates
are large, and the spines are borne on the plates adjoining them.
Genus—Palaeocoma, Salter. Bdellacoma, Salter, is placed by its author
as a sub-genus of Palaeocoma; its affinities are doubtful, but are certainly
not with this family.
F A M I L Y 2. L E P I D A S T E R I D A E . Cryptozonia with alternately arranged

ambulacral ossicles. Disc large ; rays comparatively short, thick, and
blunt. N o lateral spines. The abactinal skeleton consists of closely set,
irregular, granular plates. Genus—Lepidaster, Forbes (Fig. X.).
F A M I L Y 3. T R O P I D A S T E R I D A E . Cryptozonia with ambulacral ossicles
opposite or sub-alternate. Rays short, broad, and flat. Ambulacral
ossicles narrow; adambulacral ossicles broad and thin.
Abactinal surface granular. Genera—Tropidaster,
Forbes; (1) Compsaster, Worthen & Miller. The name
of the type genus was suggested from the apparent
occurrence of a keel along the abactinal side of the
rays. This, however, is only due to the ambulacral
plates being exposed by the loss of part of the
granular abactinal integument. Compsaster has a FIG. x.
narrow ambulacral groove, and is bordered by Lepuiastergrayi, Forbes.
imbricating actinal plates; its general characters Wenioek Limestone.
resemble Tropidaster, but it is insufficiently known for its affinities to
be definitely settled.
F A M I L Y 4. LINCKJIDAE. Cryptozonia with opposite ambulacral
ossicles, comparatively well-developed marginal plates. Disc small, with
long cylindrical rays. Abactinal skeleton tessellate with granular integu-
mentary deposits. S U B - F A M I L Y 1. R O E M E R A S T E R I N A E , with spines on
the marginal plates and disconnected granular plates arranged in longi-
tudinal series on the abactinal surface and sides of the arms. Genus —
Roemeraster, Stiirtz. S U B - F A M I L Y 2. L I N C K I I N A E , with abactinal plates
devoid of internal supplementary plates. Abactinal and marginal plates
granulose and not bearing spines. Genera—Ferdina, Gray; Fromia, Gray ;
Leiaster, Peters ; Linckia, Gray; Naixissia, Gray; Nardoa, Gray ; Ophidi-
aster, Ag.; Pharia, Gray; Phataria, Gray; (?) Arthraster, Forbes. S U B -
F A M I L Y 3. C H A E T A S T E R I N A E , with internal supplementary plates and
paxilliform tabulae. Genus—Chaetaster, Mull. & Tr. In this genus
there are remarkable groups of spines borne on the ends of disc-like
pillars, rising from the external plates; these are known as paxilliform
tabulae. S U B - F A M I L Y 4. M E T R O D I R I N A E , with the marginal and abactinal
plates covered by membrane. There are neither internal supplementary
plates nor paxilliform tabulae. Genus—Metrodira, Gray.
F A M I L Y 5. S T I C H A S T E R I D A E . Cryptozonia with opposite ambulacral
ossicles and contingent marginal plates. Disc small ; rays long and
cylindrical. The plates of the abactinal surface are large, closely packed,
and regularly arranged. S U B - F A M I L Y 1. S T I C H A S T E R I X A E . The adambu-
lacral plates are equal, have a simple armature, and have no ridges.
Genera—Calycaster, Per.; Coelasterias, Verr.; Neomorphaster, Slad.; Stich-
aster, Mull. & Tr. ; Tarsaster, Slad. ; Tonia, Gray. S U B - F A M I L Y 2.
Z O R O A S T E R I N A E . The adambulacral plates are unequal, and their armature
is complex ; alternate plates have ridges. Genera—Cnemidiaster, Slad.;
Mammaster, Per. ; Pholidaster. Slad.; Prognaster, Per. ; Zoroaster, Wyv.
Thorns.
F A M I L Y 6. S O L A S T E R I D A E . Cryptozonia with opposite ambulacral
ossicles, and a reticulate, abactinal skeleton bearing paxilliform groups of
spines. Marginal plates obscure. N o pedicellariae. Genera—Crossaster,

Mull. & Tr.; Ctenaster, Per.; Lophaster, Verr.; Rhipidaster, Slad.; Solaster,
Forbes (Fig. X L ) .
F A M I L Y 7. K O R E T H R A S T E R I D A E , Dan. & Kor. Characters—" Crypto-
zonia allied to the Asterinidae, but distinguished by the complete absence
of interbrachial spaces, and by the possession of a continuous, calcareous
plating, and the formation of the paxillae" (Bell, 4, p. 23). Genera—
Korethraster, Wyv. Thorns. ; Peribolaster, Slad. ; Remaster, Per.
F A M I L Y 8. P T E R A S T E R T D A E . " Cryptozonia in which the dorsal ossicles
carry a spine crowned by long diverging spines which support a more
or less well-developed membrane; this forms a marsupial recess for the
Fio. X L
Abactinal surface of Solaster papposus.
young. No actinal intermediate plates, interbrachial septa, or pedicel-

lariae " (Bell, 4, p. 23). In this family the most remarkable feature is the
development of a large marsupium in which the young are reared. This
is formed by a large veil above the abactinal surface, from which it is
raised by numerous long paxillae. The dorsal membrane is perforated by
many small pores (" spiracula," Sars), and has a large central opening the
" oscular orifice." In some genera, e.g. Pteraster, there are also openings to
the actinal surface, known as "segmental apertures." There are often
long spines, attached to the rays close by the adambulacral plates ; these
are known as the actino-lateral spines, and they are either enclosed'in the
membrane of the actinal surface or in a marginal web. S U B - F A M I L Y 1
C H E I R O P T A S T E R I N A E , with alternate ambulacral ossicles and short actino-
lateral spines. (The presence of the marsupium is not certain.) Form
pentagonal. Genera—Cheiroptaster, Stiirtz; Loriolaster, Stiirtz; (1) Rho-

palocoma, Salter. S O B - F A M I L Y 2. P T E R A S T E R I X A E , with a well-developed
supra-dorsal membrane, opposite ambulacral plates, and actino-lateral
spines. F o r m pentagonal. Genera—Benthaster, Slad.; Calyptaster, Slad.;
Cryptaster, Per. ; Flexaster, Per. ; Hymenaster, W y v . Thorns. (Fig. XII.);
Marsipaster, Slad. ; Myxaster, Per.; Steraster, Mull. & Tr. ; Retaster, Per.
S U B - F A M I L Y 3. P Y T H O N A S T E R I N A E , with stellate form, opposite ambulacral
ossicles, and rudimentary marsupium formed by five triangular fan-like
valves; no segmental apertures or actino-lateral spines. G e n u s — M a y r -
rtster, Per.; Pytlwnaster, Slad.
F A M I L Y 9. P A L A S T E R I S C I D A E . Cryptozonia with the ambulacral
ossicles alternate for at least part of the arms. T h e madreporite is
Fro. XII.
Hymenaster pellvcidus (after Wyv. Thomson).
large and ventral in position. Actino-lateral spines are present. T h e

dorsal integument is granular. T h e form is stellate writh small inter-
brachial areas. Genera—Palasteriscus, Stiirtz; Echinasterella, Stiirtz.
This family is remarkable for the abnormal position of the madreporite,
which, unlike that of recent Asteroids, is ventral in position. This char-
acter is possibly due to the development of a granular integument over
the whole of the abactinal surface. Large spine-like paxillae occur, and
it is quite possible that the granular integument was the roof of a large
marsupium. There can be no question as to the position of the madre-
porite, for the actinal and abactinal surfaces of the same specimen are
shown in examples in the British M u s e u m .
F A M I L Y 10. E C H I N A S T E R I D A E . Cryptozonia with a reticulate abac-
tinal skeleton of small imbricating plates. Ambulacra] ossicles opposite ;
the pores biserial; oral armament adambulacral. Interbrachial septa
17
single if present. S U B - F A M I L Y 1. A C A X T H A S T E R I X A E , with large disc and

numerous rays; numerous madreporites. Genus — Acanthaster, Uerv.
S U B - F A M I L Y 2. M I T H R O D I I N A E , with a small disc, usuallyfiverays. One
madreporite ; no interbrachial septa Armed with large scaly spines.
Genus—Mithrodia, Gray. S U B - F A M I L Y 3. E C H I N A S T E R I N A E , with a small
disc and five or six rays. Spines small and simple. N o pedicellariae.
Genera—Dictyaster, Mason & Alcock ; Echinaster, Mull. & Tr.; Henricia,
Gray (syn. Cribrella, Ag.); Perknaster, Slad.; Plectaster, Slad. S U B - F A M I L Y 4.
V A L V A S T E R I N A E , with the marginal plates bearing large valvate pedi-
cellariae. The disc is moderate in size, and there arefiverays. G e n u s —
Valvaster, Per.
F A M I L Y 11. H E L I A S T E R I D A E . Cryptozonia with opposite ambulacral
ossicles and double interbrachial septa. The disc is large and bears
very numerous short rays. S U B - F A M I L Y 1. H E L I A N T H A S T E R I N A E . The
abactinal skeleton is granular in the disc and bases of the arms ; at the
arm tips it is tessellate, but the plates not in contact. Arms separate
at their bases, so that the two sets of plates which form the interbrachial
septa are separated by parts of the disc. Infero-marginal plates occur
round the disc. Madreporite marginal. Genus—Helianthaster, F. Roem.
This includes two Devonian species, of which only one is adequately
known, and is of somewhat uncertain affinities. It was originally
regarded as an Asteroid, but Stiirtz, in his latest description of its
anatomy, referred it to the Euryalidae. Sturtz's specimens, now in the
British Museum, show nothing to separate them from the Asteroidea, of
which however they are very abnormal representatives. The ambulacral
plates are thin and L-shaped, but not crowded as in Heliaster, while the
abactinal skeleton is different. The species appears, however, to be a
primitive form of the Heliasteridae, in which the arms do not occupy the
whole margin of the disc, and are separated from one another through-
out; the ambulacral plates are not crowded, so that the podia are
biserial. S U B - F A M I L Y 2. H E L I A S T E R I X A E , with reticulate, abactinal
skeleton and arms in contact with one another at their bases, there being
no interbrachial spaces. The ambulacral ossicles are crowded and the
pores quadriserial. Genus—Heliaster, Gray.
F A M I L Y 12. P E D I C E L L A S T E R I D A E . Cryptozonia w a n opposite ambu-
lacral ossicles, a small disc and narrow sub-cylindrical rays. Podia
biserial. The abactinal skeleton consists of narrow plates forming a
quadrangular network. Genera — Coronaster, Per. ; Gastraster, Per. ;
Lytaster, Per. ; Pedicellaster, Sars.
F A M I L Y 13. ASTERIIDAE. Cryptozonia with opposite ambulacral
ossicles. Podia quadriserial. Abactinal skeleton reticular and composed
of small unequal plates. Genera (including sub-genera of Asterias)—
Anasterias, Per.; Asterias, Linn.; Calvasterias, Per.; Coscinasterias Verr. •
Cosmasterias, Slad. ; Diplasterias, Per. ; Hydrasterias, Slad.; Leptasterias
Verr. j Podasterias, Per. ; Polyasterias, Per. ; Pycnopodia, Stimps. ; Scler-
asterias, Per. ; Smilasterias, Slad. ; Sporasterias, Per. ; Uniophora Grav
The anatomy of Asterias is described on pp. 241-245.
F A M I L Y 14. BRISIXGIDAE. Cryptozonia with opposite ambulacral
ossicles ; marginal plates absent or rudimentary. Rays numerous and
sharply marked off from the disc. Abactinal skeleton absent, or present
only on the ovarial regions at the bases of the arms. N o intermediate
actinal plates or interbrachial septa. Genera—Brisinga, Asbjornsen; (?)
Brisingaster, Lor.; Colpaster, Slad.; Freyella, Slad.; (?) Gymnobrisinga, Stud.;
(?) Hymenodiscus, Per.; Labidiaster, Liitken ; Medusaster, Stiirtz ; Odinia,
Per. This remarkable family was originally founded for the genus Brisinga,
which has m a n y primitive characters. T h e arms are small and sharply
marked off from the disc. There are no ampullae connected to the podia;
the generative organs consist of a series of small isolated glands along the
arms. T h e genus was accordingly atfirstregarded as very primitive in
structure and affording in some ways a link with the Ophiuroids. Later
authors, however, such as Ludwig and Sladen, entirely repel this view
and regard the Brisingidae as allied to the Asteriidae, and extremely
specialised rather than primitive. Sladen concludes, " In m y opinion
the Brisingidae are true cryptozonate Asterids, very nearly related to the
Asteriidae, Pedicellasteridae, Heliasteridae, and Echinasteridae, and prob-
ably derived from a c o m m o n ancestor, the divergence of form and the
peculiarities of structure n o w exhibited by Brisinga being the result of
modification produced by the extreme isolation and the exigencies of
the abyssal depths in which the family has existed" (48, p. 593). B u t
in Colpaster and Freyella the genital glands are limited to swellings
at the base of the arms ; and although the arms are sharply marked
off from the disc, at least six-sevenths of the a r m has no extensions of
either alimentary canal or generative organs. T h e arm-ossicles of Freyella
tuberculata are identical in character with those of Ophiurina, and they
differ from Ophiogeron only by the absence of adambulacral ossicles.
Sladen gives no diagnosis of the class Asteroidea, so that it is not
quite clear on what characters he would base the separation of Asteroids
and Ophiuroids. But no k n o w n diagnosis of the Asteroidea would
include Colpaster and Freyella, and exclude forms universally admitted to
be Ophiuroids. If the more primitive types of Brisingidae are a recent
degenerate offshoot from the Asteriidae or some allied family, then a type
of structure, practically indistinguishable from that of the Ophiuroidea,
has been twice independently evolved. It seems therefore that Perrier is
probably correct w h e n he regards the Brisingidae as the most primitive
instead of as the most special of living Asteroids.
T h e following fossil Asteroids are not sufficiently k n o w n for determina-
tion : —
Calliaster, Trautschold; Coelaster, Sandb. -non Agass.; Cribrellites, Tate;
Cupulaster, Fritsch ; Plumaster, Wright; Triclwtaster, Wright.
SUB-CLASS 2. OPHIUROIDEA.
The Ophiuroidea form a sub-class of the Stelleroidea, including

the sand-stars, brittle stars, and branching stars. The typical
members of the class differ from the typical Asteroids by having
the arms sharply marked off from the disc as appendages, and by
not having a groove along the ventral side of the arms. These
26o THE STELLEROIDEA
differences are so important, anatomically, that the Ophiuroidea

and Asteroidea are often regarded as distinct classes. Owing to
the general external resemblance between the two groups, the first
naturalists who described them made no attempt to separate them.
Thus Linck, who in 1733 (23) figured several Ophiuroids,
included most of them, along with some Asteroids, in his genus
Stella. The common British species, Ophiura ciliaris, Linn, sp., he
named Stella lacertosa, and Ophioderma longicauda he described as
Stella lumbricalis longicauda. He, however, recognised that his group
" Stella " must be broken up into several divisions, for he separ-
ated Ophiothrix fragilis, O. F. Miiller sp., under the name of Bosnia,
and the branching forms under the name of Astrophyton. Linnaeus,
on the other hand, did not grant the Ophiuroids even generic
distinction, and included them all in the genus Asterias. It
was not until 1816 that Lamarck (21) definitely founded the
genera Ophiura and Enryale. D e Blainville in 1834, L. Agassiz in
1836, Dujardin in 1840, and Miiller and Troschel in 1844, added
greatly to the systematic knowledge of the Ophiuroids, which they
retained in the order Stellerida. Thefirstproposal to separate
the group as one of the primary divisions of the Echinoderms was
made by Forbes in 1840 (11); he founded the order " Spinigrada "
for the Ophiuroids, while the Asteroids he named the " Cirrigrada."
Gray, in 1840 and 1848, kept the two groups as separate orders,
but united them in one class, Hypostoma. Since this date the
view that the Ophiuroids are a distinct class has been widely
adopted.
The sub-class includes over one hundred genera, most of which
are recent. The earliest fossil forms occur in the Ordovician, and
representatives are known from all later systems.
The recent species have been described by many authors,
especially by Bell, Dtiben, Forbes, Grieg, Grube, Heller, de Loriol
le Fort, Ljungman, Liitken, Lyman, Marenzeller, v. Martens,
Mortensen, J. Miiller, W Peters, G. 0. Sars, Sladen, Stimpson,
Studer, and Verrill. Lyman's report on the Cliallcnger Collection
is a complete synopsis up to 1882 (31).
The fossil Ophiuroids are rare, and, as a rule, badly preserved.
The literature consists mainly of the description of isolated
specimens, as by E. Billings, Bohm, Forbes, S. A. Miller, Pohlig,
C. F. Roemer, H. Woodward, Worthen, and Wright. Stiirtz and
Roemer have described the remarkable fauna from Bundenbach in
Germany, and Salter that from the English Silurian. References
to the American Palaeozoic species are given in Miller's North
American Geology and Paleontology.
The first classifications of the Ophiuroids were artificial • the
basis of a natural arrangement was laid by Ljungman in 1867
(24). Previous to that date the group had been divided into
w
two families—the Ophiuridae, including the forms with simple

arms, and the Astrophytidae, the members of which have branched
arms. Raised to sub-orders and divided into families, these two
divisions have long survived. In 1892 Bell (3) proposed a classi-
fication into three orders, to which a fourth has been added to
include some fossil forms (Gregory, 15).
The first important contributions to the anatomy of the
Ophiuroids were an account of the structure of the Euryaleae by
L. Agassiz, and of the skeleton of various genera by Miiller
(1854). Further researches have been carried out by Cuenot (1888)
and H a m a n n (1889). The two authors, however, to w h o m we are
most indebted are Lyman, who, in a long series of papers, has
described the skeletal structures, and Ludwig, whose masterly
FIG. XIIL
Ophiopholis aculeata, abactinal surface.
memoirs gave thefirstdetailed account of the visceral anatomy.

Genera of exceptional interest have been described by Bell,
Ludwig, Simroth, and Sladen, to w h o m we owe memoirs
respectively, on Ophioteresis, Trichaster, Ophiactis, and Ash-ophiura.
The development wasfirststudied by Miiller and Krohn (1851);
Ludwig in several memoirs, and Apostolides (1882), Russo (1891),
Cuenot (1892), and Bury, have studied additional forme with modern
methods; while MacBride, in 1896, has shaken, if not destroyed,
faith in the theory of the homology of the "calycinal" plates
(p. 14) as taught by Loven, Carpenter, and Sladen.
The body of an Ophiuroid, like that of an Asteroid, consists of

a central disc, from which radiate several (generallyfive)arms (Fig.
XIIL). The disc, however, is not formed, as it is in Asteroids, by
the union of the bases of the arms, but is sharply marked off
from them, and they are attached to it as appendages; there
is not, moreover, in the Ophiuroids the ventral groove of the star-
fish. These characters, however, are not absolutely to be relied
o n ; thus in some species of Astroschema there is no sharp separa-
tion between the arms and the disc; while in Ophioteresis (Fig.
XIV.) the radial ambulacral vessels and nerve-trunks lie in shallow
grooves on the ventral surface of the arms.
A n idea of the Structure of a typical Ophiuroid m a y probably
be best obtained by the careful examination of a representative
species, for which purpose the commonest English brittle star
(Ophiura ciliaris, Linn, sp.) is a convenient type.
This Ophiuroid consists of a round, flat, scale-covered disc, from
which radiate five long, tapering arms. T h e A r m s are composed
of a series of jointed segments, each containing six plates. T w o
of these are fused together into a single " vertebral ossicle," and
Fi... XIV.
Ophioteresis (after Bell). Aboral surface of an ami ossic e ; d, the double dorsal ami-plates ;
o, articular cavities ; I, lateral ami-plates.
a series of these forms the axis of the arm. The remaining four
plates form an external tube round the vertebral ossicle. O n e
pair occurs at the sides, and is k n o w n as the lateral arm-plates or
shields. Another of the four plates lies above the vertebral
ossicle, and is accordingly k n o w n as the dorsal arm-plate (or
dorsal shield); the fourth lies on the lower surface of the arm,
and is accordingly k n o w n as the ventral arm-plate (or ventral
shield). Each lateral arm-plate bears seven short spines.
The plates forming the central chain of the a r m are k n o w n
as " vertebral ossicles," because, in typical Ophiuroids such as
Ophiura ciliarjs, they articulate by a series of knobs and sockets
like the bones of a vertebral column. In a typical vertebral
ossicle the two articular surfaces are very different; in the proximal
or adoral surface (that nearer to the disc) the most conspicuous
features are the prominent central u m b o (Fig. X V . u) and two broad
"lower muscle fields" (Fig. X V l.m) at the two lower angles.
Above the u m b o there is a narrow " upper canal furrow " (u.f), while
a corresponding " lower canal furrow " (If) occurs between tie two
muscle fields. Above the lower furrow there is a depression to

receive a prominence on the distal face of the adjoining ossicle, and
on each side of the depression there is a small knob, which similarly
fits into depressions on the adjacent ossicle. O n the distal or
aboral surface there is a deep " umbonal socket" (n.s), and also
the prominence and two hollows already referred to; the two
it. s.
Vm. XV.
Vertebral ossicle of Ophiura ciliaris (after Miiller). 1, aboral surface; 'I, adoral surface.
u, u m b o ; l.m, lower muscle field; u.f, upper, and l.f, lower canal furrows; u.s, umbonal
socket; c, canal for the podion (shown by removal of part of muscle field on right side).
lower angles are occupied by broad expanded surfaces, under

which pass the tubes of the podia (the surface on one side in figure
is broken away to show7 the canal for the podion, c).
Passing from the arms to the Disc, the skeleton is seen to
consist of two sets of plates, one belonging to the external integu-
ment, and the other to the oral system.
The Oral Skeleton is complex. It m a y be most readily con-
ceived as resulting from the fusion of the elements of two segments
in each of the arms. T h e entire oral
skeleton surrounds the mouth, and con-
sists of as m a n y segments as there are rn.f,} _ f\ Hm.f.
arms. Each segment is roughly triangu-
lar in shape, the apex pointing inwards,
and being separated by the deep " buccal
n.g.
fissures." T h e principal element in each
segment is a pair of " syngnaths " (Fig. j-
XVI.), also k n o w n as oral angle-plates, Fio. X V I .
jaWS, mouth-plates, SCUtella Oralia, etc. ; Syngnaths of Ophiura ciliaris
.-, ,1 • j r .1 (after Miiller). j, jaw; m.f, mouth
the n a m e syngnath IS Suggested for them, frame; n.g, groove for circum-
as they consist of two parts generally a T d t e X o " »
completely fused together. T h e larger
piece of the syngnath is the mouth frame (m.f), which unites with
the corresponding plate of the next segment across the buccal
fissure. The smaller piece is the jaw, which unites with the jaw
of the next arm to form the angle of the oral segment. Each jaw
has a depression, in which rest the oral tube-feet, and is notched by
a groove for the circumoral nerve ring.
The union of two adjoining jaws is strengthened by a small
plate at the apex, k n o w n as the " jaw plate " or torus angularis.
This plate supports the teeth, of which, in Ophiura ciliaris, there are
five in each segment. A series of similar processes occur along
the side of the jaw, projecting into the buccal fissure ; these are
the oral papillae (mouth papillae or buccal papillae), of which, in
Ophiura ciliaris, there are ten or more in each series.
T h e angle between the two jaws of one segment is occupied by
a shield-shaped plate, k n o w n as the " buccal shield" (oral plate,
mouth-shield, or scutum buccale). These plates are interradial in
position; the smaller plates corresponding to them, but radial in
position, are the first ventral arm-plates. Between the mouth-
frames and the buccal shields are five pairs of long, bar-shaped
" peristomial plates," Avhich cross the interradial spaces from arm
to a r m ; they cannot be seen from without, as they are covered
by the shields, and by two plates beside the latter, k n o w n as the
lateral buccal shields (or scuta adoralia).
T h e oral skeleton of the Ophiuroid is therefore very different
from that of the Asteroid. B u t both are formed by the modification
of similar parts, viz. the ambulacral and adambulacral ossicles of
the arm segments. In the Ophiuroid the supposed homologies of
the principal parts are as follows : —
Vertebral (=ambulacr.il Lateral arm-plates
ossicles). (=adambulacral ossicles).
1st arm segment peristomial plates jaws
2nd „ mouth-frames lateral buccal shields.
The remaining elements in the skeleton of Ophiura belong to

the exoskeleton. O n the upper or aboral side of the disc there are
five pairs of large and somewhat pyriform plates k n o w n as " radial
shields " (Fig. XXIII. r.s). Between them are a few smaller plates,
and the rest of the disc of 0. ciliaris is covered with small,
irregular, imbricating scales.
O n the lower surface of the disc there are two pairs of long,
thin plates beside the bases of the arms. A narrow cleft the
" bursal slit" (known also as the bursal aperture, genital slit
genital cleft, and ovarian aperture), separates these plates. This
slit leads into the bursal cavity, into which the generative products
are discharged from the gonads. Of the two bar-like plates
bounding the bursal slit, the larger is the " genital plate," and the
smaller is the "genital scale."
The Alimentary Canal of the Ophiuroids is simpler than in
either Asteroids or Echinoids. The mouth is situated in the centre

of the lower surface of the disc, and from it the buccal fissures
radiate. T h e mouth opens to a short oesophagus, above which
is a large digestive sac, occupying nearly the whole cavity of the
disc. Neither anus nor diverticula along the arms are present.
T h e Water-vascular System consists essentially of a circum-
oesophageal ring which gives rise tofiveradial vessels bearing tube-
feet, andfivevesicles, one of which communicates with the exterior.
In Ophiura ciliaris the circumoesophageal ring lies over the syn-
gnaths, through which pass branches (Fig. X V I I . o.v) leading to
Fio. XVII.
Diagram of circumoral region of Ophiura ciliaris (after Miiller). c.ce.n, circumoesophageal
nerve ring; c.ce.v, circumoesophageal water-vascular ring; e.n, nerve branch to integu-
ment ; i.v.m, intervertebral muscles ; i.v.n, intervertebral nerve; j, jaw; j.p, jaw plate;
o.n, oral nerve; o.p, oral papillae; <>./, oral tentacle; o.v, branch of water vessel to oral
tentacle; p.n, podial nerve; p.v, Polian vesicle; r.n, radial nerve; t, teeth; t.g, tentacular
groove; t.n, tentacular nerve ; v.o, vertebral ossicles.
the mouth-tentacles (o.t); radial vessels run along the under sides
of the arms. In each of four of the interradial (or interbrachial)
spaces there is a "polian vesicle" (p.v); in thefifthinterradius there
is a short expanded stone-canal (Fig. XVIII. s.c) which opens to the
exterior by a single madreporite on a buccal shield. T h e radial
vessels lie in the lower canal furrows of the vertebral ossicles (Fig.
X V . If); branches from the radial vessel pass through the vertebral
ossicles; they emerge at the lower angle of the ossicle, and the
podia pass to the exterior through a space between the shields.
There are no ampullae, but the flow of water is regulated by
valves. There are no suckers, so the podia are useless in loco-

motion.
The Nervous System of Ophiura ciliaris consists of a circum-
oesophageal ring, from which radiate five radial nerve trunks (Fig.
X V I L c.ce.n and r.n); it also gives
off small branches to the oral ten-
tacles, teeth, and oral muscles. The
radial nerve trunks consist of two
separate nerve bands, one above the
other, both lying in the " epineural
r.v.
canal" (Fig. X X I . e.r.n and i.r.n).
The two nerve bands are not con-
nected, though situated very close
QKJP-V to one another. Both radial nerve
trunks thicken into ganglion-like
swellings, of which there is one in
each arm segment. F r o m th e ganglia
of the upper or internal nerve band,
branches are given off to the muscles
between the vertebral ossicles.
FIG. XVIII. F r o m each ganglion of the lower
Water-vascular ring of Ophiura ciliaris. or external nerve trunk, two pairs
n.b, branch to oral tentacles ; c.o.v, circum-
of nerves are given off; one pair
oesophageal vessel; m , madreporite; p.r,
polian vesicle; r.v, radial water vessel; supplies the tentacles, and the other
KC, stone canal. the integument and spines.
T h e last element in the Ophiuroid nerve system consists of a
"genital nerve ring," which lies along the "aboral circular sinus."
Respiration in the Ophiuroids is effected only by the walls of
the bursae, and by the podia.
T h e Reproductive Organs consist of a series of small pear-
shaped gonads (Fig. X I X . g) which do not open directly to the
exterior, but into the bursae, where, in some cases, the development
takes place. In Ophiura there are more than forty gonads to each
bursa.
The Coelomic Sinus. There appears to be no true blood-
vascular system in the Ophiuroids; the vessels which have been
described as such are connected with the axial sinus, and are there-
fore coelomic spaces and not vessels (MacBride, 32, and Russo).
The axial sinus (Fig. X X . x.s) is the most important; it is the space
through which runs the stone-canal, and it contains a gland in con-
tact with the stone-canal, which is k n o w n as the " ovoid gland " or
"axial organ " (x.o), (see p. 23). F r o m the upper end of the axial
canal runs the "aboral circular sinus." T h e course of this sinus
is very sinuous : above the arms it is aboral in position, but
beside the arms it bends downwards until, in the interradii it
is quite ventral in position. T h e main sinus passes on the inter-
radial side of the bursae, and sends off a branch along the radial
side of each bursa. The parts of the sinus beside the bursae bear
the gonads.
Fio. XIX.
Gonads (g) and bursae (6) of Ophioglypha albida. (After Ludwig.)
A r m Structure. A s w e have seen, there are no prolonga-

tions of the digestive or reproductive organs in the arms,
while branches of the nervous and water-vascular systems run
along the ventral side between
the vertebral ossicles and the
ventral arm-shields. It follows
therefore that the vertebral
ossicles are directly supra-
ambulacral, and are homologous
with the ambulacral ossicles,
and not with the supra-ambu-
lacral ossicles of such Asteroids
as Astropecten. A transverse
x.s.
section across an Ophiuroid arm Fio. X X .
is S h o w n in F i g . X X I . (cf. p . 1 5 ) .
Diagrammatic section through oral region of
Ophiuroid (after MacBride). amp, ampulla ; b,
_ ,. bursa; i.m, interradial muscle of the disc ; g.s,
F r o m S U C h a t y p e as Ophiura genital sinus ; g.r, genital rhachis ; m, mouth ;
•j. . •.-> •. mnn+h flat m,P' madreporic pore; n.r, circumoesophageal
CUiariS, W l t n Its s m o o t n , nar, n e r v e r i n g; pmS< peristomal sinus; st.c, stone
circular disc, its irregular, scaly îg^^'^-™^***'' *"°'
plates, its comparatively short,
straight, unbranched, and regularly tapering arms, there are m a n y
striking deviations, both in aspect and structure.
The Exoskeleton m a y be either more or less complete than in
Ophiura. The most important addition to the plates found in that

genus is formed by the plates of the so-called "apical system."
In some species, such as Ophiomusivm validum, there is a central plate
FIG. XXI.
Diagrammatic section through arm of Ophiuroid. br.c, dorsal branch of brachial coelomic
system; d.s, dorsal arm-plate; e.r.n, external radial nerve; i.r.n, internal radial nerve; l.s,
lateral arm-plate; pd, podion ; pd.n, podial nerve ; r.e.c, radial epineural canal, and r.p.c, radial
pseudhaemal canal, together forming ventral branch of the brachial coelomic system ; r.v, radial
vessel; v.o, vertebral ossicle ; v.s, ventral arm-plate.
surrounded by three circlets, each of five plates; these were once

regarded as homologous with plates in Asteroids and Crinoids, and
therefore named the infra-basals, basals, and radials. In some
species, such as Ophiomitra exigxta, the two circlets of radially situated
plates are absent, and only the
central and basal plates are
present. In Ophiocrene and
Ophiura convexa, L y m . sp., there
are only the central plate and
the radials; in Ophiura minuia,
L y m . sp., there are the central,
radial, and basal plates. T h e
last possible combination occurs
in a species of Pectinura (Fig.
XXII.), in which the two circles
of plates round the central have
been described as the radials
and infra-basals. In some other
forms, such as Ophioceramis ob-
stricta, L y m . (Fig. XXIII.), there
FIG. XXII. is a remarkable uniformity in the
Dorsal plates of Pectinura, sp. (After Bell.) plates on the dorsal aspect, but
these are not arranged on the
calicular plan. In some other cases, such as Ophiura inornata, L a m
sp. (Fig. X X I V . ) , there are two "infra-basal" plates side by side
below each radial. T h e genus in which these supposed calycinal

plates most resemble a Crinoid cup is the genus Ophiopyrgus
FIG. XXIII.
Abactinal plates of Uphioccrauiti ohsteirta, Lyin. (after Lyman), e, central plate; r.s, radial
shields ; d.a.p and l.a.p, dorsal and lateral arm-plates.
(Fig. XXV.), in which the dorsal side is raised into a conical

projection.
The irregularity of these " calycinal plates " both in develop-
Fic. xxiv.
Abactinal plates of disc of Ophiura inornata (Lam.), c, central, r.s, radial shields.
ment and arrangement discredits their supposed homology with

the three circlets of plates in the calyx of a Crinoid. It is only
natural that a m o n g the m a n y variations in the grouping of the
dorsal plates of Ophiuroids, that one or more pentamerous rings

should be more conspicuous than the rest.
In the previous cases the dorsal plates of the disc are more pro-
minent than in Ophiura. In some other Ophiuroids, however, these
plates are less important.
Thus the radial shields m a y
be buried beneath the in-
tegument, or m a y be absent
altogether, as in Neoplax ;
the remaining plates m a y
also be reduced to scales
or small granules embedded
in a soft integument, as in
the Gorgonocephalidae.
Variations in the A r m
structure offer important
indications as to the affinity
between Ophiuroids and As-
teroids. T h e differences be-
tween such types as Ophiura
FIG. X X V .
and Asterias are very great;
Ophinpyrgus, seen from the side (after Lyman).
c, central, &, basal, r, radial plates. but many intermediate
stages occur between these
extremes; and in the case of some extinct genera it is doubtful
to which sub-class they belong.
The vertebral ossicles of some existing deep-sea Ophiuroids, such
as Ophiogeron (Fig. X X V I . ) or Ophiohelus (Fig. XXVII.), consist of
two separate bars similar to the ambulacral ossicles of Asteroids. T h e
same arrangement holds in some fossil species, such as Lapworthura
Miltoni. A further approximation to the a r m struc-
ture of Asteroids occurs in some genera from which
the ventral arm-plates are absent. T h e radial water-
vascular vessels then lie along open grooves, as in the
Asteroids. This condition is found a m o n g recent l.a.p
Ophiuroids in the genus Ophioteresis, and a m o n g fossil
members of the class in the extinct Lysophiurae.
In such cases it is generally easy to recognise that FIG. XXVI.
the lateral arm-plates are homologous with the adam- Ami-plates of
Ophiogeron supi-
bulacral plates of Asteroids, a point also well shown by nus (magnified).
the living Ophioteresis (Fig. XIV.) a, ambulacral
T h e lateral arm-plates, though often smaller than plate; l.a.p, lat-
eral arm-plates;
the ventral or dorsal arm-plates, are morphologically s, spine.
the most important. They are always present, except w h e n the
arm is covered by a soft or granular integument, as in the
Cladophiurae and some genera of Streptophiurae.
T h e dorsal arm-plates vary more than either of the other sets.
They are double in Ophioteresis and Ophiomyxapentagona, are split u p

into several pieces in Astroschema (Fig. XXVIII.), and into a mosaic
of small plates in Hemieuryale ; or they are absent altogether from
m a n y genera, such as Neoplax, Ophiobyrsa, Protaster, Lapworthura.
d.a.p.
FIG. XXVII.
Arm-plates of Ophiohelus umbrella, l.a.p, lateral arm-plates; d.a.p, dorsal arm-plates ;
a, ambulacral plate; s, spines.
Another character by which the recent Asteroids and Ophiuroids

differ is the alternation of the ambulacral ossicles in the former,
whereas in the latter the pairs are opposite. T h e Palaeozoic
genera, however, also bridge this gap, as
in the order Lysophiurae the ambulacral
ossicles are alternate as in the Asteroids.
This is shown in the arm structure of
Palaeophiura.
While Protaster and its allies on the
one hand approximate to the Asteroids,
another group of Ophiuroids has arms which
appear more like those of Crinoids. In FIG. XXVIII.
Ophiura the arms are fairly straight and The external arm-plates of a
only capable of a limited m o v e m e n t in a segment of Astroschema (after
horizontal plane, for the vertebral ossicles Lyman). v.o, ventral arm-
plates; v.a.p, lateralarm-plates;
are " zygospondyline," i.e. are attached tothe remaining six plates re-
one another by a series of knobs, closely present the dorsal arm-plates.
fitting into sockets (e.g. Fig. X V . ) In the group of the Strepto-
phiurae m u c h more play of the arms is possible, as the ossicles are
" streptospondyline," i.e. articulate by simple ball-and-socket joints,
without lateral pits and processes (Fig. XIV.); while in the Clado-
phiurae the ossicles articulate by hour-glass shaped surfaces (Fig.
XXIX.), and the four external shields are replaced by a soft,
granular integument; in this group the arms are therefore capable
of movement in any direction, the arms frequently being able to
coil round any support, as in Astroschema. A further change is
*w% Fi<;. X X I X .
Articular surfaces of vertebral ossicles of Axtroxrliema.
introduced by the branching of the arms; this occurs in two

groups of the Cladophiurae, viz. in the Trichasteridae, in which
the arms branch a few times at their free ends, and in the Gorgono-
cephahdae, in which the arms branch repeatedly (Fig. XXXII.).
The Oral Skeleton of most Ophiuroids is on the same plan as
that of Ophiura; the details however differ considerably. The
nature of the parts is shown very clearly in some Palaeozoic
genera, such as Sturtzura. The apparatus here consists of a
syngnath, apparently composed of the plates of only a single arm
segment; one of the plates of the central
vertebral pair is elongated to a bar, and forms
the mouth-frame, which is therefore clearly
ambulacral. The jaw plate attached to this
r. m. mouth-frame is the adambulacral plate of the
same segment, while the teeth upon this are
homologous with spines.
In many recent Ophiuroids there is an
element in the armature in addition to those
of Ophiura ; this is the set of " dental papillae "
which are situated at the oral ends of the jaws
and project toward the mouth above the
teeth.
Fio. X X X . In Ophiura and its allies there are no
Fedicellaria of Tri- Pedicellariae, but a very primitive type of
chaster elegans. h, hook ;
s, stem; o.m, r.m, occlusorthem occurs in the Cladophiurae, as in Tri-
and retractor muscles. chaster (Fig. X X X . ) .
(After Ludwig.)
Turning to the internal anatomy we find rh*>
most important changes in connection with the WaêT-vascular
System. In many genera of the Cladophiurae there is m JhT
madeprome, of which there may be Ine in eacn m C a d i ^ Z
Trichaster the stone-canals are thus repeated, but there is only one
madreporite. A repetition of the stone-canals also occurs in
Ophiactis, in which the value of this character is apparent, for the
animal reproduces by fission; in the same genus there are also
several Polian vesicles in each interbrachial space. In development
the water-pore of recent Ophiuroids originally opens on the dorsal
surface (Bury, 6, pp. 422, 423, pi. xxxvii. f. 2), and then works round
to the ventral side, where it becomes attached to an oral plate.
The Alimentary System remains very simple in all the Ophiuroids,
consisting simply of a large chamber, divided into a series of short,
blunt, sac-like protuberances by radial constrictions of the walls.
Respiration in the Ophiuroids is generally effected by the
genital bursae and the podia; but w h e n the bursae are absent,
their place m a y be taken by an extra series of Polian vesicles, as
in Ophiactis ; or the general body-cavity m a y be used both for the
protection of the ova and for respiration, as in Gorgonocephalus.
Reproduction.—The genital bursae in some Ophiuroids also act
as brood chambers; the eggs pass through all stages of development
in them, and such Ophiuroids are therefore viviparous; Amphiura
squamata and Ophiomyxa vivipara are examples of this condition.
Asexual reproduction occasionally occurs in Ophiuroids either
normally byfission,as in Ophiactis, or abnormally by regeneration
of lost parts w h e n the disc of an Ophiuroid is cut into halves.
Broken arms are readily replaced, but a broken a r m cannot
reproduce a complete animal as can be done in the Asteroids
(Semon and Ludwig).
T he Development of the Ophiuroids agrees in the early stages
with that of the Asteroids, but the larval form is a Pluteus (p. 6)
and not a Bipinnaria (p. 5). It, therefore, in this stage offers a
greater resemblance to the larvae of the Echinoids than of the
Asteroids. There is no doubt, however, that this larval form is
a secondary development and does not represent any stage in
phylogeny of the group; it therefore does not indicate any
affinity with the Echinoids.
Distribution.—The Ophiuroids range from shallow and estuarine
waters to abyssal depths. Their distribution in space is wide,
species such as Ophiocten sericeum occurring at 80° N . latitude ; but
the largest forms are tropical. T h e order was first represented by
species of Protaster from Ordovician rocks. Representatives of the
Lysophiurae and Streptophiurae occur in the Silurian, Devonian,
and Carboniferous strata; Zygophiurae begin in the Trias; and
Cladophiurae in the Jurassic.
O n the characters discussed in the preceding pages m a y be based the
following Diagnosis of the Sub-Olass: 1 —The Ophiuroidea are " eleuther-
ozoic," " actinogonidial," and " lysactinic," Echinoderma which usually
1
Emended from Bell (4), p. 215. The terms are explained antea, p. 237.
18
have no ambulacral groove. T h e arms are generally 6harply marked off

from the disc, are generally five in number, and are sometimes elaborately
branched. T h e digestive system, which is aproctous, and the generative
system are both confined to the disc ; so also is the special respiratory
apparatus which takes the form of deep clefts.
This diagnosis at once indicates that the Ophiuroids are more nearly
allied to the Asteroids than to other Echinoderms, for both classes are
actinogonidial, eleutherozoic, and lysactinic. Moreover, neither of the
main characters which separate the two classes hold in all cases; for in
Ophioteresis and Protaster there is a ventral groove, and in some species of
Astroschema the arms pass gradually into the disc. Similarly the
Asteroids of the family Astropectinidae have no anus; and the Ophiuroids,
Gorgonocephalus and Ophiactis, have no genital bursae.
ORDER 1. Lysophiurae, Gregory (1897).

Ophiuroidea in which the ambulacral ossicles are alternate, and are
not united into vertebral ossicles, but those of each segment are separate.
There are no ventral arm-plates, and the ventral side of the arm is
occupied by an ambulacral furrow.
This order includes a group of fossil Ophiuroids, in which the arm
structure is asteroid in plan, for there are no ventral arm-plates; there is
an ambulacral groove ; and the ambulacral plates are in alternate pairs.
The members of the order differ from the Asteroids by having the arms
sharply marked off from the disc, and the alimentary canal was doubtless
confined entirely to the disc.
F A M I L Y 1. P R O T A S T E R I D A E . Lysophiurae with boot-shaped ambulacral
ossicles, each composed of a " body " in the median line of the arm, and a
lateral " w i n g " at right angles to it. Genera—Protaster, Forbes, and
Bundenbachia, Stiirtz. There is a well-marked scale-covered disc and
fiveflexiblearms. T h e axial portion or " b o d y " of each ambulacral
ossicle is marked off into two parts by a depression which probably served
for the attachment of powerful ventral muscles. Stout adambulacral
plates occur in all the members of the family, and support lateral spines.
F A M I L Y 2. P A L A E O P H I D R I D A E . Lysophiurae in which the ambulacral
ossicles consist of a bar-shaped or subqnadrate " b o d y " without wino-s.
Genera—Sturtzura, Greg.; Eugaster, Hall; Ptilvnaster, Hall; Taeniura,
Greg.; all Silurian ; and the Devonian Palaeophiura, Stiirtz. This family
is characterised by its alternate rod-shaped ambulacral ossicles, shown in
Palaeophiura lymani, Stiirtz.
ORDER 2. Streptophiurae, Bell (1892).

Ophiuroidea in which the ambulacral ossicles are opposite, and generally
united to form vertebral ossicles. In such cases the vertebral ossicles
articulate with one another by means of a more or less simple ball-and-
socket joint. T h e covering plates are more or less regularly developed as
superior, inferior, and two lateral, the last of which bear spines.
The diagnosis of this order is necessarily vague, as it includes

a series of simple forms, among which there are great divergences in
structure. One living genus included in this order has no ventral
arm-plates, but a small ambulacral furrow, and thus agrees with the
Palaeozoic genera, for which Stiirtz in 1885 proposed the family Ophio-
encrinasteriae. The main character of the order is the simple articulation
of the arm ossicles. The ambulacral plates are always opposite instead of
being alternate, as in the Lysophiurae. In some of the most primitive
genera the two ambulacral ossicles in an arm segment are separate, as in
Ophiurina, or incompletely joined, as in Ophiohelus. In the Lapworth-
uridae they arefirmlyunited, and in the recent genera Ophiomyces and
its allies they are specialised into definite ambulacral ossicles, with a
simple ball-and-socket articulation.
F A M I L Y 1. O P H I U R I N I D A E . Streptophiurae without ventral arm-plates
and with separate ambulacral ossicles. Genera—Ophiurina, Stiirtz,
Devonian. Tremataster, Worthen & Miller.
F A M I L Y 2. L A P W O R T H O R I D A E . Strepto- .am
phiurae without ventral arm-plates or buccal
shields. Ambulacral ossicles fused, but their
articulating surfaces are plain. Genera—Lap-
worthura, Greg., Silurian, W . of England ; Fur-
caster, Stiirtz; Palastropecten, Stiirtz. The oral
armament is typically Ophiuroid. The struc-
ture in the genus Furcaster is shown in Fig.
X X X I . ; mouth-frames, small jaws, jaw plate,
and teeth are all present.
F A M I L Y 3. E O L U I D I D A E . Streptophiurae
with ambulacral ossifies united to form verte-
bral ossicles. Ventral arm-plates present,
but there are neither buccal shields nor
dorsal arm-plates. Genera—Eoluidia, Stiirtz ;
Eospondylus, Greg. ; Miospondylus, Greg.; Furcaster palaeozoicus, Stiirtz,
Aganaster, Miller & Gurley (syn. Ophiopege, showing skeletal elements of the
B o h m ) ; Cholaster, Worthen & Miller. arms and oral armament, ad,
F A M I L Y 4. O N Y C H A S T E R I D A E . Strepto- adambulacral ossicles bearing
spines ; am, ambulacral ossicles ;
phiurae with well-developed vertebral ossicles, 3> jaw; j.p, jaw plate;TO./,mouth-
and veryflexible,unbranched arms. There frame ; t, teeth. (After Stiirtz.)
are no external arm-plates, the integument only containing granules.
Genus—Onychaster, Carboniferous, Illinois, has previously been included
among the Euryalid group, but its ambulacral ossicles (as shown by Meek
and Worthen's laterfigures,Geol. Surv. Illinois, vol. v., 1873, pL xvi.
fig. 3d) are Streptospondyline.
F A M I L Y 5. E D C L A D I I D A E . Streptophiurae with contorted branching
arms. Five pairs of large plates round the centre of the side exposed in
the fossil have been regarded either as jaws or as radial shields. Madre-
porite on same side as the plates. Arms have no external arm-plates but
a granular integument. The type-species, Eucladia Johnsoni, was care-
fully figured and described by H. Woodward in 1869. Owing to its
flexible, branched arms, and soft integument, it has generally been
regarded as an ally of Euryale, but some authors have urged its removal
to the Asteroidea, ascribing a dorsal position to the madreporite. It is
no doubt in external appearance more like the Cladophiurae than the
Streptophiurae, but the external resemblance to Euryale is probably due
to homoplastic modifications.
F A M I L Y 6. T H E LIVING S T R E P T O P H I U R A E . N O attempt has yet been
made to arrange the living Streptophiurae into families, and this cannot be
done with advantage without further knowledge about several points. Some
of the most remarkable genera are known only by single specimens,
which are very small and probably immature. Ophiohelus and Ophiotholia
present a certain resemblance to the Lysophiurae in the structure of the
ambulacral ossicles. Ophiogeron, with its long, rod-shaped, ambulacral
ossicles lying in opposite pairs, is much like Ophiurina, but the evidence
available at present is insufficient to justify its inclusion in the Ophiuri-
nidae. Hence it is advisable at present to leave the living Streptophiurae
arranged according to Bell's scheme (3). W h e n the classification is
attempted, probably Ophioteresis will form one family, and Ophiosciasma
another; Hemieuryale, Sigsbeia, Ophiochondrus, and Ophiomyces m a y con-
stitute a third.
A. N o under arm-plates—Ophioteresis, Bell.
B. Under arm-plates imperfect—'-Ophiosciasma, Lym.
C. Under arm-plates moderate or well developed.
a. N o upper arm-plates—I. N o radial shield —Neoplax; Ophiohelus,
Lym.; Ophiotholia, Lym. (?). II. Radial shields present—
Ophioscolex, Mull. & Trosch.; Ophiambix, Lym. ; Ophiogeron,
Lym..; Ophiobyrsa, Lym. ; Ophiomyxa (pars), Midi. & Trosch.
/?. Upper arm-plates minute or formed of scattered plates—Ophio-
myxa (pars), Mull. & Trosch.; Ophiomyces, Lym.; Ophiochondrus,
Lym. ; Hemieuryale, Martens ; Sigsbeia, Lym.
O R D E R 3. Cladophiurae, Bell (1892).
Ophiuroidea in which the vertebral ossicles articulate with one another

by means of hour-glass-shaped surfaces (Fig. XXXIII.), and are covered
by granular deposits in the thick integument. The arms m a y be simpie
or branched repeatedly.
FAMILY 1. ASTRONYCIDAE. Cladophiurae with simple unbranched

arms. G R O U P 1. With large disc—Astrotoma, Lym.; Astromyx, Mull.
& Trosch.; Astrochele, Verr. G R O U P 2. Disc of medium size—Astrogomphus,
Lym.; Astroporpa, Oersted & Liitken. G R O U P 3. Disc small—Ophiocreas,
Lym. ; Astroschema, Oerst. & Liitk. ; Astroceras, Lym. F A M I L Y 2.
TRICHASTERIDAE. Cladophiurae with arms branching a few times near
their free ends. Genera, recent— Trichaster, L. Ag.; Astroclon, L y m •
Astrocmda, Lym. Fossil—Astrocnida, Lym. F A M I L Y 3. G O R Q O N O C E P H A -
LIDAE. Cladophiurae with arms branching much and from their base.
Euryale, Lam.; Gorgonocephalus, Lym.; Astrophyton, Ag. (Fig. X X X I I ) '
Ophiocrene, Bell. "'
O R D E R 4. Zygophiurae, Bell (1892).
Ophiuroidea in which the movement of the ossicles on one another is

limited by the development of lateral processes and pits. Superior,
Fio. X X X I I .
Astrophyton Lincki. Abactinal surface. (From Wyv. Thomson.)
inferior, and lateral spine-bearing arm-plates are always present. The

arms are simple and cannot coil round straight rods.
F A M I L Y 1. O P H I O D E R M A T I D A E . Zygophiurae with oral papillae
numerous, and none infra-dental. A r m incisures on the disc. Dental
papillae absent. GeneraÔphioderma, Mull. & Trosch.; Ophiopeza, Peters ;
Ophiarachna, Mull. & Trosch.; Ophiocoeta, Liitk.; Ophioconis, Liitk.; Ophio-
plax, Lym. ; Ophiogona, Stud. ; (?) Ophiopyrgus, Lym. ; Ophiopyren, Lym.
FAMILY 2. O P H I O L E P I D I D A E . Zygophiurae with oral papillae from

three to six, of which the last may be infra-dental. A r m incisures on the
disc. Dental papillae absent. Genera—Ophiolepis, Mull. & Trosch. ;
Ophiocten, Liitk. ; Ophiura, L. Ag. ; Ophioglypha, Lym. ; Ophioceramis,
Lym. ; (?) Ophiochiton, Lym.; Ophiopaepale, Lym. ; Ophiozona, Lym. ;
Ophioplinthus, Dan. ; Ophiernus, Lym. ; Amphiglypha, Pohl. ; Geocoma,
d'Orb.
F A M I L Y 3. A M P H I U R I D A E . Zygophiurae with oral papillae from one
tofive,of which the last is generally infra-dental. Arms inserted on
ventral side of disc. Dental papillae absent. Genera—Amphiura, Forbes;
Ophiocnida, Lym. ; Ophiomusium, Lym. ; Ophiopeltis, Daniels. & Kor.;
Ophiocentrus, Ljung.; Amphilepis, Ljung. ; Ophiolepis, Lym.; Ophiomartus,
Fio. X X X I I I .
Abactinal view of Hcmipholis cordifera, L y m . c, central plate; r, plates of radial circlet.
Lym. ; Ophiophyllum, Lym. ; Ophiotrochus, Lym. ; Hemipholis, Lym. (Fig.

XXXIII.); Ophiactis, Liitk. ; Ophiopus, Ljung. ; Ophiopholis, Liitk. (Fig.
XIIL); Ophiacantha, Mull. & Trosch.; Ophiotrema, Koehl; Pectinura, Heller
(non Forbes); Ophioplocus, Lym. ; Ophionereis, Liitk. ; Amphipholis, Ljung. ;
Ophiophragonus, Lym.; Ophiostigma, Liitk.; Ophioblenna, Liitk.; Ophio-
cymbium, Lym.; Ophiochytra, Lym.; Ophiolebes, Lym.; Ophiomitra, Lym.;
Ophiocamax, Lym. ; Ophiothamnus, Lym.; Acroura, Ag.; Aspidura As '
Hemiglypha, Pohl. ; Polypholis, Dune. ' '
F A M I L Y 4. O P H I O C O M I D A E . Zygophiurae with both oral and dental
papillae. Genera— Ophiocoma, L. Ag. ; Ophiomastix, Mull. & Trosch •
Ophiarthrum, Pet. ; Ophiopsila, Forbes ; Ophiopteris, E. A. Smith
F A M I L Y 5. O P H I O T H R I C I D A E . Zygophiurae with dental papillae but
no oral papillae. Genera—OpMbtoriz, Mull. & Trosch.; Ophiocneinis Mull
& Trosch.; Ophiogymna, Ljung.; Ophionema, Liitk.; Ophionephthys Liitk ;
Ctyfciomasa, Lym.; Ophwthela, Verr.; O^wpsammtwm, L v m • OWiL,/«™'
Ludw. ; (?) Ophiurella, Ag. '' ^"î"*™".
THE LITERATURE OF STELLEROIDEA.

I. Agassiz, A. 1877. (North American Starfishes.) Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool.-
Harvard, vol. v. No. 1, v. and 136 pp., xx. pis.
2. Apostolides, JV. C. 1882. (Anatomie et developpement des Ophiures.)
Arch. Zool. Exper., ser. 1, torn. x. pp. 121-224, pis. vii.-xii.
3. Bell, F. J. 1892. (A Contribution to the Classification of Ophiuroids, &c.)
Proc. Zool. Soc. for 1892, pp. 175-183, pis. xi., xii.
4. 1892. Catalogue of the British Echinoderms in the British Museum
(Natural History), 8vo, xvii. and 202 pp., xvi. pis. London.
5. Billings, E. 1858. (On the Asteriadae of the Lower Silurian Rocks of
Canada.). Canad. Org. Rem., dec. iii. pp. 75-85, pis. viii.-x.
6. Bury, H. 1889. (Studies in the Embryology of the Echinoderms.) Quart.
Journ. Micro. Sci., N.S. vol. xxix. pp. 409-449, pis. xxxvii.-xxxix.
7. Carpenter, P. H. 1882. (Notes on Echinoderm Morphology. No. V. O n
the Homologies of the Apical System, with some Remarks upon the
Blood-Vessels.) Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., N.S. vol. xxii. pp. 371-386.
8. Citfnot, L. 1887. (Contribution a l'etude anatomique des Asterides.) Arch.
Zool. Exper., ser. 2, vol. v. bis. suppl., 144 pp., ix. pis.
9. 1888. (Etudes anatomiques et morphologiques sur es Ophiures.)
Arch. Zool. Exper., ser. 2, vol. vi. pp. 33-82, pis. iii.-v.
10. Danielssen, D. C, and Koren, J. 1884. The Norwegian North Atlantic
Expedition, 1876-78. Zoology, Asteroidea, 119 pp., xv. pis.
11. Forbes, E. 1840-41. A History of British Starfishes, and Other Animals
of the Class Echinodermata, 8vo, xx. and 270 pp. London.
12. 1849-50-56. Figures and Descriptions of British Organic Remains.
Decades i., iii., v.
13. Gaudry, A. 1852. (Memoire sur les pieces solides des Stellerides.) Ann.
Sci. Nat. Zool., ser. 3, vol. xvi. pp. 339-379.
14. Gray, J. E. 1866. Synopsis of the Species of Starfish in the British
Museum, 8vo. London.
15. Gregory, J. W. (The Classification of the Palaeozoic Echinoderms of the
Group Ophiuroidea.) Proc. Zool. Soc. for 1896, pp. 1028-1044.
16. Hall, James. 1867. (Note upon the Genus Palseaster and Other Fossil
Starfishes.) Reg. Rep. State Cab. Nat. Hist. N.Y., No. xx. pp. 282-303,
pi. ix.
17. Hamann, O. 1885-89. Beitrage zur Histologic der Echinodermen. Heft
2. Die Asteriden, & c , 8vo, Jena. Heft 4. (Anat. und Histol. der
Ophiuren und Crinoiden), Jena. Zeitschr., vol. xxiii. pp. 233-388, pis.
xii. -xxiii.
18. Heller, Camill. 1858. (Ueber neue fossileStelleriden.) Sitz.-ber. math.-nat.
CI. Akad. Wiss. Wien, vol. xxviii. pp. 155-170, pis. i.-v.
19. Hoffmann, C. K. 1874. (Zur Anatomie der Asteriden.) Niederl. Arch.
Zool., vol. ii. pp. 1-32, pi. i.-ii.
20. Koehler, R. 1887. (Recherches sur l'appareil circUlatoire des Ophiures.)
Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool., ser. 7, vol. ii. pp. 101-158, pis. vii.-ix.
21. Lamarck, J. B. P. A. de M. 1816. Histoire naturelle des Animaux sans
Vertebres, vol. ii., 8vo. Paris.
22. Lange, W. 1876. (Beitrage zur Anatomie und Histiologie der Asterien
und Ophiuren.) Morph. Jahrb., vol. ii. pp. 241-286, pis. xv.-xvii.
23. Linck, J. H. 1733. D e Stellis, Marinis etc. Fob, xxiv. and 107 pp.,
xlii. pis. Lipsiae.
24. Ljungman, A. 1866. (Ophiuroidea viventia hue usque cognita.) Ofvers.
Svensk. Vet. Akad. Forhandl., 1866, No. 9, pp. 303-336.
25. Ludwig, H. 1877-82. Morphologische Studien an Echinodermen, 8vo.
Leipzig. Reprinted from Zeitschr. Wiss. Zool. vol. xxx. pp. 99-162,
pis. v.-viii.; vol. xxxi. pp. 59-67, pi. v.; pp. 216-234, pi. xv.; pp. 346-
400, pis. xxiv.-xxviii.; vol. xxxii. pp. 672-688 ; vol. xxxiv. pp. 333-366
pis. xiv.-xvi. ; vol. xxxvi. pp. 181-200, pis. x., xi.; vol. xxxvii. pp. 1-98
pis. i.-viii.
26. 1888. (Ophiopteron elegans, eine neue, wahrscheinlich schwimmende
Ophiuridenform.) Zeit. Wiss. Zool. vol. xlvii. pp. 459-464, pi. xxxv.
27. Liitken, C. F. 1858 - 59. Additamenta ad historiam Ophiuridarum,
Videnskab. Selsk. Skrifter (5), Naturvid. og Math. Afd. vol. v. pp. 1-74,
pis. i., ii.; pp. 177-272, pis. i.-v.
28. Lyman, Th. 1865. (Ophiuridae and Astrophytidae.) 111. Cat. Mus.
Comp. Zool. Harvard, No. 1, viii. 200 pp., ii. pis.
29. 1871. (Supplement to the Ophiuridae and Astrophytidae.) 111. Cat.
Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, No. 6, 18 pp., ii. pis.
30. 1874. (Ophiuridae and Astrophytae, new and old.) Bull. Mus. Comp.
Zool. Harvard, vol. iii. No. 10, pp. 221-272, vii. pis.
31. (Report on the Ophiuroidea dredged by H.M.S. Challenger during
the years 1873-76.) Rep. Chall. Zool. vol. v. 1882, 4°, pp. 387. 48 pis.
32. MacBride, E. TV. 1892. (The development of the genital organs, ovoid
gland, axial and aboral sinuses in Amphiura squamata, together with
some remarks on Ludwig's haemal system in this Ophiurid.) Quart.
Journ. Micr. Sci., N.S., vol. xxxiv. pp. 129-153, pis. xvi.-xviii.
33. 1896. (The Development of Asterina gibbosa.) Quart. Journ. Micr.
Sci., N.S., vol. xxxviii. pp. 339-411, pis. xviii.-xxix.
34. Miiller, Joh. 1854. (Uber den Bau der Echinodermen.) Phys. Abb..
Akad. Wiss. Berlin, Jahrg. 1853, pp. 123-219, pis. i.-ix.
35. <£• Troschel, F. H. 1840. (Uber die Gattungen der Asterien, und
der Ophiuren.) Arch. f. Naturg., Jahrg. 6, Bd. i. pp. 138-328,
367-368.
36 1842. System der Asteriden. 4to, pp. xx. and 135, xii. pis. Braun-
schweig.
37 Perrier, J. O. E. 1875-76. (Revision de la collection de Stellerides.)
Arch. Zool. Exper., vols. iv. and v.
38. 1894. Expeditious Scientifiques du Travailleur et du Talisman
pendant les annees 1880, 1881, 1882, 1883. Echinodermes, pt. 1. 40, p p .
iv. and 431, xxvi. pis.
39. 1891. Mission Scientifique du Cap Horn, 1882-83, torn. vi. Zoologie
Echinodermes, I., Stellerides. 4to, Paris, 198 pp., xiii. pis.
40- 1891. (Stellerides nouveaux provenant des Campagnes du yacht
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Rend. Acad. Paris, vol. ex. pp. 1343-46. '
42. Salter, J. W. 1857. (On some new Palaeozoic Starfishes.) A n n M a c Nat
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Brisinga, etc. 4to, 111 pp., vii. pis. Christiania.
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Theile. 4to, vi. and 58 pp., ii. pis. Warschau und Dresden.
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Abt. 1, pp. 77-122, iv. pis.
46. Simroth, H. 1876-77. (Anatomie und Schizogonie der Ophiactis virens.)
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pp. 419-526, pis. xxii.-xxv.
47. Sladen, W. P. 1879. (On the Structure of Astrophiura, a new and Aberrant
Genus of Echinoderms.) Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, vol. iv. pp. 401-
415, pi. xx.
48. 1889. (Report on the Asteroidea collected by H.M.S. Challenger
during the years 1873-76.) Rep. Chall. Zool., vol. xxx. 893 pp., cxvii. pis.
49. Stiirtz, B. 1886. (Beitrag zur Kenntniss palaeozoischer Seesterne.)
Palaeontographica, vol. xxxii. pp. 75-98, pis. viii.-xiv.
50. 1890. (Neuer Beitrag zur Kenntniss palaeozoischer Seesterne.)
Palaeontographica, vol. xxxvi. pp. 203-247, pis. xxvi.-xxxi.
51. 1893. (Ueber versteinerte und lebende Seesterne.) Verb. Naturh.
Ver. Preuss. Rheinl., vol. 1. pp. 1-92, pi. i.
52. Viguier, C. 1879. (Anatomie comparee du Squelette des Stellerides.)
Arch. Zool. Exper., vol. vii. 1878, pp. 33-250, pis. v.-xvi.
53. Woodward, H. 1869. (On Eucladia, a new genus of Ophiuridae.) Geol.
Mag., N.S., vol. vi. pp. 241-245, pi. viii.
54. Wright, Th. British Fossil Echinodermata of the Oolitic Formations.
Vol. ii. The Asteroidea and Ophiuroidea. Palaeontogr. Soc. 1863-80.
C H A P T E R XV
THE ECHINOIDEA.1
CLASS III. ECHINOIDEA.

S U B - C L A S S 1. REGULARIA ENDOBRANCHIATA.
Order 1. Bothriocidaroida.
„ 2. Cystocidaroida.
,, 3. Cidaroida.
„ 4. Melonitoida.
„ 5. Plesiocidaroida.
S U B - C L A S S 2. REGULARIA ECTOBRANCHIATA.
Order 1. Diademoida.
Sub-Order 1. Calycina.
„ 2. Arbacina.
,, 3. Diademina.
„ 4. Echinina.
S U B - C L A S S 3. IRREGULARIA.
Order 1. Gnathostomata.
Sub-Order 1. Holectypina.
„ 2. Clypeastrina.
Order 2. Atelostomata.
Sub-Order 1. Asternata.
,, 2. Sternata,
KNOWLEDGE of the Echinoidea or Sea Urchins is more complete
than that of any other of the classes of Echinoderma. The
class is widely distributed at the present day, members of it
living in seas of all parts of the world and at all depths. It is of
great antiquity, and fossil Echinoids occur abundantly in rocks of
all periods since the Devonian, while a few are known from that
system and from the Silurian. Moreover, as the classification *)f
the Echinoids depends either upon the skeleton, or upon structures,
the characters of which can be inferred from those of the skeleton,
the systematic position of a fossil can generally be determined.with
as much accuracy as that of a recent specimen.
1
By J. W . Gregory, D.Sc. MS. closed at end of 1896.
THE ECHINOIDEA 283
The very varied habits of the Echinoids further increase the

value of this class. S o m e sea-urchins burrow into sand, and others
bore into rocks. S o m e seek the shelter of rock-pools or the quiet
of a m u d d y sea-floor below the limit of tidal action. Others
cling to rocks between tide-lines, choosing the positions that are
most exposed to the buffeting of a tropical surf; others again
crawl over, or lie half-buried in, the ooze of abyssal oceanic
depths. S o m e feed on algae; others swallow m u d and live
on the organic matter it contains. Of some the young develop
directly, of others indirectly, the latter undergoing a metamor-
phosis during development. T h e modifications in structure by
which Echinoids are able to adapt themselves to these different
habits are so well marked, that the conditions under which fossil
sea-urchins lived can generally be determined. Hence the group is
of great value to the geologist. Such rich series of Echinoid faunas
are known, that the life-history of the class can be written with
greater completeness than that of any other group of Echinoderms,
and as completely as that of any class in the animal kingdom.
Little, however, is certainly k n o w n as to the relations of the
Echinoidea to other Echinoderms. T h e group is so compact and
well marked, that the distinction between it and the other classes
was k n o w n to Aristotle, and has never been in doubt. Moreover,
the class has been as well defined as it n o w is since Silurian times.
The recognition of the sea-urchins as a distinct group of Echino-
derms is, therefore, as old as zoology. A sketch of the history of
work upon the Echinoids need only consider the determination of
the main points in their anatomy, life-history, and classification.
The earliest account of the natural history of the sea-urchins
is in Aristotle's History of Animals, wherein the c o m m o n edible
species of the Mediterranean (Echinus esculentus) is described
with considerable accuracy. Aristotle called this animal Echinus
(Exivos), the Greek for hedgehog, a term subsequently given to the
best k n o w n genus, and used as the root of the n a m e for the class.
In the same book three other types of sea-urchins are mentioned,
viz. Brissus, Spatangus, and Echinometra; and these names are
still used in Echinoid nomenclature. Aristotle's account shows
that he had studied both the habits and anatomy of the animals;
thus he k n e w that Echinus could walk upon the tip of its spines,
had five teeth, five unpaired ovaries, a pharynx, and stomach. In
mediaeval times Echinoids were described by Rondelet (1554) and
Aldrovandus (1606 and 1648); but it was not till the beginning
of the eighteenth century that any observations of scientific value
were published. The first important post-classical contributions
to the subject were the works of Breynius (1732) and Klein
(1734). The former in his De Echinis et Echinitis, and the
latter in his Naturalis Dispositio Echinodermatum, figured and
284 THE ECHINOIDEA
described many genera and species of Echinoids; but, as their

names were not binominal, they are not accepted. Lmaltieri in
1742, and Seba in 1758, used the names and methods of their
predecessors, and described additional species. In the latter year
Linnaeus adopted the binominal system of nomenclature in the
tenth edition of his Systema Naturae, but in other respects his
treatment of the Echinoids was retrograde. H e accepted sixteen
species; but although among these there were such different types
as Echinus esculentus, Cidaris, Echinometra, Colobocentrotus, Arachnoides,
Clypeaster, etc., he included them all within a single genus. H e
thus threw back the study of Echinoids for twenty years. It was
not till 1778 that Leske (48) reintroduced the sound system of
work adopted by Breynius and Klein, which had been discarded by
Linnaeus. Leske's edition of Klein, with his own " Additamenta,"
therefore forms the real starting-point of systematic Echinology.
N o important advance from this was made until the publication
of Lamarck's Histoire Naturelle des Animaux sans Vertebres in 1816.
From this date progress was rapid;l the principal contribu-
tions being made by Cray (1825), de Blainville (1830), Desmoulins
(1837), L. Agassiz (1836, 1840, 1841, 1842), and Desor (1842).
In 1846 and 1847 the last two authors published a complete
synopsis of knowledge up to that date in their Catalogue BaisonnS
des Echinides. Since then the literature of the Echinoidea has
been voluminous. The existing species have been described by
Liitken, Diiben and Koren, Lov^n, Leuckart, Peters, Grube,
Doderlein, Thomson, Bell, and especially by A. Agassiz. Our
knowledge of Palaeozoic Echinoids is mainly due to M'Coy, C. F.
Romer, J. Miiller, Desor, Meek, Worthen, Hall, Neumayr, Duncan,
Keeping, and Jackson; of the Mesozoic faunas to d'Orbigny,
Cotteau, Wright, de Loriol le Fort, Clark, Schultze, Lambert,
Gras, Forbes, S. P. Woodward, etc.; of the Cainozoic to Dames,
Laube, Cotteau, de Loriol, Forbes, Bittner, Gauthier, Peron,
Pomel, Duncan, Sladen, Hutton, Sismonda, Michelin, Grateloup.
Dujardin and Hupe (21) in 1862 attempted a synopsis of
the whole of the Echinoidea. Desor's Synopsis des Echinides
Fossiles (1854-58) is the last reliable summary of the fossil species,
as is Agassiz's Bevision of the Echini of the recent. Revisions of the
genera were arranged by Pomel in 1883 and Duncan in 1890 (24).
The morphology of the Echinoidea wasfirstseriously studied by
L. Agassiz and Valentin, whose account in 1842 (5) of the skeleton
and visceral anatomy was based mainly on Strongylocentrotus lividus,
Lam. sp. The circulation had been previously described by Tiede-
mann (1815) and Delle Chiaje (1825), and the nerves by Krohn
1
Reference to part of the literature is given ou pp. 328-332 ; a bibliography up to
1872 is given by A. Agassiz (1), pp. 1-9. Some of the general works are included in
the lists for Stelleroidea (p. 279) and for Echinoderina generally (p. 35).
THE ECHINOIDEA 285
(1841). The next important advance was made by the memoirs of

Joh. Miiller (1850-57) who gave a full account of Cidaris. Among
later general contributions to anatomy may be mentioned those of
Teuscher (1876), Koehler (1883), Prouho (1887), Fredericq (1876),
Perrier (1869 and 1875), Hamann (1889), and the last part
of A. Agassiz's Bevision. Special types have been described in
separate memoirs, such as Cidaris and its internal branchiae, by
Stewart (1880); Spatangus, by Hoffmann (1871); Asthenosoma,
by P. and F. Sarasin (1888); Phormosoma, by Bell (1889);
Dorocidaris, by Prouho (1888); Pourtalesia, by Loven (1883).
Knowledge of the anatomy of the skeleton is due to many
students, but especially to the masterly series of memoirs by
Loven. The structure of the spines has been described and their
taxonomic value shown by Mackintosh (63) and A. Agassiz (1, 2 ) ;
the fascioles were first used in classification by Lutken. The pedi-
cellariae werefirstdescribed by 0. F. Miiller, who regarded them
as parasites, a view disproved by Delle Chiaje; L. Agassiz con-
sidered them to be young Echini, which was shown to be erroneous
by Valentin's detailed figures. A n attempt to use pedicellariae as
a basis for classification was made by Perrier (1869-70); their
function has been the subject of a long controversy.
The study of the embryology of Echinoidea was begun by Derbes
in 1847, and by Miiller in a series of memoirs (1848-55); it was
continued by Krohn (1849-57), A. Agassiz (1864), Metschnikoff
(1868-69), Bury (1889 and 1895), Theel (1892), MacBride
(1896), and others.
The term Echinoidea, now used as the name of the class, was
applied by Aristotle to animals that resembled Echinus, which has
always been regarded as the most representative genus. Though
in some ways rather complex, it may be conveniently studied as
j, Typical Sea-Urchin, since specimens can be easily obtained.
The Skeleton. If we examine a specimen of the common
British species Echinus esculentus, we first notice that it is
covered all over by short, bluntly pointed spines, which are
coloured violet at the tips. If we pull off the longest spines,
we find between them a number of smaller " secondary " spines
(compare Fig. XXXIII.). After removal of all the spines, the
general character of the main shell can be seen. It is com-
posed of closelyfittingplates, which together form the rigid
" test" or shell. The shape is rounded in transverse section;
the surface on which the mouth opens is flattened, while the
upper half of the test may be either well rounded or sub-conical.
On the centre of the lower flattened surface there is a large
flexible membranous area covered with loose plates which bear
short spines. This is the " peristome "; the mouth opens in the
centre of this space; its exact position can be determined by
286 THE ECHINOIDEA
the presence of five sharp teeth, which, if not extruded so as to be

seen, can at once be felt. A t the other end of the axis of the
body there is a smaller membranous
o in
area, the " periproct," in the • centre
of which is the anus. T h e periproct
is surrounded by a circle of five plates
o-
(Fig. I.), one of which is larger than
the rest; this large plate bears a
small perforated prominence, called
the " madreporiform tubercle " or
" madreporite " (m). Through the
Fio. I. pores in this plate water passes to
Echinus escnlentus, Linn., apical the series of canals k n o w n as the
system and periproct. m, madre- water-vascular system. Each of the
porite ; g, genital plates ; g.p, geni-other.four plates of this apical circle
tal pore ; o, ocular plates ; an, anal
plates covering the periproct, in the is perforated by one of the pores-
centre of which opens the anus. through which the genital products
escape to the exterior. These five plates are therefore k n o w n as
the " genitals " (g). Alternating with them are five smaller plates
(o), each perforated by a pore, through which passes a process
ending in a sensory eye-spot. These plates are therefore called
the " oculars." The whole ten plates form a group k n o w n as the
" apical system." Between the apical system and the peristome is
the main test. Ten lines of suckers m a y be seen in a fresh
specimen, radiating from the five ocular plates; two lines start
from each ocular, and pass in a straight series round the test to
the edge of the peristome. A s the two series of suckers are
arranged like the rows of trees in an avenue, the area bounded by
Fio. II.
Ambulacral (1) and interam-
bulacral (2) plates of Echinus
escnlentus.fl,«2 are the primary
and secondary tubercles; g,
miliary granules; p, primary
ambulacral plate ; d, epipodium m
with a pore pair; b, boss; m, 2
mamelon.
them has been called an ambulacrum.1 A s there is one ambula-
crum to each ocular, there are five in the complete test, separated
by five broader interambulacra.
Each ambulacrum and interambulacrum consists of a double
row of plates in vertical series running from the apical system to
the peristome. Each interambulacral plate (Fig. II. 2) is irregu-
larly pentagonal in form; the angles are sharp and regular, but
the plate is elongated in a horizontal direction. Each plate bears
a number of " tubercles," of which there are three sizes primary
1
From amhdacrum, an avenue or a walk between trees.
THE ECHINOIDEA 287
(tl), secondary (t2), and miliary (g). T h e primary tubercles are

the largest, and bear the primary spines; each tubercle consists
of a rounded base or " boss " (b), on the centre of which is a small
pimple or " m a m e l o n " (m). Around the base of each primary
tubercle is a smooth, level surface called the " scrobicule," which is
generally surrounded by a circle of granules called the "scro-
bicular circle." Scattered irregularly over the plates are the
smaller secondary tubercles which bear the secondary spines, and
between these are large numbers of smaller elevations k n o w n as
" miliary granules " (g).
T h e function of these tubercles and granules is the support of
Fio. III.
Appendages of Echinus. Transverse
section of spine (magnified).
the appendages known as "spines"

and "pedicellariae." The Spines,
like the tubercles, are of three
sizes — primary, secondary, and Diagram of gemmiform pedicellaria of
tertiary—the structure of each of Echinus acutus (after Hamann). a.m, ad-
ductor muscles; e.m, extensor muscles ;
which is fundam «n tally the same. f.m, flexor muscles ; gl, gland; gl.c,
Each consists of a long shaft, glandular epithelium ; s.o, stem ossicle.
marked by longitudinal flutings; the base of the spine is hollowed
into a cup or condyle, which fits over the mamelon of the tubercle.
Around the condyle is the collar of the spine which projects above
the level of the shaft, and serves for the attachment of the muscles
which fix it to the test. A transverse section of the spine (Fig.
III.) shows that it is m a d e u p of a number of solid wedges, radiating
from a central axis, and separated by bands of porous tissue.1 T h e
smallest spines consist only of tiny needles of porous tissue, and
agree in structure with the spines of the second type of appendage.
T h e pedicellariae (Fig. IV.) consist of two or three beak-like
1
The spine is therefore, according to the terminology of Mackintosh (63), poly-
cylic and acanthosphenote.
288 THE ECHINOIDEA
valves attached to the end of a flexible stem. T h e valves open

and shut like a bird's beak, or like the avicularia of Bryozoa.
They have been seen to seize particles of the excreta of the urchin
and pass them on from one pedicellaria to another, until they fall
over the margin of the test. Their main function, however, appears
to be defensive. W h e n a starfish attacks a sea-urchin, the latter
bends d o w n its spines and thus exposes its pedicellariae; these
seize hold of the tube-feet of the starfish, which their bites appear
to hurt. The pedicellariae, however, are always torn away, as they
cannot relax their hold; and thus, if an urchin is attacked by
a series of starfish, it is in time rendered defenceless (Prouho, 70).
The sphaeridia are also modified spines; they are globular i n ^
form, and lie in pits around the peristome (Fig. V.).
The ambulacral plates (Fig. II. 1) are ornamented by tubercles
and granules like those of the interambulacral plates, though
__^ smaller; but the plates differ
,„-.._ ..—-=^ in structure. T h e interam-
bulacrals are solid, whereas
the ambulacral plates are
pierced by small holes,
through which pass the
suckers or podia of the am-
.. .. * ' •,. • , , t , bulacra. T h e pores occur
Transverse section through peristomial plates of . j i_ • •
CUipeaster showing a globular sphaeridium in its pit. Ill pail'S, a n d each p a i r IS
(After Loven.) surrounded by a raised
ring forming an epipodium. There is one epipodium to each
primary ambulacral plate; but, except at the summit of the am-
bulacrum, the primary plates are united into compound plates,
each of which has as m a n y epipodia as there are primary plates
in it. In one of the plates in the middle of the ambulacral series
there are three pairs of pores, which occur in a curved series or
arc. This arrangement of the pairs is due to the crowding of the
plates during growth; owing to the same cause, the elementary
ambulacral plates no longer always extend right across the half
of the ambulacrum to which they belong, but are cut off from
the median suture by the union of adjoining plates behind them.
Plates thus cut off from the central suture line are k n o w n as
" demi-plates." In an ordinary Echinus esculentus each compound
ambulacral plate (Fig. XII. 4) consists of one central demi-plate
(d) between two primary plates (p).
The principal remaining elements in the skeleton are those of
the five jaws, and of the internal processes, to which the muscles
that work the jaws are attached. The Dental Apparatus (Fig. VI.)
is a conical structure which is placed apex downwards over
the mouth. The axis is hollow and contains the pharynx or
commencement of the oesophagus. T h e dental apparatus consists
THE ECHINOIDEA 289
of twenty pieces. The largest of these are the five pyramids (Fig.
VI. p); they are shaped like the sectors of a cone, being pointed
at one end, having two flat sides, and with a curved outer margin.
Theflatsides are marked by transverse ridges, which serve for the
attachment of the muscles that bind the pyramids to one another.
The pyramids are hollow, and in each of them lies a long, curved,
keeled tooth, the hard point of which projects through a hole
at the pointed lower
end of the pyramid.
Above the suture be-
tween a pair of pyra-
mids rests a short, thick
bar k n o w n as the brace;
above the brace (b) is
a curved bifid process
or " compass " (cp).
R o u n d the inside of
the peristome is a hard
raised rim (Fig. VII.
p.r) which rises into an
arch over each of the
ambulacra. This is the
" perignathic girdle,"
and to it are attached
the muscles which work
the masticatory appara-
tus; one set of muscles Dental apparatus of Echinus cscidcntus, L. A pyramid
attached to the pyramid seen from the side (1), and from behind (2); p, pyramid;
and e, its epiphysis ; t, tooth ; b, brace ; ep, compass.
pulls the jaws apart;
other sets, attached to the braces and compasses, pull them down-
ward and drive the teeth together.
The remaining skeletal structures are small and unimportant,
and consist only of scattered calcareous plates and spicules which
are distributed through the tissues. The principal of these are
the " rosettes " or " pellions " (rings of plates which support the
suckers), and spicules in the stems of the podia.
The internal anatomy of the Echinus m a y be most conveniently
studied by the removal of the upper half of the test. The five
ovaries will then be seen lying in the upper parts of the inter-
radia, and the great coiled intestine occupying most of the
interior. T h e main features in the internal anatomy are shown
in Fig. VII.
The Alimentary Canal begins with a mouth (mt) situated at
the centre of the peristomial membrane (pst); from the mouth the
muscular pharynx (ph) passes upwards through the central tube
of the masticatory apparatus. T h e oesophagus (oe) runs horizon-
19
290 THE ECHINOIDEA
tally from the upper end of the pharynx to the lobed stomach (s),
which is twisted in a spiral twice round the body cavity; it con-
tracts above to the rectum (r), which opens to the exterior by an
anus (a), situated in the centre of the apical system.
The Water-vascular System. Above the top of the dental
apparatus a vessel m a y be seen running round the oesophagus.
This is the circumoesophageal ring of the water-vascular system
(c.ce.v). From it five radial vessels pass downwards outside the
masticatory apparatus to the peristomial membrane; there they
bend upwards, pass beneath the arches of the perignathic girdle
Fio. VII.
Diagrammatic vertical section through Echinus, a, anus; amp, ambulacral plate; ap,
ampulla; b, branchiae ; c.ce.v, circumoesophageal vessel of water-vascular system; d.o, dorsal
organ ; g, gonad ; m, madreporite; mi, mouth ; n.r, nerve ring; os, oesophagus ; p.a, arch of
perignathic girdle; pd, podia; ph, pharynx; pdc, pedicellaria; pp, periproct; p.r, ridge of
perignathic girdle ; pst, peristome; py, pyramids of masticatory apparatus; r, rectum; r.w.c,
radial nerve cord; s, stomach; s.e, stone canal; sph, sphaeridia; sp, spi'ie; st, Stewart's
organ; tb, tubercle; v, Polian vesicle on circumoesophageal vessel.
(p.a), and one runs up the inside of each ambulacrum. Branches
from the radial vessels are given off alternately to right and left;
one of these branches passes to each pore-pair, below which it opens
to a pair of pocket-shaped vesicles or ampullae (ap). F r o m each
ampulla a small tube passes through both pores; the two tubes
unite on the exterior to form the shaft of the tube-foot or
podion (pd).
The water-vascular system round the peristome of an irregular
Echinoid is shown in Fig. X L I V The water-vascular ring (w.v.r)
lies above the peristomial membrane, and just above the circumoeso-
THE ECHINOIDEA 291
phageal nerve ring, which can be seen in the figure, connecting the
five ambulacral nerve cords (am.n).
T h e walls of the podia are strengthened by calcareous spicules,
and expand at the end into a sucker. The function of the tube-
feet is to help in locomotion. T h e sucker is pressed against a
smooth surface; water from the reservoir or ampulla is driven
into the podion, and the tube-foot is thus rendered tense and rigid.
The rosette of plates in the sucker is pulled backward, w h e n a
vacuum is left between the sucker and the surface against which it
is pressed. Firm attachment is thus secured, and the animal can
drag itself along (for action, see Fig. X L I L ) . So powerful are
these suckers that, by their means, the Echinoids of the genus Coiobo-
centrotus (Fig. X X X I V . ) can cling to exposed rock surfaces, fully
exposed to the surf of a coral reef.
The supply of water to the water-vascular system is introduced
by a membranous vessel—the stone-canal (s.e)—which rises from
the circumoesophageal ring, and is attached to the plate of the
apical system which bears the madreporite (m). A s w e have seen,
this plate is perforated by m a n y small pores, through which water
can pass into the stone-canal. Owing to the small size of the
pores, the water isfilteredas it enters. In Echinus esculentus the
stone-canal is membranous, and the n a m e therefore appears inap-
propriate. T h e n a m e was first applied to this canal in the genus
Cidaris, in which it is hard and calcareous. The flow of water in
the interior is regulated by five "Polian vesicles," situated on
the circumoesophageal ring, and acting as reservoirs. The latest
account of the function of these vessels is given by Uexkiill (82).
The main points in the distribution of the water-vascular vessel
can be easily verified; but the Blood-vascular or haemal System
is more obscure. T h e most important structure is an ovoid body
(Fig. VII. d.o), situated beside the stone-canal; it is k n o w n as
the " dorsal or axial organ," and by other names (see Chapter VIII.
pp. 23, 25). Its canal joins above with the stone-canal; it is said
to open to the exterior through the madreporite, but this is denied
by some authorities (as H a m a n n ) . R o u n d the upper end of the
" canal of the dorsal organ" is a circular canal k n o w n as the
"genital ring," which appears to be connected with a series of
haemal vessels or lacunae which surround the dorsal organ. In
this case it must be also connected with a ring round the oesophagus,
from which five branches pass downward beside the pharynx, and
then run up along the test below the ambulacra. The "circum-
oesophageal haemal vessel" is connected with a haemal vessel which
runs along the inner side of the stomach.
A third group of canals or vessels consists of a circular sinus
round the oesophagus, from which five branches run up the ambu-
lacra between the radial water-vascular vessels and the radial nerve
292 THE ECHINOIDEA
cords. This group of sinuses is known as the "pseudhaemal

system."
The function of the haemal and pseudhaemal systems has been
much debated, and the relations of their various members are still
uncertain. The dorsal organ is sometimes said to be a kidney,
as by Hamann (38) and the Sarasins (72). Hartog (39) has
supported this by claiming that the circulation is outward
through the madreporite; but Cuenot and Ludwig (62) main-
tain that the current is inhalent. Leipoldt and Prouho (70)
point to the absence of any glandular epithelium and of any
connection between the cavity of the organ and the general body-
cavity. They therefore deny that the organ is a gland, and regard
its function as the making of amoeboid cells for the perivisceral
fluid. It therefore seems most probable that the haemal system
distributes nutrient material through the body, both in solution
and by corpuscles (see also Durham, 11 of previous list, p. 36).
A third circumoesophageal ring is that of the Nervous System
(Fig. VII. n.r). This is placed below the water-vascular ring. From
it five radial nerve cords (r.n.c), the ambulacral nerves, pass up the
inside of the test, between it and the ambulacral water-vascular
vessel. Branches from the ambulacral nerve cord pass right and left
to the ampullae, and give off smaller branches which pass through
the pores to the suckers
(Fig. VIII.). The branches
fork, one half running up
the podion and the other
expanding over the surface
of the test as a plexus,
which controls the move-
ments of the spines and
the pedicellariae. A small
nerve ring (n.sp) surrounds
Fio. VIII. the base of each spine.
Diagram of innervation of spines in Echinus, pi,
ambulacral plate ; ep, epidermis; TO, muscles of The Generative Organs
spines ; n, branch of nerve passing out through are large and simple. They
pore; n.pd, branch of nerve to tube foot; n.x, branch consist of five branching
of nerve running across test to n.sp, the spinal
nerve ; pd, podion; sp, base of spine; pi, ambulacral glands (Fig. VII. g), which
plate with (b) boss of tubercle and (m) mamelon. lie attached to the inter-
ambulacral plates in the upper part of the body-cavity. Each of
thefiveorgans opens to the exterior by a single tube which passes
through the pore in a genital plate. The young of Echinus are
free-swimming plutei, and undergo a metamorphosis during the
development and resorption of the pluteal skeleton and its append-
ages (cf. development of Echinocyamus, Chapter VIII. pp 15 17)
Respiration is largely effected by the aeration of water in the
podia; but in addition to this there is a series of five pairs of small
THE ECHINOIDEA 293
folded branchiae or gills (Fig. VII. b) lying on the margins of the

peristomial membrane. These are diverticula from the general
body-cavity, and pass out by the ten notches in the peristomial
margin of the test. There are, moreover, five large internal
vesicles rising from the upper edge of the masticatory apparatus;
these are k n o w n as "Stewart's organs" (Fig. VII. st), and m a y
act as internal gills.
T h e ordinary Echinus, then, has the following characters:—It
consists of a skeleton, which is mostly external, and is com-
posed of numerous closelyfittingpolygonal plates, bearing spines.
Within, it has a simple, coiled, alimentary canal, with mouth and
anus at the opposite poles; it has five generative glands; an
elaborate series of water-vascular vessels, provided with podia,
ending in suckers. This water-vascular system, the blood-vascular
system, and the nervous system each consist essentially of a
ring round the mouth, from which five branches pass outward,
one up the inside of each ambulacrum.
A m o n g the Echinoids the Variations in Structure from this
simple type are very diverse. Thus the form, instead of being
globular, m a y be depressed into a thin,flatsheet, in which the
wide, low roof has to be supported by pillars, as in Scutella (Fig.
X X X V 4). In some of these thin forms the posterior margin of
the test is lobed and digitate, as in
Botula (Fig. IX.); in some cases the
ends of the processes unite, leaving
perforations or "lunules." In such
depressed forms, owing to the sharp
division of the test into upper and
lower halves, the central podia of
the former are useless for purposes
of locomotion, and are specialised
to serve as branchiae; thus the am-
bulacra become modified into petaloid
and extra - petaloid portions. T h e
ejection of the excreta through an
Fio. IX.
anus situated in the middle of these
Botula Augusti, with posterior "dicta-
branchiae would be disadvantageous, tions " and a pair of anterior " lunules."
owing to the consequent pollution of
the water. Hence, in such forms, the anus has passed backwards,
and opens in the hinder part of the test. This backward move-
ment of the anus is usually balanced by the forward movement
of the mouth, and thus the Echinoid loses its quinqueradiate
symmetry and becomes bilaterally symmetrical.
This change affects not only the position of the external
apertures, but the development of the internal organs. Owing to
the invasion of the posterior interradius by the anus, the generative
294 THE ECHINOIDEA
gonad there aborts; the gonads thus occur as two lateral pairs, and
increase the bilateral symmetry of the Echinoid. This is further
strengthened by changes in the structure of the apical system
of plates. This system, as in Cidaris or Echinus (Fig. I.), consists
of a double circle of plates. T h e inner circle is formed by the
five genital plates, which are often called the basals. A s the
latter n a m e has been given to them on the ground that they are
the homologues of the basal plates in Crinoids, the older n a m e of
genitals is here retained. The outer circle of plates occur in the
angles between the genitals, and as they bear the " oculi," they
are called the oculars; they have in turn been regarded as homo-
logous with the radial plates of the Crinoid cup and called "radials,"
while Cuenot, on a different theory of homology, calls them the
" terminals." A s the double circle of plates surrounds the anus,
this form of apical system is k n o w n as " endocyclic." F r o m its
typical arrangement, as seen in Cidaris, variation takes place in
two directions. The extreme of one line is seen in Tiarechinus (Fig.
XVIII.) and Lysechinus, in which the apical system of plates forms
either half or nearly the whole of the test. In the other direction the
plates become less important; in Aspidodiadema (Fig. XXII.) they
form a single ring of ten plates; and in Asthenosoma (Fig. X.) they
^ are either reduced to ten rudimentary plates of no
^.ii®^p functional importance, or are altogether absent.
*?m?£& T h e membrane which lies between the anus
a-^—m 9 | a n d the genital plates is generally covered by num-
%$%&$ erous small plates, k n o w n as the " anal plates."
Fio. x. In some genera, such as Acrosalenia, some
Apical system of of the anal plates are large and thick, and are
«,s anai,,iaopenn^.' firmly attached to the genitals. O n e of these
(
at£ r P , a n d F ' S a r " Plat.es m a 7 increase at the expense of the rest,
until, as in the genus Saienia, there is one large
suranal plate attached to the genitals (Fig. X I X . ) . This plate
has been regarded as the homologue of the imaginary dorso-
central plate of the Crinoids. This plate pushes the anus back-
ward from its originally central position.
A tendency towards the retrogression of the anus is shown
in all groups of Echinoids. O n e of its effects is the pulling
out of the posterior plates of the apical system, and the consoli-
dation and increase of those in front. Thus in Zeugloplmrus the
anterior genitals meet along the middle line, while the posterior
genitals become narrow and are completely separated from one
another by the oculars. In Pygaster (Fig. X I . 1) the retrogression
has become so marked that the anus lies just outside the apical
system, which is therefore " exocyclic." In Clypeus (Fig. X I 2 3)
the anus becomes completely detached from the apical system
which is no longer a ring of plates, but a compact group.
THE ECHINOIDEA 295
In Echinus the madreporite (Fig. I. m), or the opening of the
water-vascular system, is on the right anterior genital plate. After
the anus has receded from the apical system, the madreporite
begins to follow it. In a simple compact apical system the pores
of the water-vascular aperture occur only in the right anterior
corner of the system. Such a system is said to be " ethmophract,"
as in Discoidea or Micraster (Fig. X I . 4). In more advanced forms
the pores and the plate on which they open extend backward until
Apical systems of Echinoidea. 1, Pygaster umbrella ; 2, Clypeus sinuatws; 3, Clypeus Hugi ;

4, Discoidea conica; 5, Spatangus purpureus. In 1 and 2 the anus is still in contact with the
apical system; in 3 it is free; 4 is ethmophract, and 5 ethmolysian.
they separate the two postero-lateral genitals, as in Spatangus

purpweus (Fig. X I . 5). Such an apical system is said to be
" ethmolysian."
Another change in the apical system is wrought by the elonga-
tion of the test in the antero-posterior direction, whereby the
apical system becomes elongated. The plates of the two pairs of
genitals become adjacent, and completely separate the anterior
and the two pairs of oculars from each other; the three anterior
ambulacra usually meet close together, and are separated from the
two posterior ambulacra by a wide space. The three anterior
296 THE ECHINOIDEA
ambulacra then form the " trivium," and the two posterior form
the "bivium." This m a y be clearly seen in the c o m m o n Chalk
Echinoid, Echinocorys scutatus, Leske (syn. Ananchytes ovatus, Lam.),
(Fig. X X X V 2). In some cases the separation of the trivium and
bivium becomes greater; it is finally completed in the Jurassic
genus Collyrites, and the living genus Pourtalesia, in which the
apical system is broken up into two parts, separated by a zone of
ordinary interambulacral plates.
Important changes also take place in the plates of the test,
affecting both their structure and arrangement.
The Interambulacral Plates are biserial in the great majority
of Echinoidea, but they m a y be uiiiserial, triserial, or multiserial.
Each plate m a y bear one tubercle or more than one; to increase
the strength of the muscular attachment of the spine, the mamelon
P5>
<T^t
<T;
o\
6)
fe o>
tea °S
4 Fio. XII. 5
Types of ambulacral plates. 1, cidaroid ; 2, diademoid ; 3, arbacioid ; 4, echinoid ;
5, cyphosomoid. d, demiplates; p, primary plates.
is perforated by a small hollow, and the boss becomes irregular,

owing to a series of crenulations.
Thus among other variations of interambulacral plates are the
following:—Those which are unituberculate with the tubercles
either plain or crenulate, perforate or imperforate; those which
are bi- or multi - tuberculate, and have the tubercles either
perforate or imperforate; those which are granulate, as in
Palazechinus; those which have their edges bevelled, as in Echino-
thuria.
The principal variation in the Ambulacral Plates is in the
number of elementary plates (shown by the number of pore-pairs)
in a compound plate. There are five main types:
1. The cidaroid, w h e n all the plates are low, simple primaries
as in the Cidaridae, Orthopsinae (Fig. XII. 1).
2. The diademoid, when all the plates are primaries, but they
are united in sets of threes into compound plates (Fig. XII. 2)
THE ECHINOIDEA 297
3. T h e arbacioid, w h e n the compound plates are formed of

three simple plates, the middle one being a large primary, while
the other two are small demi-plates (Fig. XII. 3).
4. T h e echinoid, w h e n the compound plates are formed of three
simple plates, but the middle plate is a small demi-plate, and the
two others are primaries (Fig. XII. 4).
5. T h e cyphosomoid type, w h e n the compound plates are formed
of m a n y simple plates arranged in arcs, in which the middle com-
ponents are demi-plates (Fig- XII. 5).
In most of the compound ambulacral plates, one or more of the
constituents become " demi-plates" by losing their contact with
the vertical suture on either side of the series. In some Echinoids
some of the plates are further reduced by growth-pressure, so that
they lie along the horizontal sutures between the primaries, as in
the Echinothuridae, or form broad areas of numerous small plates,
as in the Melonitidae. For these plates the n a m e of " klasma-
plates " has been suggested.
One important variation affects both the ambulacral and inter-
ambulacral plates. In some forms, such as Asthenosoma, the plates
are thin and attached to powerful lateral muscles (Fig. X X X . ) , by
which the test can be contracted and
expanded. In such Echinoids the plates
are not closely fitted like stones in a
mosaic, but the edges are bevelled, so
that the plates overlap like slates on a
roof.
The M o u t h Armature also under-
goes great changes, which m a y be best
seen by the nature of the perignathic
girdle, of which there are five main
types. In Cidaris (Fig. X I I L 1) it is
" disconnected," consisting only of an
erect "ridge" situated on the inter-
radial plates around the peristome.
In Salenia (Fig. X I I L 2), in addition to
the ridge, there are small " processes "
on either side of the ridge—the pro- Fio. X I I L
cesses arise from the ambulacral plates. Types of perignathic girdles. 1,
In the Diadematidae and Echinidae disconnected type of Cidaris ; 2, dis-
connected type of Salenia ; 3, simple
(Fig. X I I L 3) the ridge becomes insig- arch of Diadema; 4, capped arch of
nificant and the processes important; Echinometra. a, ambulacral plates;
they lengthen and form an arch across aur, auricle ; c, cap; i, interambula-
cral plates; i.a.p, interambulacral
the ambulacra. The perignathic girdle processes.
is then said to be " continuous." T h e extreme form is met with
in such genera as Echinometra (Fig. X I I L 4), where the arch is
strengthened by a strong cap. In those Echinoids in which the
298 THE ECHINOIDEA
apical system is exocyclic, the jaws become less important. In

the Clypeasters the jaws are massive, but their power of move-
ment slight, as they are poised on small vertical processes which
fit into a socket on the pyramids.
In the Holectypina w e see a gradual reduction of the peri-
gnathic girdle, the processes becoming low and the ridge important
(as in Discoidea), until in Galerites the ambulacral processes are
absent, and there are only five low interradial thickenings which
act as ridges. Finally, from the Atelostomata the perignathic
girdle and jaws are completely absent.
The Generative Glands are fairly constant in character, but their
number varies, one or more being lost in m a n y Irregular Echinoids.
The young are generally free-swimming plutei, but some species
are viviparous, the young being nursed in marsupial depressions
(Fig. X L I I L , see W y v . Thomson, 81).
In spite of these great variations in structure there are several
characters c o m m o n to all Echinoids. B y the selection of those
structures which are found in all the Echinoids (except w h e n they
have been lost by obviously secondary modification) it is possible to
conceive a schematic Echinoid. This is useful, as it helps us to an
idea of the primitive ancestor of the class, and as it brings into pro-
minence the features which separate the Echinoidea from the other
Echinoderma.
The Primitive Echinoid—for which various names have been
suggested—probably had a globular muscular body, covered by an
irregular series of polygonal plates. It must have had a simple
alimentary canal rising from a mouth situated at the centre of the
lower surface; at first, possibly, it m a y not have had an anus,
which, when it came, opened on the upper surface. Three rings
surrounded the oesophagus, and from each ring five branches passed
up the test to the aboral pole. These three rings with their
branches formed the water-vascular, blood-vascular, and nervous
systems. Branches from the radial vessels of the water-vascular
system passed between the plates of the skeleton to the exterior
and acted as suckers. The suckers, by absorption of parts of
the plates, at length passed out through pores, instead of through
the sutures. The perforated plates were therefore marked off
from the others and formed the five ambulacra, while the imper-
forate plates between constituted the interambulacra. A tube
connected the water-vascular ring with the exterior, and allowed
the entrance of the necessary water by a single pore. Five un-
paired gonads occupied the interambulacral areas. T h e primitive
Echinoid did not have either a stalk, apical system of plates,
masticatory apparatus, or perignathic girdle.
Such an animal would have been regarded as an Echinoid as it
was not attached by the aboral surface, but on the contrary had
THE ECHINOIDEA 299
the m o u t h d o w n w a r d s ; as its gonads were quinqueradiate; a n d as

its ambulacra extended from the peristome almost to the aboral
pole. T h e union of these three characters separates the Echinoidea
from the rest of the Echinoderma.
Proceeding to discuss the Sub-Classes, Orders, and Families of the

Sea-urchins, w e m a y s u m u p their c o m m o n characters in the following : —
Diagnosis of the Class. 1 —The Echinoidea are eleutherozoic Echino-
derma which are actinogonidial (i.e. having the gonads quinqueradiate)
and zygopodous (the podia extending from the peristome to near the
aboral pole). The body is covered by numerous series of plates, usually
polygonal and in vertical series. T h e apical system m a y be absent,
rudimentary, well developed, or very extensive. T h e gonads are un-
paired and interradial. T h e body is spherical, orflat,or bilaterally
symmetrical, and is covered by spines which m a y be long, stout, and
strong, or present every stage of reduction to such as are fine and
silky. A n anus is always present, but its position is variable ; but
it is either at the aboral pole or in the posterior interradius. Respiration
is partly by gills and partly by podia. Development is either direct or
indirect.
The usual primary subdivision of the Echinoidea is into two sub-
c l a s s e s — P A L ^ E C H I N O I D E A and E U E C H I N O I D E A ; the former including ap-
proximately all the Palaeozoic, and the latter all the Neozoic Echinoidea.
The last formal attempt to define the two groups was that of Duncan
(24, p. 4), which has been accepted by Jackson (41).
Excluding from Duncan's diagnoses characters c o m m o n to the two
sub-classes, w e find that the only distinction between them is that the
Pala3echinoidea have either one or more than two vertical rows of plates
in each interambulacrum, and two or more vertical rows of plates in each
ambulacrum ; while the Euechinoidea have two vertical rows of plates in
each interambulacrum and in each ambulacrum.
This classification is open to two fatal objections. T h e rule is not
absolute. Thus in the Cretaceous genus Tetracidaris there are four rows
of plates in each interambulacrum ; and in such genera as the Euechinoid
Tripneustes, it is no more correct to say that there are only two rows of
vertical plates in the ambulacra, than it would be to say so of the Palae-
echinid Palmechinus which is described as having more than two vertical
series. In the second place, the classification separates fairly close allies,
and brings together extremely divergent forms. Thus, such a species as
the Liassic Euechinoid Cidaris edwardsi is far more closely allied to such
a Palaeechinoid as Archaeocidaris than the latter is allied to Tiarechinus.
The separation of these two sub-classes was originally based on several
very definite characters, such as the imbrication of the plates, the flexi-
bility of the test, and the number of pores in the genital plates. O n e by
one these characters have been shown to be valueless for the purpose for
which they were used, but the classification based on them has been re-
tained. It is preferable to return to the division of the Echinoidea into
— R E G U L A R I A and I R B E G U L A R I A .
1
Emended from Bell (10), p. 214.
3oo THE ECHINOIDEA
S U B - C L A S S 1. R E G U L A R I A E N D O B R A N C H I A T A .
Mouth and anus at opposite poles. Anus surrounded by the apical

system of plates, when they are present. N o external gills.
ORDER 1. Bothriocidaroida, Schmidt.
Loven has shown that in many young Echinoids the interambulacrum

begins and ends with a single plate. In the oldest known Echinoids the
whole interambulacrum consists of a single vertical series. The Echinoids
in question are two species from the Ordovician rocks of Esthonia. They
belong to the genus Bothriocidaris, Schmidt.
Bothriocidaris has a small test, on the top of which is an apical
system (Fig. XIV. 2), composed of a ring of five large ocular plates, in
the angles between which are five small imperforate genital plates.
Each ocular plate has two pores. The anus is in the centre of the
apical system, and the periproct is covered by six or eight anal plates.
The test is mainly formed by the ambulacra. Each ambulacrum consists
.Bothriocidaris Pahleni Schmidt; Ordovician, Russia. 1, from the side ; 2, apical system;
3, peristomial plates. The interambulacral plates are shaded.
of two vertical series of hexagonal plates, each perforated by one or two

pore-pairs. The interambulacra are narrower than the ambulacra, and
consist of a single series of plates which do not extend to the peristome,
from which they are cut off by the expansion of the peristomial ambulacral
plates (Fig. XIV. 3). The most recent description of the "enus is bv
J
Jaekel (42).
ORDER 2. Cystocidaroida, Zittel.
Echinoidea Regularia Endobranchiata with test ovoid, flexible No
apical system of plates. Madreporite and anus (when present) open in
dependently in the posterior interambulacrum. Mouth central Ambu
lacra of low, closely packed plates. Interambulacra broad, of numerous
thm, and irregularly arranged plates, bearing short spines. A masticatorv
apparatus present. ~»mj
FAMILY 1. PALAEODISCIDAE. Cystocidaroida with depressed, discoid

body. The ambulacral plates are biserial, crowded, and narrow on the
oral surface they are not perforated by pores, but the podia pass out
THE ECHINOIDEA 301
through the sutures between the plates. Near the aboral pole the
ambulacra are narrower and pores occur in the plates. Genus—
Palaeodiscus, Salter, from the Silurian of Ludlow. It is the most
primitive of k n o w n Echinoids and has been frequently assigned to the
Stelleroida. T h e main radial water-vascular vessels appear, however,
to have passed along the inside of the test instead of below or outside
the ambulacral plates, as in Stelleroids (Salter, 4 2 on p. 280, ante; Neu-
mayr, 64 ; Gregory, 36).
F A M I L Y 2. E C H I N O C Y S T I D A E . Cystocidaroida, in which the ambulacra
consist of narrow plates, each perforated by a pore-pair. T h e pore-pairs
are biserial; most of the plates are low primaries, but demi-plates also
occur. Genus—Echinocystis, W y v . Thonis. (non Hall), Silurian; one of
the most remarkable of k n o w n Echinoids. It has no apical system of
plates, and the anus and madreporite both open independently in the
posterior interradius. T h e genus is therefore sometimes described as
exocyclic, but it is really acyclic (Gregory, 36).
ORDER 3. Cidaroida.
Echinoidea Regularia Endobranchiata, in which the peristome ia

central; the periproct is central on the aboral surface of the body, and is
surrounded by the apical system of plates. T h e ambulacra each consist
of two vertical series of simple narrow plates, some of which m a y be
demi-plates. T h e interambulacral plates are unituberculate, bearing large
spines. There is a dental apparatus.
In the Devonian system the Echinoids are scarce, but their characters in-
dicate a marked advance upon the Silurian species in the strength of the tests,
owing to the greater thickness
and regularity of the plates.
T w o main lines of differen-
tiation are apparent. In the
first the increase takes place
in the interambulacral plates,
in the second the ambulacral
plates become more import-
ant. T h e former is the order
Cidaroida, the latter is the
order Melonitoida.
There are four families
of Cidaroida, of which three
are extinct. T h e most typical
genus is Cidaris; the earliest Diagram of a r r a n g e i m !nt of plates near peristome
and m o s t primitive is Lepido- in Lepidocentrus. Devonian, Germany.
centrus.
F A M I L Y 1. L E P I D O C E N T R I D A E . Cidaroida with ambulacral pore-pairs
in a single series. Interambulacral plates in more than two vertical rows.
Test flexible, owing to imbrication of the plates. N o interambulacral
plates pass on to the peristomial membrane. This family is represented
by four Palaeozoic genera—Lepidocentrus, Miiller, Devonian; Lepidechinus,
3°2 THE ECHINOIDEA
Hall, Devonian and Lower Carboniferous; Koninckocidaris, Dollo &

Buisseret, and Perischodomus, M'Coy, both Carboniferous. The main
character of the family is that none of the interambulacral plates occur
detached from the test on the peristomial membrane (Fig. XV.). 1
F A M I L Y 2. A R C H A E O C I D A R I D A E . Cidaroida with ambulacral pore-
pairs in a single series. Interambulacral plates in more than two vertical
rows. Test slightlyflexible,owing to slight imbrication of plates.
Peristome large, several rows of the interambulacral plates as well as of
the ambulacral passing on to the peristomial membrane. The main char-
acter of this family is that, while the interambulacral plates remain in
more than two series and somewhat imbricated, in both of which
features it agrees with" the Lepidocentridae, it has acquired the peristomial
characters of the true Cidaridae. Genera—Archaeocidaris, M'Coy (Fig.
Fio. XVI.
1, Palceechinus sphaericus, M'Coy; Carboniferous. 3, A plate and spine of Archaeocidaris
urtt, Flein.; Carboniferous. S, Cidaris glandifera, Goldf.; Jurassic. U, Hemicidaris intermedia,
Fleni.; Mid. Jurassic. 5, Salenia jietalifera, Desm.; Cretaceous. 6, Dysaster ringens A g •
Jurassic. 7, Enallaster Greenovi, Forbes; Cretaceous. 8, Catopygus columbarius. Lani •
Cretaceous. ' *'
XVI. 2), and Lepidocidaris, Meek & Worthen, both Carboniferous. In
the latter some of the ambulacral plates are demi-plates. Xenocidaris
k n o w n from spines only, m a y also belong here.
F A M I L Y 3. C I D A R I D A E . Cidaroida with ambulacral pore-pairs uni-
serial and plates all primaries. Interambulacral plates in t w o vertical
series in each area. Test rigid, as the plates do not imbricate. Several
rows of interambulacral and ambulacral plates pass o n to the peristomial
m e m b r a n e . T h e family includes the living genus Cidaris, Leske, with
its numerous subdivisions—Rhabdocidaris, Chondrocidaris, Stereocidaris
Discocidaris, Tylocidaris, Typocidaris, Dorocidaris, etc. Goniocidaris Des.'
Orthocidaris, Cott,; Temnocidaris, Cott.; Polycidaris, Quenst, are also
genera of this family. Cidaris is one of the most primitive' of recent
Echinoids, and therefore one of the most instructive.
The systematic value of this character is shown in Jackson's interesting paper

(41),
THE ECHINOIDEA 3°3
Fig. X V I I . gives the aboral surface of Cidaris (Stereocidaris) subvesi-

culosa, from the Chalk, showing its primitive dicyclic apical system ; its
massive interambulacral plates separated by very narrow ambulacra, com-
posed only of low, simple primaries (Fig. XII. 1). T h e arrangement of
the peristomial plates in this genus is very important; the peristomial
membrane is covered by loose plates which include representatives of
both the ambulacral and interambulacral series. There are no arched
processes over the ambulacra, the perignathic girdle consisting only of
interradial ridges (Fig. X I I L 1). T h e internal gills,1 or Stewart's organs,
are well developed.
F A M I L Y 4. D I P L O C I D A R I D A E . Cidaroida with ambulacral pore-pairs
biserial. Interambulacral plates in two or more vertical series in each
Flu. XVLi.
Cidaris (Stereocidaris) subvesiculvsa, d'Orbigny ; from the Chalk.
area. Peristomial plates as iii Cidaridae. This family includes the

interesting genus Tetracidaris, Cotteau, which has four rows of plates in
each interambulacrum. This Paloeechinoid character is associated with
a type of ambulacrum which, for the Cidaridae, is remarkably specialised.
A second genus is Diplocidaris, Desor.
ORDER 4. Melonitoida.
Echinoidea Regularia Endobranchiata, in which the peristome is cen-
tral on the lower surface, and the periproct central on the upper surface,
surrounded by the apical system of plates. T h e ambulacra each consist of
two or more rows of simple plates, of which some or all m a y be demi-
plates, or klasma-plates. T h e interambulacral plates are covered by
granules bearing short, simple spines; but occasional tubercles m a y occur.
1
It should he remembered that the respiratory function of these organs is still
hypothetical.
3°4 THE ECHINOIDEA
There are more than two vertical series in each interambulacrum. There
is a masticatory apparatus, but no external gills. T h e order is therefore
endocyclic, gnathostomate, anectobranchiate, with simple ambulacral
plates, and having granulate interambulacrals.
This order represents an offshoot from the main Cidarid stem. It
began in the Silurian, attained its m a x i m u m in the Carboniferous, and
became extinct in the Permian. There are three families in the order,
and these form an evolutionary series. All differ from the Cidaroida,
by having granular instead of unituberculate plates, which, by itself,
however, is not a character of ordinal importance. T h e main feature
is the great increase in the importance of the ambulacral areas, reminding
us of Bothriocidaris. This character is well developed in the two more
specialised families, but in the Palaeechinidae it is only just appearing.
Thus the family named is closely allied to the members of the Cidaroida,
and is separated from that order only as it marks the beginning of a
very remarkable type of Echinoid structure.
F A M I L Y 1. P A L ^ E C H I N I D A E . Melonitoida, in which the ambulacral
plates are essentially biserial (or in one case triserial). Most of the
plates are primaries, and the remainder long, narrow, demi-plates. T h e
plates of the test are rigidly attached. O n e row of interambulacral
plates passes on to the peristomial membrane. Genera—Palcecchinus,
M'Coy (pars), and Rhoechinus, Keeping; and perhaps also Perischocidaris,
N e u m a y r (syn. HomotoecJms, Sollas). T h e family is separated from the
Melonitidae, owing to the great difference in the characters of the
ambulacra; but it is regarded as the ancestral group from which that
family was derived. Rhoechinus is the simplest genus, and includes those
with the pore-pairs in a single series. Palceechinus, which ranges from
the Silurian to the Carboniferous, includes those in which the pore-pairs
are biserial, and demi-plates occur (Fig. X V I . 1).
F A M I L Y 2. M E L O N I T I D A E . Melonitoida, in which the ambulacral
plates are all small, simple klasma-plates, which are multiserial in arrange-
ment. These form broad areas. T h e test is rigid. O n e row of inter-
ambulacral plates passes on to the peristomial membrane. This family
represents a marked advance on the previous one. T h e tendency
towards the crowding of the ambulacral plates and the reduction of m a n y
of them into klasma-plates has m a d e great progress. Genera—Oligoporus,
M e e k & Worthen, Carboniferous; the plates agree in general character
with those of Palozechinus, but the ambulacral plates are quadriserial
instead of biserial. Melonites, Norwood & O w e n , Carboniferous * the
process has gone further, and each ambulacrum consists of from six
to sixteen vertical series.
F A M I L Y 3.- L E P I D E S T H I D A E . Melonitoida, in which the ambulacral
plates are small klasma-plates, multiserial in arrangement. T h e plates
of the test imbricate. N o n e of the interambulacral plates pass on to the
peristomial membrane. This family is the extreme type of the Meloni-
toida, and represents a condition in which the plate arrangement becomes
most irregular. It includes the species with the greatest n u m b e r of plates
in the ambulacra. T h e plates being thin and small, the test is necessarily
fragile, a danger to the animal obviated by the imbrication of the plates.
THE ECHINOIDEA 3°5
A s is the rule a m o n g all thin-plated,flexibleEchinoids, there is a marked

tendency to irregularity, especially shown in Pholidocidaris. G e n e r a —
Pholidocidaris and Lepidesthes, both of M e e k & Worthen, from the Lower
Carboniferous.
ORDER 5. Plesiocidaroida, Duncan.
Echinoidea Regularia Endobranchiata with a small rigid test,

peristome and periproct central and opposite. Periproct in the centre
of an apical system of large plates, which forms half of the whole
test T h e ambulacral areas are short and biserial. Their plates are
all simple primaries. T h e interambulacra have each a single peristomial
plate.
F A M I L Y 1. T I A R E C H I N I D A E . Plesiocidaroida with desmactinic ambu-
lacra (i.e. ambulacra continuous from peristome to apical system). Each
interambulacrum consists of four plates, viz. a single peristomial plate
and three tall, vertical plates in a horizontal row. Genus—Tiarechinus,
Fio. XVIII.
Tiarechinus pi-inceps, Neumayr; Trias, Tyrol. 1, from the side; 2, from below ;
3, the apical system (magnified).
N e u m a y r ; Trias, Tyrol. T h e figures (Fig. XVIII.) show its enormous

apical disc, small ambulacra, and vertical interambulacral plates.
F A M I L Y 2. L Y S E C H I N I D A E . Plesiocidaroida with ambulacra limited to
grooves on lower surface of the test. Each interambulacrum begins with
a single peristomial plate succeeded by a row of two plates, and this by
one or more containing three plates. Genus—Lysechinus, Greg. (34);
Trias, Tyrol.
This small order includes the two most aberrant of all k n o w n
Echinoids. In Tiarechinus there are three vertical plates in each inter-
ambulacrum, while the calyx is m u c h larger and more crinoidal in
aspect than in any other Echinoid. It has hence been regarded as an
argument in favour of the origin of the Echinoidea from an ancestor in
which the apical system was of great importance. Both k n o w n genera of
Plesiocidaroida are small forms, and they appear to have lived under
unfavourable conditions in Triassic lagoons, for the Echinoids with which
they are associated are all dwarfed. Hence it seems more natural to
dismiss Tiarechinus and Lysechinus as two aberrant genera, in which the
test was strengthened by the development of the apical plates. Thus they
have no bearing on the character of the ancestral Echinoid.
20
306 THE ECHINOIDEA
S U B - C L A S S 2. R E G U L A R I A ECTOBRANCHIATA.
Echinoidea with mouth and anus at opposite poles. Endocyclic, with

external t>'
gills.
O R D E R 1. Diademoida, Duncan.
Echinoidea Regularia Ectobranchiata in which the mouth and anus

are both central and opposite. The anus opens in the centre of the apical
system (which m a y however be rudimentary). The external branchiae
pass out through the buccal clefts. A dental apparatus is present.
There are no interambulacral plates on the peristomial membrane. The
ambulacral plates are generally compound.
This order marks a great advance on any of those previously
defined. The ambulacral plates in some forms remain as simple
primaries, but in the majority they unite into compound plates, different
from anything met with iu the preceding groups. A t the same time
external gills appear, with or without internal gills, and none of the
interambulacral plates occur on the peristomial membrane. The order is
accepted practically as defined by Duncan,1 but his method of division is
not followed.
SUB-ORDER 1. CALYCINA.
Diademoida in which the apical system is very large and includes

one or more supplementary suranal plates.
As w e have seen ..i the description of Tiarechinus and Lysechinus,
these small forms gained strength by the development of a series of
large apical plates. In one group of the Diademoida the same result
is obtained by the incorporation of one or more "suranal plates"
in the apical system Like Tiarechinus,
the Echinoids in which this feature first
appeared are very small. The character has
persisted from the Trias to the present time,
but the Echinoids in which it occurs are never
large.
F A M I L Y 1. S A L E N T I D A E . Calycina in
which t\u ambulacral plates are simple
primaries, and there is one large suranal
plate in the apical system. Genera—Salenia,
Grav
v _.._ ' Heterosalenia, Cott ; Peltastes, L. A«.
,, . . • . f. , (Fi8- X V L 5 ; Fig. X I X . ) ; Goniophons, L A -
lalema w ^ P J * ^ Abactinal Baueria, Ebert ' °"'
F A M I L Y 2. A C R O S A L E N I I D A E . Calycina in
which there are one or more suranal plates in the apical system • the
ambulacral plates are simple primaries near the apical system but'com
pound, with demi-plates near the peristome. Genus—Acrosalenia, L. Ag.
DnL™t$*tuC girdle ^ HOt alWayS C°ntinU0US as Stated »> "« diagnosis.-
THE ECHINOIDEA 307
S U B - O R D E R 2. A R B A C I N A .
Diademoida in which the ambulacral plates are simple primaries

near the apical area ; at the ambitus they are compound. Some or
all of the compound plates consist of a large central primary, on either
side of which is a small demi-plate. (These plates are on the " arbacioid''
type of Duncan.)
The Echinoids of this sub-order contain forms characterised by remark-
able simplicity of structure. The interambulacral plates are large and
generally of the Cidarid type. The peristome is large. The ambulacra
are narrow except on the ambitus and near the peristome, where they
often expand somewhat suddenly. The apical system is large and simple.
There are two families, one of which is typically Jurassic, and the
other typically Cainozoic. This difference in age has probably delayed
the recognition of the resemblances between the two families. There
are, however, several Cretaceous genera which link the Jurassic and the
Cainozoic forms, and thus support the idea that the Arbaciidae are the
descendants of the Hemicidaridae.
F A M I L Y 1. H E M I C I D A R I D A E . Arbacina in which the ambulacral
plates are narrow, and consist of simple primary plates for some
distance from the apex. T h e compound plates are few in number,
and irregular in arrangement; the arbacioid
type of plate is not extensively developed,
many of the compound plates being dia-
demoid, though with the sutures approach-
ing the arbacioid character (Fig. XX.). This
family is not well marked off from the / ' ( ( • ^
Arbaciidae. It represents the characters of
that family imperfectly developed. Genera
—Hemicidaris, L. Ag. (Fig. X V I . 4 ; Fig.
XX.), is the most important; Acrocidaris,
r . ~ T » /-*• 7J • Two compound ambulacral
L. Ag. ; Goniopygus, L. Ag. ; Circopeltis, p]atesof Hemici(laris intermedia,
Pomel; Cidaroosu, Cott.; Glypticus, L. Ag. ; Fiein.; Juiuwic showing the
' ' i ix. arbacioid structure of the plates.
Leptocidaris, Quenstedt, and several sub- (After Duncan.)
genera.
F A M I L Y 2. A R B A C I I D A E . Arbacina with small, generally sub-conical
tests. They are ornamented by numerous granules ; a bare space occurs
in the middle of the upper part of each interambulacrum. The am-
bulacral plates are mainly on the arbacioid type, but there are some
primaries near the apical system, and a few diademoid plates between
the primaries and the arbacioid plates. Ocular pores double. This
family includes four primitive genera ; of these two are only known
living, one occurs in the North American Cainozoic, and the fourth
ranges from the Eocene to the present day. T h e main distinctions
from the Hemicidaridae are that in the ambulacra there are fewer
primaries and more compound plates, and that the union of the inter-
ambulacral plates is strengthened by the development of a series of
knobs and sockets. These occur on the facets of the plates, the knobs
of one plate fitting into the sockets of the next (Fig. X X I . 2).
308 THE ECHINOIDEA
Genera—Arbacia, Gray ; Echinocidaris, Dune, non Desmoulins ; Coelo-

pleurus, Ag. ; Podocidaris, A. Ag.
S U B - O R D E R 3. DIADEMINA.
Diademoida including a series of Echinids in which the compound

ambulacral plates gradually increase in complexity. In the simplest
forms all the plates are simple primaries; in others, some of the plates
1 Fio. XXI.
Arbacia nigra. 1, ambulacral plate ; 2, interambulacral plate showing articular
pits (p) and knobs (V).
are compound, each being formed of three primaries (the diademoid

type); in others, again, some of the plates consist of three or more prim-
aries and one or more demi-plates, which occur between the aboral and
middle primaries.
This is the largest of the sub-orders of regular Echinoidea and
includes important families. It represents an evolutionary series from
the primitive Eodiadema to the complex Cyphosomatidae or the
abnormal Echinothuridae. The simplest members of the sub-order can-
not be distinguished from the Saleniidae by ambulacral structure alone,
but they are clearly separated by
the absence in this group of any
suranal plate.
FAMILY 1. ORTHOPSIDAE.
Diademina with the ambulacral
plates all simple primaries, and
the pore-pairs in a simple series.
This interesting family includes
1 FH;. xxii. 2 a series of simple Echinoids,
Aspidodiadematonsnm(after A. Agassiz). 1, from w h i c h form the beginninc* of the
the side; 2, from above showing the apical system , j T\- J • °T
composed of a single ring often plates. sub - order Diademina. It in-
cludes seven genera ranging from
the Middle Lias to the present day, viz. Eodiadema, Dune. ; Archaeo-
diadema, Greg. ; Orthopsis, Cott. ; Gymnodiadema, Lor. ; Peronia Dune. •
Echinopsis, L. Ag. ; Aspidodiadema, A. Ag. The only living genus is
Aspidodiadema, a deep-sea form dredged by the Challenger. It lias
been made the type of a special family by Duncan, but it seems to
THE ECHINOIDEA 3°9
be a survival of the Orthopsidae. The apical plates form a single

circle, within which are five large anal plates around the anus (Fio-.
XXII.).
F A M I L Y 2. D I A D E M A T I D A E . Diademina in which the ambulacral
plates at the ambitus are compound, and consist of three (Fig. XXIII.)
or more (Fig. XXIV.) primaries fused together with an occasional demi-
Fio. X X I V .
l<Vi. XXIII. Compound ambulacral
Compound ambula- plate of Pseudodiadema
hemisphaerica, containing a FIG. X X V .
cral plates of Pseudo-
diadema hemispltaerica ; demi-plate (d). Compound ambulacral plates
the simple diademoid of Placodiadema Miehelini (after
type of three primaries. Duncan); one formed of four ami
Uio other offivecomponents.
plate (d). This family includes fourteen genera ranging from the Lias
to recent times, viz. Diadema, Gray; Pseudodiadema, Desor (Figs. XXIII.,
XXIV.); Microdiadema, Cott. ; Diademopsis, Desor ; Hemipedind, Wright ;
Kchinodiadema, Cott. ; Pleurodiadema, Lor. ; Placodiadema, Dune. (Fig.
X X V . ) ; Heterodiadema, Cott. ; Codiopsis, L. Ag. ; Magnosia, Mich. ;
Cottaldia, Des. ; Centrostephanus, Peters ; Helikodiadema, Gregory.
F A M I L Y 3. D I P L O P O D I I D A E . Diademina in which the ambulacral
Fio. XXVII.
Compound ambulacral plates
Fio. X X V I . of Pedina Smithi; one plate
Ambulacral plates of Diplopodia consists of three primaries,
rersipora (after Duncan), showing the and one of a central primary
biserial arrangement of the pore-pairs. and two demi-plates (d); the
pore-pairs occur in oblique
series, with three pairs in each.
plates are compound ; the pore-pairs are biserial either throughout the
area, or at least near the peristome (Fig. XXVI.). Genera—Diplopodia,
M'Coy ; Phymechinus, Des.; Asteropsis, Cott.; Diplotagma, Schliiter;
Plistophyma, Peron & Gauthier; (?) Acanthechinus, Duncan & Sladen ;
Micropyga, A. Ag.
F A M I L Y 4. P E D I N I D A E . Diademina in which the ambulacral plates
are compound and the pore-pairs are triserial (Fig. XXVII.). Genera—
Pedina, Ag.; Pseudopedina, Cott. ; Heterocidaris, Cott. ; Stomechinus, Des.;
3io THE ECHINOIDEA
Pohjcyphus, Ag. ; Pedinothuria, Greg. ; Micropedina, Cott. ; Cod-echinus,

Des. ; Echinopedina, Cott.; Echinothrix, Pet. ; Astropyga, Gray.
F A M I L Y 5. CYT-HOSOMATIDAE. Diademina in which the ambulacral
plates are compound ; they are high with from three to seven pore-pairs
in an arc ; the adoral and supra-adoral, and sometimes also the aboral
plates are primaries. The remaining constituents
are demi-plates (Fig. XXVIII.). Genera—Actino-
phyma, Cott. & Gauth.; Cyphosoma, Ag. ; Leiosoma,
Cott. & Triger ; Gauthieria, Lamb.; Tliylechinus,
Pomel ; Coptosoma, Des. ; Micropsis, Cott.; Ortlie-
chinus, Gauthier (syn. Gagaria, Dune.); Triplacidia,
Ambulacral plate of Blttner.
Cyphosoma, composed of In the normal compound ambulacral plates of
demf-piatesarieS B n d t W ° the Diadematidae each plate consists of three prim-
aries ; but, as in the case of Fig. XXIV., an extra
demi-plate sometimes appears below the uppermost primary. This is the
link between the typical Diadematidae and Cyphosomatidae. Demi-plates
appear in Diadematids in the Middle Oolites ; the Cyphosomatidae begin
in the Upper Oolites and attain their maximum in the Cretaceous. The
last members of the family lived in the Eocene.
F A M I L Y 6. E C H I N O T H U R I D A E . Diademina in which the test is more
or lessflexible; the plates are thin and usually separated by membrane.
Apical system rudimentary (Fig. X.) ; ambulacral plates triserial, arranged
typically in triplets of a central primary between two klasma-plates. In
une genus three triplets unite together to form a single plate. This
interesting family was founded by Wyville Thomson to include the
Chalk fossil Eehinotlmria, S. P. Woodw., and some living Echinoids
dredged by the Porcupine Expedition. As the tests areflexibleand
the plates overlap, the family was atfirstcompared with the Palaeozoic
Echinoids. P. and F. Sarasin argued from the rudimentary nature of the
apical disc, and from the great size of the " Stewart's organs" and the
presence of powerful radial muscles (the two latte* characters being very
noticeable in a new species of Asthenosoma described by those authors) that
the Echinothuridae were a primitive family of Echinoids, and helped to
establish the origin of this class from a Holothuroid ancestor. Neviani
accepted this conclusion. But, as has recently been shown (Gregory,
35), the family is an offshoot from the Pedinidae ; the genus Vcdino-
thuria helps to bridge the gap between Pedina and the oldest known
Eel linothurid—Pelan echinus.
S U B - F A M I L Y 1. P E L A N E C H I N I N A E . Echinothurids of which the am-
bulacral plates are compound ; those near the apex consist of two demi-
plates and a large middle primary. Those at the ambitus consist of
three sets of three plates united into a single polyporous plate ; each
triplet of this compound plate consists of a primary between two demi-
plates or klasma-plates. Genus—Pclanechinus, Keeping; Corallian
Wiltshire. A n admirable account of the genus has been given by Groom
(37). S U B - F A M I L Y 2. E C H I N O T H U R I N A E . Echinothuridae in which the
ambulacral plates are simple and free ; they consist of triplets, each com-
posed of a large central primary, and with an isolated klasma-plate above
THE ECHINOIDEA
and below it. Genera—Echinothuria, S. P. W o o d w . ; from the Chalk ;

Asthenosoma, Grube (Fig. XXIX.), a living genus with large " Stewart's
organs " and powerful radial muscles ; and Phormosoma, W y v . Thomson,
with rudimentary Stewart's organs and without powerful radial muscles.
In the Echinothurinae the reduction in the calcification of the test,
which had begun in Pelancchinus, has been carried so far, that all the
ambulacral plates are disunited, but are held together by strong muscular
lining. In Asthenosoma there is, in addition, a series of powerful radial
muscles (Fig. X X X . ) , which give a panting motion to the test. The
FIG. X X I X .
Asthenosoma hystrix. Oral surface ; the tips of the jaws are seen protruding through
the peristomial membrane.
spines are covered by epithelium, and when handled can inflict a sharp
sting.
S U B - O R D E R 4. E C H I N I N A .
Diademoida in which the ambulacral plates typically consist of an

aboral and adoral primary, between which are one or more demi-plates.
T h e sub-order includes a series of Echinoids, in the simplest of which the
compound ambulacral plates consist of three primaries, and are separated
from one another by free primaries.
In the sub-order Arbacina the plates of the test are often fixed
together by sockets and knobs (Fig. X X I . 2), while in some genera, such
as Glypticus, there is a great development of the subsidiary ornament. In
312 THE ECHINOIDEA
the simplest forms of the Echinina both characters are further developed. In
the Chalk genera, Glyphocyphus and Zeuglopleurus (Fig. XXXI.), the sutures
are excavated by deep hollows, while the plates
are thickened by granules and ridges. From
such forms as these there is a gradual transi-
tion to others with deep pits, which dowel
into the plates, as in Temrwplewrus (Fig.
X X X I L ) . The transition from the diademine
to echinine type of ambulacral plates is
shown by Zeuglopleurus and Ortholophus. In
the former the plates consist of three fused
primaries, separated by free primaries. The
middle primary is often very small, and in
Ortholophus is often reduced to a demi-plate.
The plates then have the arrangement typical
of Echinus. From this oligoporous plate
the polyporous strongylocentrotoid type is
Fio. X X X .
produced by the development of one or
Radial muscle of Asthenosoma.
(After P. and F. Sarasin.)
more demi-plates between the aboral and
adoral primaries.
This sub-order began in the Cretaceous.
F A M I L Y 1. T E M N O P L E U R I D A E . Echinina in which the compound
ambulacral plates are formed of three constituents. In the oldest and
most primitive forms the three plates are all primaries ; in the later and
more specialised types the middle plate is crowded into a demi-plate
(i.e. the plates are on the Echinoid type). There is a great development
of superficial ornamentation, and the plates are
hollowed or undermined by depressions or pits.
S U B - F A M I L Y 1. G L Y P H O C Y P H I N A E . Temnopleuridae
in which the compound ambulacral plates are com-
posed of three primaries ; the plates are united by
dowelling, but there are no sutural pits. G e n e r a —
Glyphocyphus, Haime (syn. Rhdbdopleurus, Cott);
Zeuglopleurus, Greg. ; Echinocyphtts, Cott.; Paradox-
echinus, Laube ; Leiocyphus, Cott. S U B - F A M I L Y 2.
O R T H O L O P H I N A E . Temnopleuridae in which the com-
pound ambulacral plates are composed of two primaries
and an intermediate demi-plate. The plates are united
by dowelling, but there are no sutural pits. Genera
—Ortholoph-us, Dune.; Coptophyma, Peron & Gauth.;
Lepidopleurus, Dune. & Slad. ; (?) Trigonocidaris, A.
Ag.; Dictyopleurus, Dune. & Slad.; Arachniopleurus,
FIQ. XXXI.
Dune. & Slad. (Radiocyphus, Cott). S U B - F A M I L Y 3. ZeuglopUtirus costula-
TEMNOPLEURINAE. Temnopleuridae in which the tus, Greg.; plates of
compound ambulacral plates are composed of two upper part of an ambu-
primaries and an intermediate demi-plate. True lacrum showing simple
and compound plates
sutural pits occur, and these often undermine the and grooved sutures.
plates (Fig. X X X I L ) . Genera — Temnopkums, Ag.; Temnechinus,
Forbes; Opechinus, Desor; Pleurechinvu, Ag.; Saimacis, Ag.; Salma-
THE ECHINOIDEA 313
copsis, Doderlein; Mespilia, Desor; Microcyphus, Ag. ; Amblypneustes,
Ag. ; Goniopneustes, Dune.; (?) Holopneustes, Ag.; (1) Grammechinus, Dune.
& Slad.
F A M I L Y 2. T R I P L E C H I N I D A E . Echinina in which the ambulacral plates
consist of two primaries and an intermediate demi-plate. The three pairs
of pores are arranged in arcs of triplets; the sutural faces of all plates
are smooth ; and there are no pits or grooves in their substance ; so that
in these three respects the Triplechinidae differ from the Temnopleuridae,
though an approach to this family is shown by Grammechinus. G e n e r a —
Echinus, Linn. ; Psammechinus, Ag. ; Micropsina, Cott. ; Leiopedina, Cott.;
Tripneustes, Ag. ( = Hipponoe); Stirechinus, Desor ; Glyptechinus, Lor. ;
Hybechinus, Desor ; Toxopneustes, A. Ag. ; Boletia, Desor; Evechinus,
Verrill; Pedinopsis, Cott.
FIG. X X X I L
Temrwpleurus toreumaticus (after Agassiz), showing the pitted test.
FAMILY 3. STRONGYLOCENTROTIDAE. Echinina with more than three

constituents in each ambulacral plate, the pores being in high curved
arcs. Genera—Strongylocentrotus, Brandt; Sphaerechinus, Desor; Echino-
strephus, A. Ag. ; Eurypneustes, Duncan & Sladen; Pseudoboletia, Trosch. ;
Aeolopneutttes, Dune. & Slad.
F A M I L Y 4. E C H I N O M E T R I D A E . Echinina with three or more con-
stituents in each ambulacral plate. The test is elongate, and the long
axis does not coincide with the antero-posterior axis. Genera—Echino-
metra, Gray; Stomopneustes, Ag.; Heterocentrotus and Colobocentrotus,
Brandt; Parasalenia, A. Ag. T h e elliptical shape of the test is the most
remarkable character in this family. The perignathic girdle is very
powerful, each arch being surmounted by a cap (Fig. X I I L 4). T h e
spines are large and very varied in form. In Heterocentrotus the
secondary spines form a fur below the primary spines (Fig. XXXIII.) ;
in Colobocentrotus the spines are stout and end in flat surfaces; they
are so crowded together as to form a natural armour-plate (Fig.
314 THE ECHINOIDEA
FIO. X X X I I I .
Heteroccntrotu? mammillatus (after Agassiz), showing relation of primary and secondary spines.
FIO. X X X I V .
Colobocentrotus atratus, showing the tessellate arrangement of the spines.
XXXIV). The spines of the Triassic genus, Anaulocidaris, Zitt had

a similar arrangement.
THE ECHINOIDEA 315
S U B - C L A S S 3. I R R E G U L A R I S , Desor.
Echinoidea in which the anus lies outside the apical system of plates
in the posterior interradius.
O R D E R 1. Gnathostomata, Zittel.
Echinoidea Irregularia with a central peristome surrounded by a
perignathic girdle ; jaws present, but sometimes rudimentary. Ambu-
lacra all similar.
This is the first of the two orders of Irregular Echinoidea, and

differs from the other order—the Spaiangoida—by the presence of a
perignathic girdle and jaws. As in the Regular Echinoids, there is a
marked tendency for the anus to pass backward out of the apical
plates. In Pygasler the peristome is much like that of Stomechinus,
and the ambulacral plates are sometimes compound ; the jaws are fragile,
but otherwise normal. The only
character that excludes the genus
from the Diademoida is that
the anus opens outside the apical
plates (Fig. X X X V . 1). Pygaster is
thus the nearest form we know
to the ancestor of all the Clype-
astroid and Spatangoid sea-urchins.
The order Gnathostomata in-
cludes three main series. The first
was typically Mesozoic, and was
characterised by the reduction in
the functional importance of the
jaws, and the formation of the
perignathic girdle into a high tubu-
lar peristome. From this series Fio. xxxv.
branches diverged in opposite Irregular Echinoidea. 1, Pygaster semisul-
catus, Phil. ; Jurassic. S, Echinncorys scutatus,
directions. In one the jaws dis- Leske; Chalk. S, Galerites albogalerus, Leske;
appeared and the perignathic girdle Chalk, k, Scukila striatula, Serr.; Ol'ôcene,
Malta.
became rudimentary; while the
ambulacral plates remained as in Pygaster. This branch culminated in
the aberrant group of the Galeritidae. Later on a second branch was
given off; in this the jaws became of greater power; the ambulacra
became complex, parts of them expanding into petals, the podia of which
act as branchiae. The Gnathostomata may accordingly be divided into
two sub-orders.
S U B - O R D E R 1. H O L E C T Y P I N A .
Gnathostomata in which the jaws are reduced in size and strength.

In the most primitive members the jaws are arranged as in the
Diademoida ; but in later forms they are inside a tubular perignathic
girdle. The jaws do not worK on sockets.
316 THE ECHINOIDEA
This sub-order is difficult to characterise, as it includes the primitive

Irregular Echinoids, as well as one series of these forms which has
continued to the present day.
F A M I L Y 1. P Y G A S T E R I D A E . Holectypina in which the peristome is
large, and the perignathic girdle consists of disconnected processes.
The ambulacra are simple and apetaloid. Genera—Pygaster, Ag.
(Fig. X X X V 1) ; Pileus, Desor ; Pygastrides, Loven ; Holectypus, Desor ;
(?) Pachyclypeus, Desor; Galeropygus, Cott. F A M I L Y 2. DISCOIDIIDAE.
Holectypina in which the peristome is small and the perignathic girdle
tubular. Jaws unknown. Ambulacra apetaloid. Genera—Discoidea,
Gray ; Protocyamus,1 nom. nov. F A M I L Y 3. G A L E R I T I D A E . Holectypina
in which the perignathic girdle is rudimentary, jaws are absent, and
their place taken by ten buccal plates. Genera — Galerites, Lamk.
(Fig. X X X V . 3) ; Lanieria, Dune. ; Adelopneustes, Gauth. ; (?) Copto-
discus, Cott. & Gauth. F A M I L Y 4. C O N O C L Y P E I D A E . Holectypina in
which the peristome is small ; the perignathic girdle tubular and high,
surrounded by five bourrelets. Genera—Conoclypeus, Ag. ; Oviclypeus,
Dames.
SUB-ORDER 2. CLYPEASTRINA.
Gnathostomata in which the jaws are powerful. The teeth are

placed in pyramids, which articulate by a socketfittingon to vertical
processes ; the jaws only move horizontally, and have neither braces nor
compasses (p. 289). The ambulacra are petaloid.
This sub-order includes a series of striking variations from the
ordinary Echinoid type. Echinocyamus is the most primitive form, and
appears to have developed from an ancestor closely allied to Protocyamus.
The great advance in Echinocyamus is the expansion of parts of the
ambulacra into rudimentary petals (Fig. X X X V I . ) ; in the upper part
of the ambulacra the outer pores of the pore-pairs have increased to small
slits, and occur along curved lines, enclosing somewhat leaf-shaped areas.
Beyond these only a single pore occurs in each ambulacral plate. The
perignathic girdle of Echinocyamus consists of five vertical pegs, rising
from the interradial peristomial plates ; this reminds us of Galerites, in
which the perignathic girdle is reduced tofiveinterradial thickenings.
The structural differences between Protocyamus and Echinocyamus are
small, and their importance is exaggerated by the different shape of the tests
But Echinocyamus was succeeded by a very divergent series. Most of the
members of the group are long, broad, and low ; some are thin and flat
In these cases the upper surface regains the support it loses owino- to
departure from the dome-shaped form, by the development of pillars which
pass fromfloorto roof. The ambulacra in the typical forms are petaloid
and the podia in these areas expand to act as branchiae (Fig X X X V I ) In
some cases pores only occur in the petals ; in others they are scattered over
the test, occurring on both radial and interradial plates. In some senera
such as Laganum, though the petaloid portions of the ambulacra are broad!
1
A name suggested in lieu of Echinites proposed bv Duncan W ™.«™„„ . i
Leske for Echinoids, and by Miiller and Troschil for J i S ^ ^ r S ^ S ^ i
to mdicate the affinity of this echinoid with the EMnocyamm s ^ ° ted
THE ECHINOIDEA 3'7
they are narrower than the ambulacral plates in the extra-petaloid portions
which expand laterally, and are m u c h broader than the interambulacra.
In the simplest members of this group the interambulacra are, however,
" continuous" from apical system to peristome (as in Laganum) ; but in
the more advanced, such as Rotula, the interambulacra are " discontinuous,"
the ambulacra meeting one another and cutting off the interambulacral
peristomial plate from its connection with the rest of the interambulacrum.
Another feature peculiar to this sub-order is the presence of a series of
furrows on the lower surface of the test ; these are k n o w n as the actinal
furrows, and they are either straight, as in the Clypeastridae, or bifurcating,
as in the Scutellidae.
F A M I L Y 1. F I B U L A R I I D A E . Clypeastrina with ambulacra in rudi-
mentary open petals. T h e interambulacral plates are continuous. The
pillars are slightly developed. T h e perignathic girdle consists of five
single interradial processes. The peristomial interradial plate is large.

Genera—Echinocyamus, Phelsum (Fig. X X X V I I . ) ; Scutellina, Ag.; Sis-
mondia, Desor; Fibularia, Lam.; Thegaster, Pomel.
F A M I L Y 2. L A G A N I D A E . Clypeastrina with ambulacra petaloid ;
numerous pores for prehensile podia occur in addition to the large pores
for the respiratory podia. T h e interambulacral plates are " continuous " ;
the peristomial plate is m e d i u m in size and bears a single perignathic
process. T h e actinal furrows are simple and straight. G e n u s — L a g a n u m ,
Blainv.
F A M I L Y 3. S C U T E L L I D A E . Flat Clypeastrina with closed petaloid
ambulacra. T h e interambulacral plates are "discontinuous" in some or
all of the areas ; the peristomial plate is large and bears a single peri-
gnathic process. The actinal furrows are bifurcating. Genera—Scutella,
L a m . (Fig. X X X V . 4 ) ; Echinarachnius, Leske ; Echinodiscus, Ag.; Encope,
Ag.; Monophora, Ag.; Mellita, Ag.; Melitella, Dune.; Astriclypeus, Verrill;
Lenita, Desor ; Mortonia, Desor ; Rotula, Ag. (Fig. IX.) ; Rotuloidea,
Etheridge ; Moulinsia, Ag.; (?) Runa, Ag. The most striking feature in
this family is the extreme thinness and flatness of the tests. In some
species, such as Scutella striatula, the test m a y be 100 m m . in diameter,
and only 10 m m . in height. T h e upper surface accordingly needs greater
318 THE ECHINOIDEA
support than it could obtain from the margin of the test; this is given by
numerous pillars which connect the upper and lower walls. T h e external
margin is often notched, as in Scutella; the notches m a y deepen into
" slits " separated by finger-shaped processes, as in Rotula (Fig. IX.). In
some genera two adjacent processes unite at their free ends, and a hole
is left through the test; such holes are k n o w n as " lunules," and occur in
Mellita, Monoplwra, etc. All the interambulacral areas are discontinuous
in some genera, e.g. Encope, but in Rotula and Mellita one or two of the
areas m a y be continuous from peristome to apex.
F A M I L Y 4. C L Y P E A S T R I D A E . Clypeastrina with closed petaloid
ambulacra. T h e interambulacral plates are discontinuous; the peri-
stomial plate is small. There are two perignathic processes in each
area, and they are ambulacral in position. T h e actinal furrows are
straight. S I B - F A M I L Y 1. C L Y P E A S T R I N A E . Massive Clypeastridae with
closed petals; usually high. Genera—Clypeaster, Lam.; Echinanthus,
Leske ( = Diplothecanthus, D u n e ) ; Plesianthm, D u n e ; Auomalanthus,
Bell; Monodyehia, Laube. S U B - F A M I L Y 2. A R A C H N O I D I N A E . Flat, low
Clypeastridae with open petals. Genera—Arachnoides, Ag.; Alexandria,
Pfeffer. These genera are usually included as a sub-family of
Scutellidae, which they resemble in external form. Their structure,
however, allies them more nearly with the Clypeasters, with which they
agree in all fundamental characters. They diil'er from the Scutellidae
by having (1) a very small peristomial interambulacral plate, which in
some species m a y be absent in several areas ; v2) straight, simple, actinal
furrows ; (3) five pairs of ambulacral perignathic processes.
ORDER 2. Atelostomata, Zittel.
Echinoidea Irregularia, in which there are no jaws, teeth, perignathic

girdle, or external branchiae.
The Atelostomata introduce three additional structures, upon which

the classification within the order depends. These are the sternum,
floscelle, and fasciple. In Echinoids previously considered the mouth is
central or sub-central, and the five areas around it are of equal import-
ance ; but as the mouth becomes eccentric in position, one interradius
necessarily becomes longer than the rest. T h e anus is situated in this
interradius, which requires some modification of the plates for the sake of
increased strength. In the simplest of the Atelostomata the plates of the
posterior interradius are but slightly different from those of the other areas
but the plates are larger, and dovetail more deeply into one another.
In Collyrites there is a slight advance on this plan, and in genera such as
Echinocorys and Holaster the plates dovetail so deeply as to form a strong
sternum along the under side of the test This type is k n o w n as the
" meridosternous " (Fig. X X X V I I I . 1). In the next stage thefirstpair of
plates in the interambulacrum increase in length, and both are in contact
with the peristomial plate of the same area, as in Toxaster (Fig. X X X V I I I . 2)
This is the " amphisternous " type, the extreme form of which w e see in
Spatangus purpureus (Fig. X X X V I I I . 4).
THE ECHINOIDEA 319
W e have seen that the upper parts of the ambulacra of Clyveaster, etc.,
are modified into petals. In one section of the Atelostomata there is an
analogous expansion of the ambulacra round the peristome into " floscelles."
in
in
FIG. xxxviii.
The types of Spataugoid bterna. 1, nieiidostenious ; 3, 4, amphislernous ; i, intermediate.
1, Echinoeorys seutatus ; 2, Toxasterricordeanus;3, Cassidulus parificus; 4, Spatangus purpureas.
m, mouth ; a, anus.
The peristomial interambulacral plates are raised into projecting ridges

k n o w n as " bourrelets "; while the ambulacra are expanded into leaf-shaped
areas k n o w n as " phyllodes." T h e pore-pairs of the phyllodes are m u c h
larger than those of the rest of the ambulacrum. T h e five bourrelets
and five phyllodes together form the floscelle, which is typical of the
Cassidulidae.
A m o n g the Atelostomata large spines like those of Cidaris are never
found. T h e spines are very
numerous and generally small,
forming a fur over the test.
In some • cases specially modi-
fied spines occur crowded
together along bands (Figs.
X X X I X . - X L L ) , forming " fas-
cioles." There are five dif-
ferent varieties : (1) T h e
" peripetalous," which encloses
the petaloid portions of the FIG. X X X I X .
ambulacra; (2) the "subanal ;; Simple fasciole on AgassUia.
(s/in Fig. X X X V I I I . 4), which
encloses a space, or "plastron," below the anus; (3) the "marginal," along
the border of the test; (4) the " internal," which crosses the petaloid
portions of the ambulacra; and (5) the two " lateral," which run from
the peripetalous to below the anus. All five kinds of fascioles never
occur together in the same Echinoid.
320 THE ECHINOIDEA
T h e Atelostomata include two main divisions, which develop along

somewhat parallel lines.
Fio. X L .
Compound fasciole on part of test of Mocropneutles. (After Agassiz.)
SUB-ORDER 1. ASTERNATA.
Atelostomata with the peristome central and never bilabiate ; the

ambulacra simple, sub-petaloid, or petaloid, and generally all five are
similar. Floscelle generally present. N o sternum.
F A M I L Y 1. E C H I N O N E I D A E . Asternata with narrow, apetaloid, similar
ambulacra, and withoutfloscelle.Genera—Echinoneus, Van Phelsum ;
Galeroclypeus, Cott; Galeropygus, Cott. ; Hyboclypeus, Ag. ; Infraclypeus,
•m
an
s.a. •"
s.a.
Fio. X L I .
Diagram of ai Spatengoid Echinoid showing arrangement of the fascioles. i, internal fascinlA •
a, peripetalous fasciole ; I, lateral fasciole ; m, marginal fasciole ; s.a, subanal fasciole" a.ânul'
Gauth. ; Nucleopygus, Ag. ; Pileus, Desor ; Pachyclypeus, Desor • Purina

Desmoulins. '
F A M I L Y 2. N U C L E O L I T I D A E . Asternata with sub-petaloid ambulacra
and no floscelle. G e n e r a — A m b l y p y g m , A g . ; Anochanus, Grube • Anor
thopygus, Cott. ; Botriopygus, d'Orb. ; Caratomus, Ag. ; (?) Desorella Cott •
Haimea, Michelin ; Ilariona, D a m e s ; Nucleolites, L a m . (syn. Echinobrissus) •
Oligopodia, Dune. ; Oligopygus, Lor. ; Pygaulus, Ag.; Trematopygus d'Orb
THE ECHINOIDEA 321
FAMILY 3. C A S S I D U L I D A E . Asternata with closed, petaloid ambulacra

afloscelleis present. S U B - F A M I L Y 1. C L Y P E I N A . Genera—Clypeus, Leske;
Clypeopygus and Faujasia, d'Orb.; Pseudodesorella, Etallon; Pygurostoma,
Cott. & Gauth.; Pygurus, Ag. S U B - F A M I L Y 2. C A S S I D U L I N A E . Genera—
Australanthus, Bittner; Breynella, Greg. ; Cassidulus, Lam.; Eurhodia,
Archiac & Haime; Paralampas, Dune. & Slad. ; Pygorhynchus, Ag.;
Rhynchopygus, d'Orb. ; Stigmatopygus, d'Orb. S ^ s - F A M I L Y 3. C A T O -
PTGINAE. Genera—Catopygus, Ag. (Fig. X V I . 8); Neocatopygus, D u n e
& Slad.; Phyllobrissus, Cott; Pseudocatopygus, Cott. & Gauth. ; Stu-
deria, Dune. S U B - F A M I L Y 4. E C H I N O L A M P I N A E . Genera—Conolampas,
A Ag.; Echinolampas, Gray; Heteroclypeus, Cott.; Microlampas, Cott.;
Craterolcmpas, Cott.; MUletia, Dune.; Neolampas, A. Ag.; Oriolampas,
Munier-Chalmas ; Palaeolampas, Bell ; Phylloclypeus, Lor.; Plesiolampas,
Dune. & Slad. ; Vologesia, Cott. & Gauth. S U B - F A M I L Y 5. E O L A M -
PINAE. Genera—Archiacia, Ag. ; Asterostoma, Ag. ; Claviaster, d'Orb. ;
Eolampas, Dune. & Slad.
SUB-ORDER 2. STERNATA.
Atelostomata with the peristome eccentric anteriorly (usually bilabiate).

N ofloscelle; anterior ambulacrum different from the rest. A sternum is
present. Fascioles sometimes present.
F A M I L Y 1. C O L L Y R I T I D A E . Sternata withoutfloscelle.There is a
rudimentary meridosternum. The anterior ambulacrum is narrower
than the others. Apical system disjunct; the three anterior ambulacra
grouped together as the "trivium," and the two postero-lateral am-
bulacra as the "bivium." There are no fascioles. Genera—Collyrites,
Desmoulins ; Dysaster, Ag. (Fig. X V I . 6) ; Grasia and (?) Metaporhinus,
Michelin ; Pygorhytis, Pomel. Owing to the disjunct apical system, this
family has completely lost the radial symmetry, and presents some
remarkable resemblances to the Pourtalesiidae. It appears, however,
probable that while the Collyritidae have descended from some primitive
asternate form allied to Hyboclypus, the Pourtalesiidae are degenerate
forms of Prymnodesmian Sternata.
F A M I L Y 2. E C H I N O C O R Y T H I D A E . Meridosternous, labiate Sternata, with
an elongate apical system, and the ambulacra separated into a bivium
and trivium. Fascioles present in some genera. Genera—Calymne,
Wyv. Thorns. ; Cardiaster, Forbes; Coraster, Cott. ; Cystechinus, A. Ag. ;
Echinocorys, Leske (syn. Ananchytes, Lam., Fig. X X X V . 2) ; Enallo-
pneustes, Pomel; Enichaster, Lor.; Entomaster, Gauth.; Galeaster, Seunes ;
Guettaria, Gauth.; Hagenovia, Dune.; Hemipneustes, Ag.; Holaster, Ag.
(sub-gen. Sternotaxis, Lamb.); Infulaster, Hagenow; Jeronia, Seunes;
Lampadaster, Cott.; Offaster, Desor; Oolaster, Laube ; Ovulaster, Cott;
Stegaster, Pomel; Stenonia, Desor ; Tholaster, Seunes ; Urechinus, A. Ag.
F A M I L Y 3. S P A T A N G I D A E . Sternata with anterior ambulacrum re-
duced ; apical system compact; sternum either amphisternous or merido-
sternous. S E C T I O N 1. A D E T I N A E . Spatangidae without fascioles. Genera—
Archaeopneustes, Greg.; Clypeanthus, Cott.; Echinocrepis^ A. Ag.; Enallaster,
d'Orb. (Fig. X V I . 7); Epiaster, d'Orb.; Genicopatagus, A. Ag.; Hemipatdgus,
Desor; Heterolampas, Cott; Isaster, Desor; Macraster, Roem.; (?) Megalaster,
21
322 THE ECHINOIDEA
Dune. ; Palaeobrissus, A. Ag.; Palaeopneustes, A. Ag. ; Platybrissus, Grube ;

Spatagocystis, A. Ag. ; Toxaster, Ag. S E C T I O N 2. P R Y M N A D E T I N A E . Spa-
FIG. XLII.
Brissopsis lyrifera, Forbes, sp., showing podia in action, and peripetalous fasciole.
(After Loven).
Fio. XLIII.
Hemimter Philippii, with young echinoids in the marsupia. (After Wyville Thomson.)
tangidae with fascioles, but no subanal fasciole. Genera—Abatus Desor •

Aceste and Aerope, W y v . Thorns. ; Agassizia*, Valentin; BiissoLis As'
(Fig. XLII.); Coraster, Cott; Dipneustes, Cott; Faorina, Gray- Hemi
THE ECHINOIDEA 323
aster, Desor (Fig. XLIIL); Homoeaster and Hypsospatagus, Pomel:

Iraniaster, Cott. & Gauth. ; Lanibertiaster, Gauth; Linthia, Merian \
Moira, A. Ag.; Moiropsis, A. Ag. ; Ornithaster, Cott.; Pericolpitis',
Ag. ; Prenaster, Desor; Schizaster, Ag. S E C T I O N 3. P R Y M N O D E S M I N A E .
Spatangidae with subanal fasciole. Genera — Argopatagus, A. Ag.;
Brissopatagus, Cott.; Brissus, Leske; Breynia, Desor ; Cionobrissus, A. Ag.;
Cleistechinus,LoT.; Cyclaster, Cott; Echinocardium, Gray; Eupatagus, Ag.';
Gaultieria, Desor; Gibbaster, Gauth.; Homolampas, A. Ag.; Isopneustes',
Pomel; Linopneustes, A. Ag.; Lovenia, Ag. & Desor; Linchophorus]
Dames; Mocropnettsês, Ag.; Maretia, Meoma, and Metalia, Gray; W
crosier, Ag. ; Nacospatangus, A. Ag.; Neopneustes, Dune.; Palaeotropus,
FIG. X L I V .
Peristomial region of Spatangus purjrurens seen from inside the test (after Loven). I-V, the
Live ambulacra in which the vertical series are each marked <i or 6.
Loven ; Pygospatangus, Cott. ; Rhirwbrissus, A. Ag.; Sarsella, Pomel ;

Spatangomorpha, B o h m ; Spatangus, Leske (Figs. XLIV., XLV.) ; Stomo-
porus, Cott ; Tuberaster, Peron & Gauthier.
F A M I L Y 4. P A L A E O S T O M I D A E . Sternata with a pentagonal, alabiate
peristome, provided with five buccal plates; a peripetalous fasciole.
Genus—Palaeostoma, Loven (Leskia, Gray).
F A M I L Y 5. P O U R T A L E S I I D A E . Sternata with apetalous,flushambulacra.
Peristome in a deep anterior recess. Form elongate ;flator oral surface.
The ambulacral plates are uniporous (Fig. X L V L ) . This family includes
perhaps the three most perplexing of recent Echinoids ; but owing to the
extreme fragility of the tests their study is difficult, and owing to their
great variability the classification is at present unsatisfactory. The typical
genus Pourtalesia is the subject of an elaborate memoir by Loven (58). It
324 THE ECHINOIDEA
has a disconnected apical system, the postero-lateral interambulacra meet-

ing across it. In this and some other respects it resembles Collyrites ; but
it has a sub-anal fasciole, and is probably to be regarded as a degenerate
Spatangid rather than a direct descendant of the Mesozoic Collyritidae.
Fio XLV.
The Heart Urchin {Spatangus imrimreus). Abactinal side.
The second genus Spatagocystis agrees with Pourlalesia in the disruption

of the apical system, but it has no fasciole. The third genus Echinocrepu
also has no fasciole, but the apical system is compact
Fio. XLVI.
Pourtalesia Jeffreysi (Wyv. Thomson).
We are now in a position to discuss briefly, first, the relations

of the Echinoidea to the other classes of Echinoderma and
secondly, the lines of evolution within the class itself. ( C o m r m r A
v p
Chapter VIII. pp. 17, 33.)
THE ECHINOIDEA 325
Each of the main groups of Echinoderma has been at one time
regarded as the ancestor or nearest ally of the Echinoids, and the
question is still highly conjectural. Embryology gives very little
assistance. Study of the development of a young Echinothurid,
Echinocyamus, or Hemiaster (Fig. XLVII.) teaches important lessons
as to the affinities between those forms and other Echinoids. It
shows that the young Echinothurid resembles the Diademoida,
and that the young Hemiaster is endocyclic. But the earlier larval
stages have been so affected
by secondary variations
that they give no satis-
factory information as to
whether the Echinoids are
nearest to the Cystids,
Crinoids, Holothurians, or
Stelleroids.
T h e Crinoids are so
unlike the Echinoids in ap-
pearance and structure,
that w e k n o w of no form Fie. XLVII.
Larval form of Hcmiaster cavernosa, in the endocyclic
that appears to link the stage. (After Agassiz.)
two classes. ' Neverthe-
less, the Echinoidea have been regarded as descended from a
Crinoid-like ancestor. The acquirement of a radial symmetry
was unquestionably the most important event in the develop-
ment of the ancestral Echinoderm; it is easiest to explain this
as the result of fixation, and therefore the fixed, stalked forms
have been claimed as the ancestors of the free forms. It is further
argued that this conclusion is supported by the occurrence on the
abactinal side of some Echinoids and Stelleroids of a series of plates
k n o w n as the apical system. This system includes a central plate
surrounded by two circles of plates. The theory has been urged,
especially by the late P. H . Carpenter and by W . P. Sladen, that
the plates of this apical system are homologous with those of the
calyx of the Pelmatozoa, and are to be regarded as relics from a
period w h e n these plates were of great functional importance.
Unfortunately for this view, however, the calycinal or apical plates
are either absent or unimportant in the oldest Echinoids and
Asteroids; and it is in later groups, such as the Saleniidae and
Cidaridae, that the plates are developed on the supposed ancestral
plan. Moreover, instead of Tiarechinus—in which the apical plates
are most important—being ancestral, it is almost certainly an
aberrant, and somewhat degenerate offshoot.
T h e last blow to the idea of the apical plates of Echinoids
being homologous with the calyx plates of Crinoids, has been
given by MacBride, who, on embryological grounds, urges that
326 THE ECHINOIDEA
the abactinal poles of Asteroids and Crinoids, on which these plates

develop, have nothing to do with one another. MacBride recognises
the influence offixationon the anatomy of Starfish and Echinoids,
but maintains that suchfixationwas by the actinal surface in
these two classes, whereas in Crinoids it was by the abactinal
surface. (See, however, Chapter VIII. p. 14.)
The question as to which of the groups of organsfirstacquired
the radial character is of great importance in connection with the
origin of the Echinoderma. The Sarasins, who made a detailed
study of the Echinothuridae, were much impressed with the
importance of the radial muscles, and suggested that it was the
muscles thatfirstbecame pentamerous. There are many striking
points of resemblance between such a form as Asthenosoma and the
Holothurians. The Sarasins therefore ridiculed the supposed Crinoid
ancestor as a " Crinoid phantom," and derived the Echinoidea from
the Holothurians. This argument is based on the idea that the
primitive characters of the Echinothuridae are due to inheritance
from the ancestral Echinoid. But it appears most probable that
the Echinothuridae arose from the Diademoid Pedina, or from
some close ally of that genus. The primitive characters of the
Echinothuridae are therefore secondarily acquired, and are not
original. The immediate ancestor of the family lived in the
Jurassic, and not in the Palaeozoic seas. To accept this con-
clusion means to abandon the derivation of the Echinoids from the
Holothurians.
Leuckart, in 1848, separated the Echinoderma into the three
groups of the Pelmatozoa, Echinozoa, and Scytodermata, and this
classification is still generally used in practice. In the two latest
arrangements of the Echinoderma, those of Bell and Haeckel, the
Echinoids are still grouped with the Stelleroids. They undoubtedly
agree in several important characters, the members of both classes
having the gonads pentamerous, the oral surface kept downward,
and power of locomotion.
The class Stelleroidea is older than that of the Echinoidea, but
we know of no member of the former that can be regarded as the
ancestor of the latter.
The evidence in favour of the origin of Echinoids from Cystids
or allied forms is more weighty. Neumayr advocated this view
(64, 65), and it has recently received fresh support from Haeckel
(36 on p. 213). Neumayr included Echinocystis in the Cystidea.
The genus is, however, here included among the Echinoids. The
uncertainty as to its position shows that there is an approximation
between the two classes. W e are, therefore, forced to the position
that one groupl of primitive Pelmatozoa diverged from the main
stem and approximated to the Echinoids; and that it was succeeded
1
Separated in Chapter XII. as a Class—Edrioasteroidea.
THE ECHINOIDEA 327
by Echinoids so similar in structure that it is hard to draw a satis-
factory line of separation.
Although the ancestral Echinoid is still unknown, the main
lines of evolution in the class are clearly recognisable. T h e
Echinoids began with forms having small, sac-like bodies, and a
mouth and anus at opposite poles; the body was muscular,
supported by a series of angular plates, of which five pairs were
perforated by pores. A t the summit of the" test occurred the
apertures of the alimentary, generative, and water - vascular
systems; and the apertures of these systems were supported and
held in place by a series of special plates.
A tfirstthe palaeontological record is incomplete, the plates of
the test being thin, fragile, and loosely fitted together. Hence
there is a gap between the Echinoid just described and its next
k n o w n successors, in which the interradial plates are irregular,
and the apical system of plates is absent. But as the skeleton
thickens, fossils become more abundant and better preserved.
W e can see the increase in the number of interambulacral
and of ambulacral plates up to forms such as Melonites. Then,
as the plates became stouter, the flexibility of the test was
lost; thus the advantage of having small, numerous plates was
lost. Hence the Echinoids with more than twenty rows of plates
disappeared, and were succeeded by a group, the main feature of
which was the consolidation of the test. About the same time
there appeared an offshoot from the main stem, in which the test
was strengthened by a great development of the apical system;
this arrangement reached its highest development in two aberrant
genera (Tiarechinus and Lysechinus) which lived in the Triassic
coral lagoons of the Tyrol. T h e Melonitoida and Plesiocidaroida
apparently left no issue, and all existing and post-Triassic Echinoids
appear to have descended from the primitive genera of Cidaroida.
F r o m Cidaris, with its ambulacra of simple primary plates, the
more complex types were developed by the crowding of the pore-
pairs, and the decrease in size and increase in number of the
spines; hence the ambulacral plates become compound, and the
interambulacral plates bore numerous tubercles and granules, and
thus gave rise to the various groups of Begular Echinoidea. In
some deep-sea forms the calcification of the external skeleton is
imperfect; the plates are thin and the muscles strong; by the
imbrication and isolation of the plates there is a return to some of
the features of the flexible Palaeozoic Echinoids.
T h e main departure from the type of regular Echinoids is
due to the backward movement of the anus interfering with
the originally quinqueradiate arrangement of the organs (Fig.
XLVI.). T h e mouth passes forward, the jaws disappear, the
ambulacral podia become specialised for respiration as well as
328 THE ECHINOIDEA
locomotion, the apical system of plates becomes compact, elongate,

disjunct, or rudimentary, and a bilateral symmetry replaces the
primitive, pentameral symmetry. At first the jaws are retained ;
but as the body becomes bilateral, the mouth is constricted, and
room for play of the jaws is lessened. N o doubt all Echinoids get
a proportion of nourishment from the m u d and sand which they
swallow ; but as their jaws become smaller, and they can browse
less effectively, the* importance of this food-supply becomes more
important. The development of a projecting under lip below the
mouth was an advantage to the Echinoid, by enabling it to swallow
more food. Hence the Irregular Echinoids began with teeth and a
central m o u t h — a type first met with in the lower Jurassic; later
on, in the Jurassic, came the second type, in which there are no
jaws and the mouth is eccentric; the former is the order Gnatho-
stomata, and the latter the order Atelostomata. The Gnathostomata
began in the Jurassic with the genus Pygaster, which differs from
the regular ectobranchiate Echinoids only by the anus opening
behind the apical system; the Pygastridae were succeeded in the
Cretaceous by the Discoidiidae, from one genus of which, Proto-
cyamus, there is an easy passage to the Fibulariidae, and thus to
the sub-order Clypeastrina.
The order Atelostomata has apparently also been derived from
a genus allied to Pygaster. The jaws are lost, and the apical
system either remains compact or becomes elongate: the former
series possibly began with Galeropygus, whence the rest of the
asternate forms were derived. The series with elongate apical
systems began with some such genus as Hybodypms, which led the
way to the Collyritidae and Echinocorythidae, whence the higher
Spatangid Echinoids descended.
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THE ECHINOIDEA 329
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INDEX
To names of Classes, Orders, Sub-Orders, and Genera ; to technical terms ; and to
names of Authors discussed in the text.
Abacocrinus, 165 AdeUvpneu4es, 316 Amphiglpplm, 278

abactinal skeletal elements, A<letin;ie, 321 Ainphilepis, 278
109 adetopueustic, 254 Amphipholis, 278
Abutvs, 322 adradii, 20 amphisternous, 318
aboral circular sinus (Oph.), Adunata, 155 Amphiura, 278
266 Aeolopueustes, 313 * 1 ? H ^ A W « , 169
Abracrinns, 166 Aerope, 322 Apiphuracrinus, 170
Abrotocrinux, 180 Aeswcrinns, 180 Amphwaeystis, 47
Acacocrinus, 166 Aesiocystis, 208 Amphoridea, 43
Acanthareluiste'r, 251 Aethocystis, 57 ampulla, 290
Acanthaster, 258 A elites, 53 Awi/gdaloeystis, 58
Acanthechinas, 309 Aganaster, 275 anal plates (Crin.), 119;
Acanthocrinus, 201 Agarieocrinns, 167 (Ech.), 294
Acanthocystis, 46 Agassiz, A., 240, 285 — spiracle, 85
acanthosphenote, 287 Agassiz, L., 240, 260, 261, — tube, 131
Acanthotrochus, 234 284 — a-, 119
accessory intestine, 27 Agassizia, 322 Ananchytes, 321
—-plates (Art.), 246 Agassizocrinus, 181 Anupta, 234
Acentrotremites, 90, 92 Agelacrinoidea, 205 Anasterias, 258
Aceste, 322 Agelacrinus, 207 AwfMlocidavis, 314
Achlyonice, 229 Agelacystis, 207 anchylosis, 108
Achradocrinits, 178 Ageladiscus, 208 Ancyrocrinus, 177
Achradocyslis, 55 Agrioerinus, J 56 anectobrancliiate, 304
Acrocliordocrimts, 192 Aldrovandus, U-, 283 •dttiaocriniM, 18&
Aerocidaris, 307 4/ec<o, 195 Ankyroderma, 233
ytcrocn'raws, 159 Alexandria, 918 Anoc/ianus, 320
Acrosalenia, 306 Allagecrinus, 151 Anomalanthus, 318
•rflcrowra, 278 A Mania, 201 Anomalocrinus, 146
actinal furrows (Ech.), 317 Attocrinns, 162 Anomalocystis, 51
— skeletal elements, 109 Allocystis, 72 Anorthopygvs, 320
Actinocrinus, 169 Alloprosallocrinus, 167 Antedon, 195
Actinocucumis, 230 Amblacrinus, 156 Anthenea, 253
actinogonidial, 237 Amblypneustes, 313 Anthenoides, 253
actino-lateral spines, 256 Amblypygus, 320 Anthocystis, 62
./tcWnomrtra, J 96 ambulacra, 2, 15 ; (Blast.), Anlhemocrinus, 200
Actinophyma, 310 78 ; (Ech.), 286 Anthoerinus, 176
Actinopoda, 227 ambulacralia, ambulacrals autimeres, 19
actinostomial ring (Ast), (Crin.), 100,115; (Ast), /lorocn'nwa, 167
241 241; (Ech.), 288,296 Aphroditaster, 251
Actinozoa (Leuckart), 33 ambulacral mouth, 247 apical nervous system, 30
adambulacral, 20 amnion (Ech.), 15 •— system (Crin.), 112 ;
— mouth, 247 amoebocytes, 22 (Oph.), 268; (Ech.), 286,
adambulacrals (Crin.), 115; Amorphocystis, 55 294. See also calycinal
(Ast), 241; (Oph.), 270 Ampheristocrinus, 173 Apiocrinus, 191
Adelocrinus, 201 Amphiaster, 254 Apimystis, 61
334 INDEX
Apiocrinus, 151 -4s<erocfo»i, 253 Bathybiaster, 252
Apneumona, 226 Asteroidea, 239 ; diag- Bathycrinus, 186
Apodes, 226 nosed, 248 Bathyplotes, 227
Aporita, 69 Asteropsis (Cott.), 309 Batocrinus, 167
Aporocrinus, 201 — (M. & T.), 254 Baueria, 306
Apostolides, N. G, 261 Asterostoma, 321 Baur, A., 218
AraAhniopleurus, 312 Asthenosoma, 311 Baur's vesicles, 32
Arachnocrinus, 175 ^4s<reWa, 252 Bdellacoma, 254
Arachnocystis, 54 Astriclypeus, 317 Belemnocrinus, 152
Arachnoides, 318 Astrios, 202 Belemnocystis, 51
Arbacia, 308 ^4s<roceras, 276 Bell, F. J., 261, 285, 326
Arbacina, 307 ^ls<rocA«Ze, 276 Belon, P., 218
arcade-like spaces (Ast), .dstfrocMwJa, 276 Bentliaster, 257
248 Astrocoma, 202 Benthodytes, 229
Arclvaeocidaris, 302 Astrocrinus (Austin), 91 Benthopecten, 251
Arc/uteocrinus, 200 — (Conr.), 161 Beyrichocrinus, 168
Archaeodiadeina, 308 — (Cumb.), 202 bifascial articulation, 117
Archaeopneuslcs, 321 Astrocystites, 209 Bipinnaria, 5, 248
Archaster, 251 Astrodon, 276 biscuit spicules (Hoi.), 224
Arclmsterias, 250 Astrogomphus, 276 biserial arms, 115
Archegocystis, 73 Astrugonium, 253 bivium, 11 ; (Hoi.), 220 ;
Archiacia, 321 Astronyx, 276 (Ech.), 296
Argaster, 250 yls<rqpecte?f, 252 Blainville, H. D. de, 240,
Argopatagus, 323 Astrophyton, 276 260
Aristocrinus, 190 Astropodia, 202 Blairocrinus, 169
Aristocystis, 44 Astroporpa, 276 Blakiasler, 251
Aristotle, 218, 283 Astropyga, 310 Blastoidea diagnosed, 78
ana (Crin.), 112; (Ast.), Astroschema, 276 Blastoidocrinus, 80
241 ; (Oph.), 262, 267, Astrotoma, 276 Bohadsch, J. B., 218
270. See also brachia Astylocrinus, 181 Bohemicocrinus, 201
— facet, 100 A taxocrinus, 146 Boletia, 313
— pores, 130 Atelecrinus, 195 boss (Ech.), 287
Arthracantha,. 158 Atelecystis, 51 Bothriocidaris, 300
Arthraster, 255 Atelestocrinus, 179 Bothriocidaroida, 300
article basal, 108 Atelostomata, 318 Botriopygtis, 320
articles brachiaux, 204 Atocrinus, 202 Botryocrinus, 179
Articulata (Bather), 178 ; Aulocrinus, 180 Bourgueticrinus, 194
(Jaekel), 141 ; (Miller), Auricularia, 5, 225 bourrelet, 319
138; (Miiller), 138 ; (W. Austinocrinus, 183 brace, 289
& Sp.), 139 Australanthus, 321 brachia, 3, 100, 112. See
articulation (Crin.), 108 axial caual, 101 also arm
Articulosa (Jaekel), 141 ; — cord, 12, 103 brachialia, 100, 204
(W. & Sp.) 140 — organ, 23 ; (Ech.), 291 Brachiocrinus, 146
Ascidiastella, 218 — sinus, 22 ; (Crin.), 103 ;brachiola, brachioles, 3- 41
Ascocystis, 77 (Ast.) 243 ; (Oph.), 266 Brachiolaria, 6, 248
Aspidocrinus, 201 axillare, axillary, 114 branchiae (Ech.), 293
Aspidodiadema, 308 Ayers, H., 32 branchial vesicles, 245
Aspidosoma, 250 azygos plates, 204 Braudt J. F., 226, 240
Aspidura, 278 Breynia, 323
.dstferia, 201 Bactrocrinus, 173 Breynius, J. P., 283
Asterias, 201, 258 Baculocystis, 46 Briarocrinus, 162
— rubens, 241 Baerocrinus, 145 Brisinga, 259
Asteriatites, 201 Balanocrinus (Ag.), 182 Brisingaster, 259
Asterid plane, 21 — (Troost), 202 Brissopatagus, 323
Asterina, 254 Balanocystis, 77 Brissopsis, 322
Asternata, 320 Barrande, J., 44, 48 Brissus, 323
Asteroblastus, 80 Barrandeocrinus, 166 Bronn, H. G., 40
.4s£erocrtnws (Lyon), 159 Barycrinus, 179 buccal fissures, 263
— (Miinst), 201 basalia, basals (Crin.), 99, — papillae, 264
Asterocystis, 80 122 ; (Ast), 246 ; — shield, 264
Asterodiscus, 254 (Ech.), 294 ; (Oph.), 268 Buch, L. v., 40
INDEX 335
Bundenbachia, 274 Catillocrinus, 150 Clonocrinus (Quenst), 162
Bursacrinus, 180 Catopygus, 321 close suture, 108
bursae, 26 Caudina, 233 Closterocrinus, 173
.bursal slit, 264 Caulaster, 251 Clypeanthus, 321
Bury, H., 218, 240, 261, Cenocrinus, 182 Clypeaster, 318
285 central blood-plexus, 23 Clypeastrina, 316
central plate (Oph.), 268 Clypeopygus, 321
Cacdbocrinus, 164 centrale, 135 Clypeus, 321
Cactocrinus, 170 Centriocrinus, 162 Cnemidiaster, 255
caeca (Ast.), 243 Centrocrinus (Austin), 157 Coadunata, 138
Cainocrinus, 182 — (W. & S p . ) , 162 Coccocrinus, 156
Calamocrinus, 192 — (Worthen), 202 Codaster, 82, 92
Calathocrinus (Hall), 170 centro-dorsal, 135 Codechiuus, 310
— (Meyer), 182 Ccntrosteplianus, 309 Codiacrinus, 177
Calceocrinus, 148 Ceramocrinus, 177 Codiacystis, 73
Caleidocrinus, 201 Ceriocrinus (Desor), 191 Codiopsis, 309
Calix, 46 — (White), 180 Codonites, 84
CaUaioaycrinus, 190 Cliaetaster, 255 Codonoblastida, 91
Calliaster (Gray), 253 Glieiraster, 251 Codonocrinus, 202
— (Trautsch), 259 Cheirocrinus (Eichw.), 63 Codaster (Sandb.), 259
Callicrinus, 164 — (Hall), 148 Coelasterias, 255
CaUiderma, 253 — (Salter), 148 coeliac canal, 101
Callocystis, 62 Cheiroptastcr, 257 Cocliocriuus, 180
Calocrinus, 202 Chelocrinns, 182 Coelocrinus (M. & W . ) ,
Calpiocrinus, 189 Chiaje, S. Delle, 240, 284, 167
Calvasterias, 258 285 — (Salter), 200
Calycantlwcrinus, 150 chiasma (Crin.), 114 coelom, 7
Calycaster, 255 Chiridota, 234 Coelopleurus, 308
Calycina, 306 Chitonaster, 253 collateral organ, 23
calycinal system, 14 ; Chladocrinus, 182 Colly rites, 321
(Oph.), 268. See also Cholaster, 275 Colobocentrotus, 313
apical Chondrocidaris, 302 Colochirus, 230
CaZymne, 321 Clioriaster, 254 Colpaster, 259
Calyptaster, 257 chromatogen organ, 23 columna, 48, 99. See also
calyx, 99 Cidaris, 302 stem
Gainarocrinus, 77, 161 Cidaroida, 301 columuals, 105, 132
Camerata ( W . & S p . ) , 139 Cidaropsis, 307 Comarocystis, 55
— Dicyclica, 198 Cigara, 48 Comaster, 196
— Monocyclica, 159 ciliated urns, 235 Comatula, 195, 196
Campanulites, 202 Cionobrissus, 323 Comatuliua, 202
Camptocrinus, 159 Circopeltis, 307 Comaturella, 202
canal furrow (Oph.), 262 circumoesophageal canal compass (Ech.), 289
Canistrocrinus, 161 (Ast.), 243; (Oph.), Compsaster, 255
Caphcira, 229 265. See also Hydro- Compsocrinus, 165
Carabocrinus, 172 circus Comptonia, 253
Caratomus, 320 — nerve-ring (Criu.), 102 ; Coudylocriuus, 201
Cardiaster, 321 (Ast.), 245 connective tissue, 28
Cardiocystis, 77 cirri, 107, 133 Conoclypeus, 316
Carduocrinus, 179 Cirrigrada, 260 Conocrinus (d'Orb), 194
Carolicrinus, 165 Citrocystis, 53 — (Troost), 202
Carpenter, P. H., 14, 44, Cladocrinus (Aust), 189 Conolampas, 321
91, 139, 140, 182, 325 Cladoidea (Jaekel), 141 convoluted organ, 136
Carpocrinus, 166 Cladophiurae, 276 Cophinus, 202
Carpocystis, 73 Claviaster, 321 Coptodiscus, 316
Caryocrinus, 67 clavulae, 31 Coptophyma, 312
Caryocystis, 55 Cleiocrinus, 191 Coptosoma, 310
Caryophyllites, 197 Cleistechinus, 323 Coraster, 322
Cassianocrinus, 182 Clematocrinus, 156 Cordylocrinus, 156
Cassidtdus, 321 Clidochirus, 188 corona (Crin.), 99
CastanocrimtrS, 161 cloaca (Hoi.), 221 Coronaster, 258
Castocrinus, 148 Clonocrinus (Oehl.), 161 Cororwcrinus, 164
336 INDEX
Corylocrinus, 67 Cyclaster, 323 Diademoida, 306
Corymbocrinus, 162 Cyclocrinus (d'Orb.), 192 Diademopsis, 309
Coscinasterias, 258 — (Eichw.), 77 Diamenocrinus, 200
Cosmasterias, 258 Cyclocystoides, 210 dibrachialia, 204
Cosmocrinus, 179 Cylicocrinus (S. A. Mill.), Dichocrinus, 159
costalia, 141, 204 166 dichotomy of arms, 112
Costata (Miiller), 138 ; Cylicocrinus (Miiller), 156 dicostalia, 204
(Jaekel), 141 Cypelloerinus (Shum.), Dictyaster, 258
Cottaldia, 309 156 Dictyocrinus, 77
Cotylecrinus, 198 — (Stein.), 177 Dictyqpleurus, 312
Cotylederma, 198 Cyplwcrinus, 199 dicyclic, 99, 110
Cotyledonocrinus, 159 Cyphosoma, 310 Dicyclica, diagnosed, 171
covering-plates, 101. See Cypressocrinus, 202 — Camerata, 198
also ambulacrals Cyrtidocrinus, 188 — Inadunata, 171
Craspidaster, 252 Cyrtocrinus, 197 Dimeroerinus (Pacht), 190
Craterina (Barr.), 46 Cystaxter, 207 — (Phill.), 198
Craterolampas, 321 Cystasteroidea, 205 Dimorphicriuus, 84, 202
Creniacrinus, 148 Cystechinus, 321 Dinocystis, 209
Crenaster (Perr.), 251 Cystidea, diagnosed, 39 Diplasterias, 258
Cribrella, 258 Cystidea (Barr.), 77 Dipleurula, 4
Cribrellites (Tate), 259 Cystoblastus, 64 Diplocidaris, 303
cribriform organs, 251 Cystocidaroida, 300 Diplopodia, 309
Orinocystis, 77 Cystocrinus, 202 diplopores, 41
Crinoidea, diagnosed, 94 ; Cytocrinus, 161 Diploporita, 70
(Jaekel), 141 ; (Midler), Diplotagma, 309
138 ; (Roemer), 33 Daetylocrinus (Quenst.), Diplothecanthus, 318
— brachiata, 94, 138 189 DipneusUs, 322
Cromyocrinus, 181 — (Slad.), 180 Dipsacaster, 252
Crossaster, 256 Dactylocystis, 74 Disasterina, 254
Crotalocrinus, 176 Dadocrinus, 182 disc (Art.), 2 ; (Crin.),
crown, 99 Daemonocrinvs, 202 9 9 ; (Oph.), 262
Crumenaecrinus, 202 Decacnevws, 202 Discocidaris, 302
Cryptaster, 257 Decadactylocrinus, 202 Discocystis, 208
Cryptoblastus, 89, 92 Decadoa-inus, 180 Discoidea, 316
Cryptocrinus, 69 Decameros, 202 distal (Crin.), 109
Cryptodiseus, 164 i)cM»a, 229 distichalia, 204
Cryptoschisma, 84, 92 deeper oral nervous system, Distincta, 178
Cryptozonia, 254 30 Dizygocrinus, 168
CrystaUocystis, 53 Delocrinus, 180 Dolatocrinus, 164
Ctenaster, 256 Deltacrinus, 148 Dolichocrinus, 197
Ctenocrinus, 161 deltoidea, 100. See also Doliolocrinus, 202
Ctenodiscus, 251 oralia Donaciermus, 202
Cucumaria, 230 demi-plates, 288 Dorigona, 253
Cuenot, L., 33, 218, 240, Democrinus, 194 Dorocidaris, 302
261, 294 Dendrocrinacea, 171 dorsal canal, 101
Cuicita, 254 Dendrocrinoidea, 178 — cup, 99
Cultcocriwus, 156 Dendrocrinus, 179 — fossa, 116
Cupellaecrinus, 156 — cavibrunsis, 146 — organ, 23
Cupressocrinus, 177 Dendrocystis, 47 — shield, 262
Cupulaster, 259 dental papillae (Oph.), 272 dorso-centra], 14, 106
Cupulocrinus, 202 Derbes, A., 285 Dorycrinus, 167
Cuvier, G., 1, 218, 226 dermal branchiae, 245 Dujardin, F., 40, 260, 284
Cuvierian organs, 223 Dermasterias, 254 Duncan, P. M., 284, 299,
Cyathidium, 198 desmactinic, 237 306
Cyathocrinacea, 171 Desmidocrinus, 166 Duvernoy, G. L „ 240
Cyathocrinidae (W. & Sp.), Desor, E., 284 Dysasttr, 321
171 Desorella, 320 Dytaster, 251
Cyathocrinoidea, 172 Deutocystis, 46
Cyathocrinus, 173 Diabolocrinus, 200 Ec/iinanthus, 318
Cyathocystis, 208 Diadema, 309 Echinarachnius, 317
Cycethra, 254 Diademina, 308 Echinaster, 258
INDEX 337
Echinasterella, 257 Enichaster, 321 Faujasia, 321
Echinid plane, 21 Enneacystis, 67 Ferdina, 255
Echinina, 311 Enoploura, 51 Fibularia, 317
Echinites (Duncan), 316 Entomaster, 321 fimbriated channels (Oph.),
Echinobrissus, 320 Entrochus, 202 251
Echinocardium, 323 Enypniastes, 229 finials, 115
Echinochrome, 23 Eocystis, 48 Fistulata (Jaekel), 141 ;
Echinocidaris (Dune), 308 Eodiadema, 308 (W. & Sp.) 139
Echinocorys, 321 Eolampas, 321 Fistulides, 218
Echinocrepis, 324 Eoluidia, 275 fixed brachials, 112
Echinocrinus (L. Ag.), 202 Eospondylus, 275 Flabellocrinus, 182
Echinocucumis, 230 Epactocrinus, 177 Flexaster, 257
Echinocyamus, 317 Epiaster, 321 Flexibilia, 140, 187
Echinocyphus, 312 epineural canal, 15, 30 floscelle, 319
Echinocystis (Hall), 70 (Oph.), 266 Forbes, E., 260
— (W. Thorns.), 301 epipodium, 288 Forbesiocrinus (Ang.), 189
Echinoderma, diagnosed, 34 epithecal food-grooves, 41 — (de Kon.), 189
Echinodiadema, 309 epizygal, 108, 117 — Agassizi, 190
Echinodiscus (Ag.), 317 Eretmocrinus, 167 forcipiform pedicellariae,
— (Worth. & Mill.), 208 Erinocystis, 60 247
Echinoencrinus, 60 Erisocrinus, 181 forficiform pedicellariae,
Echinoidea, 282 Etheridge, R.fil.,91, 139 247
— diagnosed, 299 ethmolysian, 295 food-groove, 100
Echinolampas, 321 ethmophract, 295 Freyella, 259
Echinometra, 313 Euasteroidea, 249 Fromia, 255
Echinoneus, 320 Eublastoidea, 81 Fungocystis, 74
Echinopedina, 310 Eucalyptocrinus, 164 Furcaster, 275
Echinopsis, 308 Euchirocrinus, 148
Echinosphaera, 53 Eucladia, 275 Oagaria, 310
Echinostrephus, 313 Eucladocrinus, 158 Oaleaster, 321
Echinothrix, 310 Eucrinoidea, 139 Galerites, 316
Echinothuria, 311 Eucrinus, 199 Galeroclypeus, 320
Echinozoa, 33 Eucystis, 72 Galeropygus, 316
Echinus, 313 Eudesicrinus, 198 Gammarocrinus, 197
— esculentus, 285 Eudiocrinus, 195 Ganeria, 254
Ectenocrinus, 146 Euechinoidea, 299 Ganymeda, 203
Ectobranchiata, 306 Eugaster, 274 Gasterocoma, 177
ectoderm, 30 Eugeniacrinus, 197 Gastraster, 258
Edrioaster, 209 Eupachycrinus, 181 Gastrocrinus, 179
Edrioasteroidea, diagnosed, Eupatagus, 323 Gaudry, A., 240
205 Euphronides, 227 Gaurocrinus, 203
Edriocrinus, 191 Eupyrgus, 233 Gauthieria, 310
Edriocystis, 209 Eurhodia, 321 Gazacrinus, 188
Edwardsocrinus, 157 Euryale (Konig.), 154 Geniccpatagus, 321
Elaeacrinus, 88 — (Lam.), 276 genital nerve ring, 266
Elasipoda, 226 Euryalecrinus, 189 — organs, 24
Eleutherocrinus, 87, 92 Euryocrinus, 190 — plate, 264
Eleutherozoa, 33 Eurypneustes, 313 — rachis, 101
— diagnosed, 217 Euspirocrinus, 173 — ring (Ech.), 291
Elpidia, 229 Eutrochocrinus, 167 — scale, 264
Emperocrinus, 202 Evechinus, 313 — stolon, 23
Enallaster, 321 exocyclic (Ech.), 294 genitals (Ech.), 286, 294
Enallocrinus, 176 — gut (Crin.), 136 Gennaeocrinus, 169
Enallopneustes, 321 exothecal processes, 41 Geocoma (Fraas), 195
Encope, 317 external gills, 26 — (d'Orb.), 278
Encrinos, 202 Extracrinus, 182 Geocrinus, 168
Encrinus, 181 eye, 32, 245 Gibbaster, 323
Endobranchiata, 300 Gilbertsocrinus, 201
endocyclic (Ech.), 294 Fabricius, O., 218 Gissocrinus, 175
— gut (Crin.), 136 Faorina, 322 glandular organ, 23
endothecal food-grooves, 41 fasciole, 319 — pedicellariae, 31
22
33% INDEX
Glaphyrocystis, 60 Halysiocrinus, 148 Homocrinus, 179

Glcnotremites, 203 Hamann, O., 218, 240, 261 Homocystis, 64
Glyplwcyphus, 312 Hapalocrinus, 156 Homoeaster, 323
Glyptaster, 198 Haplocrinus, 151 Homolampas, 323
Glyptechinus, 313 Haplocystis, 208 Hoplaster, 253
(llypticus, 307 Haplodactyla, 233 Hoplocrinus, 145
Glyptocrinus, 161 haplopores, 41 Hupe, H., 40, 284
Glyptocystidae, 58 Harmocrinus, 162 Huxley, T. H.. 33
Glyptocystis, 64 heart, 23 Hybechinus, 313
Glyptospliaera, 73 Helianthaster, 258 Hyboclypeus, 320
Gnathaster, 253 Heliaster, 258 Hybocrinus, 145
Gnathocrinus, 203 Helikodiadema, 309 Hybocystis, 95, 145
Gnathostomata, 315 Heliocrinus, 55 Hydrasterias, 258
guathostomate, 304 Heliocystis, 55 Hydreionocrimis, 180
Gnorimocrinus, 189 Helmintholithus, 203 Hydriocrinus, 180
Goldfussia (Norman), 203 Hemiaster, 322 hydrocircus, 12, 102
Gomphocystis, 77 Hemicidaris, 307 hydrocoel, 7
gonads, 25 Hemicosmites, 66 hydrophores palmees, 44,
Goniaster, 253 Hemicrinus, 197 46, 73
Goniasteroidocrinus, 201Hemicystis, 207 hydropore, 8, 103
Goniocidaris, 302 Hemieuryale, 276 hydrospire plates, 86
Goniocrinus, 179 Hemiglypha, 278 hydrospires, 83
Gqniodlscus, 253 Hemipatagus, 321 Hymenaster, 257
Goniodon, 253 Hemipedina, 309 Hymenodiscus, 259
Goniopecten, 251 Hemipholis, 278 Hyocrinus, 153
Goniqphorus, 306 Hemipneustes, 321 Hypanthocrinus, 164
Goniopneustes, 313 Henricia, 258 Hyperocrinus, 168
Goniopygus, 307 Herouard, E., 218 Hyphalaster, 251
Gonocrinus, 60 Herpetocrinus, 146 Hypocrinus, 178
Gorgonocephalus, 276 Hertha, 203 Hyponome, 77, 195
Gothocrinus, 179 Heteroblastus, 90, 92 hypostereom, 45
Grammechinus, 313 Heterocentrotus, 313 Hypostoma, 260
Grammocrinus, 203 Heterocidaris, 309 hypothecal, 2
Granatoblastida, 92 Heteroclypeus, 321 hypozygal, 108, 117
Granatocrinus, 90 Heterocrinus, 146 Hypsospatagus, 323
Graphiocrinus, 180 Heterocystis, 67 Hyptiocrinus, 199
Grasia, 321 Heterodiadema, 309 Hystricrinus, 158
Gray, J. E., 240, 260 Heterolampas, 321
Gregory, J. W., 261, 310 Heterosalenia, 306 Tchthyocrinus, 188
Grube, A. E., 226 heterotomy, 112 Iconaster, 253
Gualtieri, N., 284 Hexacrinus, 158 Icosidactylocrinus, 203
Gualtieria, 323 Hexactis, 240 Idiocrinus, 188
Guettardicrinus, 192 Hexalacystis, 66 llariona, 320
Guettaria, 321 Hibernula, 195 Ilycrinus, 186
gut, 136 Hippasterias, 253 Ilyodaemon, 229
Gyllenhal, J. A., 53 Ilipponoe, 313 imperforate articulation,
Gymnasteria, 254 Hoffmann, C. K., 285 108
Gymnobrisinga, 259 Holaster, 321 Impinnata, 187 ; (of P. H.
Gymnocrinus, 197 Holectypina, 315 G), 140
Gymnodiadema, 308 Ilolectypus, 316 Inadunata dicye.lica, 171
Holocrinus, 182 — monocyclica, 144
Habrocrinus, 166 Holocystis, 47 — (W. & Sp.), 139
Hadrocrinus, 164 "Holocystites," 72 Inarticulata, 138
Haeckel, E., 40, 43, 48, Holopneustes, 313 Tndianocrinus, 145
49, 52, 326 Holopus, 197 inferradial, 112
haemal strands, 23 Holothuria, 227 infrabasalia, infrabasals
Hagenovia, 321 —forskali, 220 (Crin.), 99,122; (Ast),
Haimea, 320 Holothurian plane, 20 246 ; (Oph.), 268
HaUicystis, 61 Holothurioidea, diagnosed, brfraclypeus, 320
Halocrinus, 177 218 infra-marginals, 246
Halophenix, 203 Homalocrinus, 189 lnfulaster, 321
INDEX 339
interambulacra (Ech.), 286 lancet-plate, 82 Loriolaster, 257
interambulacrals (Crin.), Lanieria, 316 Loven, S., 14, 32, 285
109, 124 ; (Ast.), 241 ; Lankester, E. Ray, 33 Loven's plane, 21
(Ech.), 296 LapiUocystis, 46 Lovenia, 323
interarticular substance, 28 Lapworthura, 275 Ludwig, H., 218, 226, 240,
interaxillaries, 109, 204 Larvata, 141 261
interbrachial areas, 246 Larviformia, 139 Luidia, 252
interbrachials, 109,118,204 Lasiaster, 254 Luidiaster, 251
intercellular substance, 28 lateral arm-plates, 270 lunules, 293
intermarginals, 246 Laiirbeocrinus, 170 Lyman, T , 261
internodals,' 107 Lebrunaster, 254 lymph gills, 245
inter pinnulars, 118 Lecanocrinus, 188 — gland, 23, 27
interradii, 20 Lecythiocrinus, 177 Lyriocrinus, 200
intersecundibrachs, 118 Lecythocrinus, 175 lysactinic, 237
Iocrinus, 145 Leiaster, 255 Lysechinus, 305
Iraniaster, 323 Leiocyphus, 312 Lysocystis, 70
Jipa, 229 Leiopedina, 313 Lysophiurae, 274
Irregulares (Blastoidea), 91 Leiosomu, 310 Lytasler, 258
Irregnlaria (Crin.), 1 3 9 ; I.enita, 317
(Ech.), 315 Z.e doer in us, 61 M plane, 20
Isastcr (Verr.), 251 Lepadocystis, 61 Macarocrinus, 166
— (Desor.), 321 Lepidaster, 255 MacBride, E. W., 13, 14,
Isis, 182 Lepidesthes, 305 240, 261, 285, 325
Isocrinus (Meyer), 18- Lepidocentrus, 301 Mackintosh, H . W., 285
— (Phtll.), 189 Lepidocidaris, 302 Matraster, 321
Isopneustes, 323 Lepidodiscus, 208 Macrocriuus, 168
isotomy, 112 Lepidopleurus, 312 Macrocystella, 56
Lepocrinites, 61 Macropneustes, 323
Jackson, R. T., 299, 302 Leptaster, 253 Macrostylocrinus, 162
Jaeger, G. F., 226 Leptasterias, 258 inadreporic gland, 23
Jaekel, O., 114, 116, 141,Leptocidaris, 307 madreporite, 11 ; (Ast.),
154, 171, 300 Leptocrimts, 166 241 ; (Ech.), 286. See
jaw (Oph.), 263 Leptocystis, 204 also hydropore
— plate, 264 Leptogonaster, 253 Magnosia, 309
Jeronia, 321 Leptoptychaster, 252 main-axil, 114
Juglandocrinus, 67 leptostroterate, 254 Malocystis, 58
Leske, N . G., 284 mamelon, 287
KaUispongia, 203 /.es&irt, 323 Mammaster, 255
kidney, 23 Leuckart, R., 2, 33, 326 Maretia, 323
klasma-plates, 297 Leucophtlialinus, 53 marginals, 241, 246
Klein, J. T., 283 Lichenocrinus, 133 Marginaster, 254
Kolga, 229 Lichenocystis, 56 Mariacrinus, 161
Koninckocidaris, 302 Lichenoides, 56 Mavsipaster, 257
Koninckocrinus, 203 ligament tissue, 28 Marsipocrinus, 156
K&rethraster, 256 ligamentar fossae, 116 Marsupiocrinus (Blainv.),
Kowalevsky, A., 218 Linchophorus, 323 185
Krohn, A., 240, 261, 284 Linck, J. H., 239, 260 — (Hall), 200
Linckia, 255 — (Phill.), 156
Labidiaster, 259 i, Marsupites, 185
Linnaeus, G , 53, 240, 260,
Labidodemas, 227 284 marsupium, 256
lacunar plexus, 102 Linopneustes, 323 Mastigocrinvs, 179
— system, 26 Linthia, 323 Mayraster, 257
Laetmogone, 229 Lithocrinus, 189 Meckel, J. F., 240
Laganum, 317 Ljungman, A., 260 Mediaster, 253
Lageniocrinus, 152 Ldbocrinus, 168 Med-usacrinus, 203
LaJmseniocrinus, 200 Lobolithus, 77, 136, 161 Medusaster, 259
Lamarck, J. P. B., 226, Lodanella, 46 Meekocystis, 61
240, 260, 284 Lonchotaster, 251 Megacystis, 47
Lambertiaster, 323 loose suture, 108 Megalaster, 321
Lampadaster, 321 Lophaster, 256 Megistocrinus, 168
Lampterocrinus, 199 Lophocrimvs, 179 MelileUa, 317
340 INDEX
Mellita, 317 Monaster, 252 Oolaster, 321
Melocrinoidea, 160 Mortonia, 317 Opechinus, 312
Melocrinus, 161 Moulinsia, 317 Ophiacantlia, 278
Melonites, 304 mouth-frame, 263 Ophiactis, 278
Melonitoida, 303 mouth papillae, 241 Ophiaraehna, 277
Meoma, 323 Muelleria, 227 Ophiarthrum, 278
meridosternous, 318 Miiller, Joh., 40, 138, 218,Ophidiaster, 255
Merocrinus, 178 240, 260, 261, 285 Ophiernus, 278
Meseres, 227 musclefibres,27 Ophidblenna, 278
Mesoblastus, 90, 92 musclefields,262 Ophiobyrsa, 276
Mesocrinus, 194 — fossae, 116 Ophiocamax, 278
Mesocystis, 75 Mycocrinus, 150 Ophiocentrus, 278
mesostereom, 45 Myelodactylus, 146 Ophioceramis, 278
Mesothwria, 227 Myriotrochus, 234 Ophiochiton, 278
Mespilia, 313 Myrtillocrinus, 177 Ophiochondrus, 276
Mespilocrinus (de Kon.),Myxaster, 257 Ophiochytra, 278
188 Ophiocnemis, 278
— (Quenst.), 192 Nacospatangus, 323 Ophiocnida, 278
MespUocystis, 77 Nanocrinus, 177 Ophiocoeta, 277
Metablastus, 87, 92 Xarcissia, 255 Ophiocoma, 278
Metacrinus, 183 Nardo, J. D., 240 Ophioconis, 277
Metalia, 323 Nardoa, 255 Ophiocreas, 276
Metaporhinus, 321 Nectria, 253 Ophiocrene, 276
Metopaster, 253 -YewiafocrittMS, 150 Ophiocrinus (Ang.), 179
Metrodira, 255 Neocatopygus, 321 — (Charlesw.), 146
Metschnikoif, E., 218, 285 Neocrinoidea, 139 — (Salter), 201
Micraster, 323 iVeocmiws, 182 — (Semper), 195
Microcrinus, 203 Xeocystis, 77 Ophiocten, 278
Microcyphus, 313 Xeolampas, 321 Ophiocymbium, 278
Microdiadema, 309 Neomorphaster, 255 Ophiodenna, 277
Microlampas, 321 Xeoplax, 276 Ophiogeron, 276
Micropedina, 310 Xeqpneustes, 323 Ophioglypha, 278
Micropocrinus, 198 Xepanthia, 254 Ophiogona, 277
Micropsina, 313 Neumayr, M., 44, 48, 49, Ophiogyvina, 278
Micropsia, 310 326 Ophiohelus, 276
Micropyga, 309 Neviani, A., 310 Ophvolebes, 278
miliary granules, 287 Xidorellia, 254 Ophiolepis (Lvman), 278
Miller,- J. S., 97, 138 Xipterocrinits, 188 — (M. & T.),"27S
Miller, S. A., 47, 260 nodals, 107 Ophiomarlus, 27S
Millericrinus, 191 Xncleocrinus, 88, 92 Ophiomastix, 278
Milleli", 321 Xucleolites, 320 Ophiomaza, 278
Mimasler, 253 Xucleopygus, 320 Ophiomitra, 278
Mimocystis, 56 Xymphaster, 253 Ophiomusiut'i, 278
Miospondylus, 275 Ophiomyces, 276
Missouricrinus, 153 oculars, 286, 294 Ophiomyxa, 276
Mitelephaster, 253 Odinia, 259 Ophionema, 278
Mithrodia, 258 Odontaster, 253 Ophionephthys, 278
Mitraster, 253 odontophore (Ast.), 24? Ophionereis, 278
Mitrocrinus, 203 Offaster, 321 Ophiopaepale, 278
Mitrocystis, 50 Ogmaster, 253 Ophiopege, 275
JWbwa, 323 Ohiocrinus, 146 Ophiqpeltis, 278
Moiropsis, 323 Oken, L., 226 Ophiopeza, 277
Molpadia, 233 Oligopodia, 320 Ophioplwli.o, 278
Monaster, 250 Oligoponis, 304 Ophwphragonus, 278
monocyclic, 99, 110 Oligopygus, 320 Ophiophyllum, 278
Monocyclica, diagnosed, Olivanites, 88 Ophioplax, 277
144 Ollacrinus, 201 Ophioplinthus, 278
— Camerata, 159 Oncocrinus, 187 Ophioplocus, 278
— Inadunata, 144 Oneirophanta, 229 Ophiopsamnium, 278
Monophora, 317 Onychaster, 275 OphiqpsUa, 278
Monostychia, 318 Onychocrinus, 190 Ophiopteris, 278
INDEX 34i
Ophiopteron, 278 Palaeechinasteridae, 250 Pentaceropsis, 254
Ophiopus, 278 Palaeechinoidea, 299 Pentaceros, 254
Ophiopyren, 277 Palaeechinus, 304 Pentacrinus, 182
Ophiopyrgus, 277 Palaeobrissus, 322 Pentactasa, 12
Ophiosciasma, 276 Palaeocoma, 254 Pentactula, 18
Ophiostigma, 278 Palaeocrinoidea, 139 Pentadia, 181
Ophioteresis, 276 Palaeocrinus, 172 Pentagonaster, 253
Ophiothamnus, 278 Palaeocystis, 54 Pentagonites, 203
Ophiothela, 278 Palaeodiscus, 301 pentameres, 99
Ophiotholia, 276 Palaeolampas, 321 Pentephyllum, 90, 93
Ophiothrix, 278 Palaeonectria, 250 Pentremites, 86, 92
Ophiotrema, 278 Palaeophiura, 274 Pentremitidea, 85, 92
Ophiotrochus, 278 Palaeopneustes, 322 perforate articulation, 109,
Ophiozona, 278 Palaeostella, 250 116
Ophiura, 278 Palaeostoma, 323 Peribolaster, 256
— ciliaris, 262 Palaeotropus, 323 Pericosmus, 323
Ophiurella, 278 Palasteriscus, 257 Periec/wcrinus, 168
Ophiurina, 275 Palastropecten, 275 Periglyptocrinus, 161
Ophiuroidea, 259 Pallas, P. S., 218 perignathic girdle, 289,
— diagnosed, 273 Palmacystis, 73 297
oral aDgle (Ast.), 246 palmaria, 204 peri-intestinal cavity, 103
plates (Oph.), 263 Palmipes, 254 perioesophageal sums, 22
— nerve-ring, 102 palps (Ast.), 245 periproct, 286
— nervous system, 30 Pannychia, 229 Perischodomus, 302
— papillae, 264 papulae, 26, 245, 248 — magnus, 203
— ridge (Blast.), 82 parabasalia, 99 perisoma, 241
— skeleton (Ast.), 241 Paractinopoda, 234 peristome (Crin.), 97;
orals, 124. See also del- Paradoxechinus, 312 (Ech.), 285
toids Paragonaster, 253 peristomial plates (Oph.),
Orbitremites, 90, 92 Paralampas, 321 264
Orcula, 230 pararadials, 150 Perknaster, 258
Oreaster, 254 Pararchaster, 251 Peronia, 308
orientation of crinoid, 110 Parasalenia, 313 perradii, 19
Oriolampas, 321 Parelpidia, 229 Perrier, E., 241, 259, 285
Ornithaster, 323 parietal canal, 9 PersepJwnaster, 251
oro-central, 14 Parisocrinus, 173 Petalocrinus, 175
Orocystis, 54 Pasceolus, 77 Petinocrinus, 203
Orophocrinus, 84, 92 Patelliocrinus, 162 Petraster, 250
Orthechinus, 310 patina, 112 Phaenoschisma, 84, 92
Orthocidaris, 302 Patiria, 254 P/ianeraster, 253
Orthocrinus, 198 Paulia, 254 Phanerozonia, 249
Ortholophus, 312 paxillae, 247 Phanogenia, 196
Orthopsis, 308 Pectinaster, 251 Pharia, 255
oscular orifice, 256 pectinirhombs, 43, 58 pharyngeal vesicles, 27
otocysts, 32 Pectinura, 278 Phialocrinus (Eichw.), 203
Ottawacrinus, 178 Pedatae, 226 — (Trautsch.), 181
outer side-plates (Blast), 84 pedicellariae, 31 ; (Ast), Phillipsocrinus, 170
Oviclypeus, 316 2 4 7 ; (Ech.), 287 Philocrinus, 180
ovoid gland, 23. See also Pedicellaster, 258 Phimocrinus, 152
axial organ Pedina, 309 Phoenicocrinus, 166
Ovulaster, 321 Pedinopsis, 313 Pholidaster, 255
Pedinothuria, 310 Pholidocidaris, 305
Pachyantedon, 203 Pelagothuria, 230 Phormosoma, 311
Pachyclypeus, 316 Pelanechinus, 310 Phoxaster, 252
Pachycrinus, 203 pellions, 289 Phyllobrissus, 321
Pachylocrinus, 180 Pelmatozoa, 33 Phylloclypeus, 321
Pachyocrinus, 203 — diagnosed, 38 Phyllocrinus, 197
Paelopatides, 227 Pelmatozoic ancestor, 9 phyllode, 319
Palaeaster, 250 Peltastes, 306 Phyllophorus, 230
Palaeasterina, 250 Pendulocrinus, 148 Phymechinus, 309
1
Palaeasteroidea, 249 Peniagone, 229 Physetocrinus, 170
342 INDEX
Phytocrinus, 195 pores, ambulacral (Ech.), Pterocoma, 203
Pictet, F. J., 40 287 Pterotocrinus, 159
Picteticrinus, 182 — of Blastoids, 86 Ptilonaster, 274
Pileus, 316, 320 Porocrinus (Bill.), 172 Ptychocrinus, 198
Pilocystis, 46 — (Dittm.), 182 Pupa, 5
Pinnata (P. H. Carp.), 140; postpalmaria, 204 Pycnaster, 253
(Bather), 191 Poteriocrinacea, 171 Pycnocrinus, 161
pinnulae, 113 Poteriocrinidae (W. & Sp.), Pycnqpodia, 258
Pionocrinus, 166 171 Pycnosaccus, 187
Pirocystis, 47 Poteriocrinus, 180 Pygaster, 316
Pisocrinus, 149 Pourtalesia, 323 Pygastrides, 316
Placocystis, 51 Pradocrinus, 168 Pygaulus, 320
Placodiadema, 309 Prenaster, 323 Pygorhynchus, 321
plastidogen organ, 23 pre-oral lobe, 4, 8 Pygorhytis, 321
Platasterias, 252 primary skeletal elements, Pygospatangits, 323
Platybrissus, 322 109 Pygurostoma, 321
Platyceras, 157 primaxil, 114 Pygurus, 321
Platycrinus, 157 primibrachs, 114 pyramids (Ech.), 289
Platycystis, 51 primitive suture,, 108 Pyrina, 320
Platysphaerites, 203 Proclivocrinus, 148 Pyrocystis. See Pirocystis
Plectaster, 258 Prognaster, 255 Pythonaster, 257
Plesianthus, 318 Promachocrinus, 195 Pyxidocrinus, 168
Plesiocidaroida, 305 Protaster, 274
Plesiolampas, 321 Protasieracanthion, 251 radial canals, 243. See
Pleurechinus, 312 Proteocystis, 73 also perradial
Pleurocrinus, 157 Proteroblastus, 74 — dome-plates, 127
Pleurocystis, 64 Proleuryale, 203 — facet, 100
Pleurodiadema, 309 Protoblastoidea, 79 — pseudhaemal canal, 100
plexiform gland, 23 Protocrinus, 74 — shields, 264
Plicatocrinus, 153 Protocyamus, 316 — sinus, 84
Pliny, 218 Protocyslis, 48 — vesicles, 27
Plistophyma, 309 Prouho, H., 245, 285, 288 radialia, radials (Crin.), 99,
Plumaster, 259 proximal (Crin.), 109 204; (Ast), 246; (Ech.),
Pluteus, 6,16 ; (Oph.), 273proximale, 108 294 ; (Oph.), 268
Phctonaster, 251 Prunocystis, 60 radianal, 112, 119
Pneumophora, 226 Prymnadetinae, 322 Radiaster, 254
Podasterias, 258 Prymnodesminae, 323 Radiata, 2
podia, 1, 2; (Ast.), 243 ; Psammechinus, 313 radical cirri, 1C7
(Ech.), 291 pseudambulacra(Cyst.),43; Radiocyphiis, 312
Podocidaris, 308 (Blast), 78 radix, 99
Polian vesicles, 27 ; (Ast.),Psevdarcliaster, 251 rami, 113
243 ; (Ech.), 291 Pseudaster, 251 ramuli, 113
Polyasterias, 258 pseudhaemal ring, 102 rectal caeca, 243
Polycerus, 182 — system, 25 ; (Ast.), 243 recumbent
; arms, 43, 65
Polycidaris, 302 (Ech.), 292 Regulares (Blast.), 91
polycyclic spine, 287 Pseudoboletia, 313 Regularia (Crin.), 139
Polycyphus, 310 Pseudocatopygus, 321 — Ectobranchiata, 306
Polypeltes, 162 Pseudocrinus, 62 — Endobranchiata, 300
Polypholis, 278 Pseudocncumis, 230 Remaster, 256
Pomatocrinus, 191 Pseudodesorella, 321 respiratory trees, 27, 222
Pomel, A., 284 Pseudodiadema, 309 Retaster, 257
Pomocystis, 72 pseudo-heart, 23 rete mirabile, 223
Pomonites, 72 pseudomonocyclic, 111 Reteocrinus, 198
Pomosphaera, 72 pseudo-pedicellariae, 247 Rliabdocidaris, 302
Pontaster, 251 Pseudopedina, 309 RJmbdopleurus, 312
Porania, 254 Pseudostichopits, 227 Rhadinocrinus, 179
Poraniomorpha, 254 Psilaster, 252 Rhaplianocrinus, 200
Porcellanaster, 251 Psolidium, 230 Rhegaster, 254
pore canal, 8 PsoJws, 230 Rhinobrissus, 323
— plate, 80 Psychropotes, 229 Rhipidaster, 256
— rhombs, 42 I Psychrotrephes, 229 Rhipidocrinus, 201
INDEX 343
RhtMcrimis, 194 Scyphocrinus (Zenker), 161 Stetidiocrinus, 161
Rhodocalix, 203 Scytactinota, 218 Stetfa, 260
Rhodocrinus, 201 Scytalecrinus, 180 Stellaefissae,240
Rhoechinus, 304 Scytodermata, 33, 218 Stellaster, 253
Rhombifera, 52 Seba, A., 284 Stelleroidea, 237
Rhombifera (Barr.), 57 secondary skeletal elements, — diagnosed, 239
— mira, 77, 145 109, 204 stem, 48, 99, 105, 132.
Rhopalocoma, 257 — radials, 204 See also columna
Rhopalocrinus, 191 secundibrachs, 114 Stemmatocrinus, 181
Rhopalodina, 230 segmental apertures, 256 Stenaster, 251
Rhynchopygus, 321 Selenka, E., 218, 226 Stenocrinus, 146
Roemeraster, 255 Semi-Articulata, 138 Stenonia, 321
Romanes, G. J., 245 Semon, R., 12, 18, 218 Stephanaster, 253
Rondelet, W., 218, 283 Semper, K., 218 Stephanocrinus, 96, 145
root, 99 sensory buds, 31 Steraster, 257
Rosaster, 253 sessile pedicellariae, 247 Stereocidaris, 302
rosette (Crin.), 195 ; (Ech.),Shumardocrinus, 203 Stereocrinus, 164
289 side-plates, 82 stereom, 28
#o<wfo, 317 Sigsbeia, 276 Sternata, 321
Rotvloidea, 317 Simroth, H., 261 Sternotaxis, 321
Rouault, M., 45 Siphonocrinus, 199 sternum (Ech.), 318
Runa, 317 Sismondia, 317 Stewart, G , 285
Russo, A., 261 Sitularia, 185 Stewart's organs, 303
Sladen, W . P., 14, 240, Stkhaster, 255
Saccocoma, 154 251, 259, 261, 325 Stichocystis, 55
Saccocrinus, 168 Smilasterias, 258 Stichopus, 227
sacculi, 137 Solacrinus, 203 Stigmatopygus, 321
Sagenocrinus, 190 Solanocrinus, 195 Stirechinus, 313
sagittal plane, 20 Solaster, 256 stomach (Ast), 243
Salmacis, 312 Spatagocystis, 324 Stomatocrinoidea, 139
Salmacopsis, 312 Spatangomorpha, 323 Stomechinus, 309
Salenia, 306 Spatangus, 323 Stomopneustes, 313
Salter, J., 260 Sphaeraster, 254 Stomoporus, 323
SaUeraster, 251 Sphaerechinus, 313 stone-canal, 8 ; (Ast.),
Sampsonocrinus, 170 sphaeridia, 32 243 ; (Ech.), 291
Sarasin, P. & F., 32, 285 Sphaerites (Quenst.), 19, Stortingocrinus, 152
310, 326 254 Streptaster, 208
SarseUa, 323 Spliaerocrinus (M. & W . ) ,Streptocrinus, 179
Scaphiocrinus, 180 167 Streptophiurae, 274
scapula, 204 — (Roem.), 173 streptospondyline, 271
Schizaster, 323 Sphaerocystis, 63 Stribalocystis, 67
Schizoblastus, 89, 92 Sphaeronis, 71 Strobilocystis, 63
schizocoelic system, 26 Sphaerothuria, 230 Stromatocystis, 207
Sphenocrinus, 203 Strongylocentrotus, 313
Schizocrinus, 161
spines (Ech.), 285, 287 Strophocrinus, 172
Schizocystis, 61
Spinigrada, 260 Strotocrinus, 170
Schoenaster, 250
Sclerasterias, 258 spiracula, spiracles (Blast.), Studeria, 321
84 ; (Ast.), 256 Stiirtz, B., 250, 260
Sclerocrinus, 197
spongy organ, 27, 102 Sturtzura, 274
Scoliocrinus, 178
Sporasterias, 258 Stylocrinus, 152
Scoliocystis, 60
Springer, F. See Wachs- Styracaster, 251
Scolocystis, 70
muth subanale, 204
Scotoanassa, 229
Spyridiocrinus, 163 subepithelial nervous sys
Scotoplanes, 229
Statozoa, 33 tem, 30
scrobicular circle, 287
Staurocystii, 61 sub-lancet, 85
scrobicule, 287
Staurosoma, 57 suboralia, 141
scuta adoralia, 264
Steganoblastus, 209 subradiale, 204
Scutella, 317 subradialia, 204
scutella oralia, 263 Steganocrinus, 170
Stegaster, 321 subtegumentary cavity, 103
ScuteUina, 317 subtentacular canals, 100
scutum buccale, 264 Stegmaster, 254
Steinmann, G., 40 superbasals, 159
Scyphocrinus (Hall), 161
344 INDEX
super-radial, 112 Thiolliericrinus, 195 Trybliocrinus, 163
supplementary plates, 109, Tholaster, 321 Tuberaster, 323
204 Thoracaster, 251 tubercles (Ech.), 286
supra-marginals, 246 Thylacocrinus, 200 Turbinocrinus, 161
suranal, 294 Thylechinus, 310 Tylaster, 254 '
sutures, 108 Thyone, 230 Tylocidaris, 302
Sycocrinus, 203 Thyroida, 205 Typocidaris, 302
Sycocystis, 60 Thysanocrinus, 198
Symbathocrinus, 152 Tiaracrinus, "57 Uintacrinus, 183
Symphytocrinus, 197 Tiarechinus, 305 Ulocrinus, 181
Synallactes, 227 Tiedemann, F., 218, 240, u m b o (Ech.), 262
Synapta, 234 284 umbonal socket, 263
Synerocrinus, 190 Tiedemann's bodies, 27, under lancet-plate, 85
syngnaths, 263 243 Uniophora, 258
Synyphocrinus, 180 Tonia, 255 uniserial arms, 115
Syringocrinus, 48, 203 Tormocrinus, 197 Uperocrinus, 168
syzygy, 108, 117 Tornaria, 5 Urasterella, 251
torus angularis, 264 Urechinus, 321
tables (Hoi.), 223 Torynocrinus, 197
Taeniaster, 251 Toxasfer, 322 Valentin, G., 284
Taeniura, 274 Toxopneustes, 313 Valvaster, 258
Talarocrinus, 159 Traumatocrinus, 182 Fosocriwws, 179
Tanaocrinus, 165 Trautschold, H., 130 vault, 128
Tarsaster, 255 Tremaster, 254 ventral sac, 27
Taxocrinus, 189 Tremataster, 275 — shield, 262
Technocrinus, 163 Trematocrinus, 201 vertebral ossicle (Oph.), 262
tegmen, 99, 129 Trematocystis, 72 vestibule, 11
Teleiocrinus, 170 Trematopygus, 320 Viguier, G , 240, 247
Temnechinus, 312 Triacrinus, 149 Vletavicrinus, 204
Temnocidaris, 302 Trianisites, 204 Volborth, A., 53
Temnopleurus, 312 tribrachialia, 204 Vologesia, 321
tentacles (Hoi.), 224 Tribrachiocrinus, 181
terminal tentacle, 31 Trichaster, 276 Wachsmuth, G, 139
terminals (Ech.), 294 Trichasteropsis, 250 Wachsmuth & Springer,
tertibrachs, 114 Trichocrinus, 149 114, 139, 171
Tesselata (Zittel), 139 Trichotaster, 259 Wachsmuth & Springer's
Tessellata (Miillar), 139 Tricoelocrinus, 87, 92 Law, 106
test (Ech.), 285 trifascial articulation, 117 Walther, J., 49
Testacea, 138 Trigonocidaris, 312 water vascular system
Tetanocrinus, 197 Trigonocrinus, 197 (Ast.), 243; (Oph.)," 2 7 2 ;
Tethyaster, 251 Trigonocystis, 50 (Ech.), 290
Tetracidaris, 303 Trinemacystis, 53 TFoodomnus, 180
Tetracrinus (Austin), 203 Triplacidia, 310
— (Mtinst), 153 Triplaricrinus, 204 Xenaster, 250
Tetractis, 240 Tripneustes, 313 A'enom'nw-s (Jahn), 204
Tetramerocrinus (Austin), Trisactis, 240
— (S. A. Miller), 165
204 trivium, 11 ; (Hoi.), 220 ;
Tetraster, 250 (Ech.), 296 Zeacrinus, 180
Thalamocrinus, 204 Trochita, 204
Thallocrinus, 156 Zenkericrinus, 161, 204
Trochocrinus, 168 Zeuglopleurus, 3JL2
Thaumatocrinus, 196 Trochocystis, 50
theca, 99 zigzag arms, 115
Trochoderma, 234 Zittel, K. A. v., 40, 139,171
Thecocystis, 207 Trochodota, 234
Thecoidea, 205 Zophocrinus, 151
Trochostoma, 233 Zoroaster, 255
Theel, H., 15, 218, 226 Troostoblastida, 92
Theelia, 230 Zygocrinus, 91, 93
Troostocrinus, 86, 92
Thegaster, 317 Zygophiurae, 277
Tropidaster, 255
Thenar ocrinus, 179 Zygospondyline, 271
Troschel, F. H., 240, 260

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REATISE ON Z

Reprint A.ASHER & CO. Amsterdam 1964

Sole agents for India:

to students. The immediate publication of the following

Part I. Introduction and the Protozoa.

These parts will be issued, without reference to logical

GRADE I. (of the Enterozoa).

GRADE II. (of the* Enterozoa).

PHYLA (of the Coelomocoela).

kingdom Radiata. The presence of a gut distinct from the body-

Ophiuroid (Fig. XIII. p. 261) resembles a starfish in which there is a

nerves ran back below the ventral surface. In the mesoblastic

for the latter character, the Dipleurula agrees in essentials with

atrophies in sixteen places, p x \ V-/|- -'; *1

to the anterior pole, and the

there is formed a preoral ring which separates from the rest.

i.e. anterior, end of the archenteron becomes constricted off from

forming the "hydropore"and the "pore canal"; while, in no connec-

suggest that all Echinoderma are descended from sessile ancestors

not merely pulled it up, but pressed it into a horseshoe curve,

ontogeny of Antedon suggests their division into two groups

of zoologists. The development of Asterina indicates the possible

Echinoderma. T h e orals on the one side are supposed by some

of the Pentactcea, together with epithelial nerves on thefloorof

The development of Echinoidea has been studied by J. Muller

Development of Echinocyamus (after Theel). 1, portion of a Pluteus rather more ri»v»inn»i

iZ%zJt$iozrs urchin>bearing onits

Further, if our present theory be correct, w e must suppose that

plane " of Cuenot. It is scarcely worth while to describe yet other

The Genital Organs throw light on the axial organ, since it

formed, and with the extensions of these go also extensions of the

are of endothelial origin. There appears, however, as shown by

are: the " respiratory trees," which occur in some Holothurians

clearly defined at the ends, with a lateral nucleus. A few striated

reticulum becomes a more definite stroma, so the pattern of the

The epiblast develops into an ectoderm, ciliated in whole or

Sense-organs are but slightly developed. They are tactile,

In Asteroids (Fig. X X V 1) an eye-spot (e) lies at the base of each

as far as possible. Since the factor determining the lines of

aboral pole in Echinoidea and the development of a special

a pseudhaemal system of canals apparently growing out from

PELMATOZOA < BLASTOIDEA

GUIDE TO LITERATURE OF ECHINODERMA GENERALLY.

11, Durham, H. E. 1891. (On Wandering Cells in Echinoderms, etc., more

GRADE A. PELMATOZOA, LEUCKART (1848)

ECHINODERMA with the viscera enclosed in a calcified and plated

CLASS I. CYSTIDEA, VON BUCH (1844).

Pelmatozoa in which radial polymeric symmetry of the theca

biological phenomena of homoplasy and convergence, can also be

in which neither ciliated food-grooves, though perhaps present,

suppose that the canals represent stroma strands continuous

ORDER 1. Amphoridea, Haeckel (1896, pars).

primitive class of Echinoderma, comparable to the Pentactula

FAMILY 1. ARISTOCYSTIDAE. Amphoridea without extension of food-

Section of test in Aristocystis, in the region