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Chapter 4 INTRODUCTION
Subsurface exploration: engineering • The most widespread site investigation techniques
geophysics involve the drilling of holes in the ground, sampling
at discrete points, and in situ or laboratory testing.
• Geophysical techniques offer the chance to
overcome some of the problems inherent in more
conventional ground investigation techniques.

Yet, at the time of writing, geophysics is only rarely used in ground

investigations. Various reasons have been put forward to explain this
ENGINEERING NEEDS
1. Poor planning of geophysical surveys by engineers
fact, including: 1. Most geophysical techniques have as their origin
ignorant of the techniques; and
the oil and mining industries.
2. Over-optimism by geophysicists, leading to a poor
reputation for the available techniques 2. Primary need of a developer is to identify the
locations of minerals for exploitation.
3. Geophysics plays a vital role intermediate between
“Geophysics
p y is not beyond
y the geological
l i l interpretation
i t t ti off the
th ground d andd its
it
capabilities of most civil engineers, who structure and the drilling of exploratory holes to
generally have a good education in confirm the presence of ores, oil or gas.
physics.”

•Unfortunately, there has been a widespread failure of •Geophysical techniques can also be used for vertical
geophysical techniques to perform as expected during profiling
ground investigations •Techniques used for this purpose include electrical
•Geophysical methods of subsoil exploration have resistivity depth profiling, seismic methods, the
only one disadvantage, and that is we never know in surface wave technique, and geophysical borehole
advance whether they are going to work or not! logging
“During
During my professional career
career, I have been •Finally almost all geotechnical ground investigations
•Finally,
intimately connected with seven geophysical aim to determine stiffness, strength, and other
surveys. In every case the physicists in charge of parameters in order to allow design calculations to be
the exploration anticipated and promised carried out
satisfactory results. Yet only the first one was a
success; the six others were rather dismal failures.”
Terzaghi, 1957

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In selecting a particular geophysical technique for CLASSIFICATION OF

use on a given site, it is essential that the following
questions are asked. GEOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES
1. What is the objective of the survey? Geophysical techniques may be categorized by the
2. What is the physical property to be measured? following:
3. Which method is most suited to the geometry of the target? Control of input
4. Is there previous published experience of the use of this p y
Geophysical methods may y be divided into two ggroups.
p
method for this purpose?
5. Is the site ‘noisy’?
1. Passive techniques. The anomalies measured by the
6. Are there any records of the ground conditions available?
technique pre-exist. They cannot be varied by the
investigator
7. Is the sub-soil geometry sufficiently simple to allow
interpretation? 2. Active techniques. These techniques measure
8. Is the target too small or too deep to be detected? perturbations created by an input, such as seismic
9. Is it necessary to use more than one geophysical method for a energy or nuclear radiation
given site?

From a geotechnical point of view, passive techniques

TYPES OF MEASUREMENT require relatively little explanation.
A particular geophysical technique will make 1.Gravity methods respond to differences in the mass of their
surroundings, which results either from contrasts in the density of the
measurements of only a single type. Techniques ground, or from variations in geometry (cavities and voids,
embankments, hills, etc.);
that are commonly available measure:
· seismic wave amplitude, as a function of time; 2. Magnetic methods detect differences in the earth’s magnetic field,
which
hi h are produced
d d locally
l ll by b theh degree
d off the
h magnetic
i
· electrical resistivity or conductivity; susceptibility (the degree to which a body can be magnetized) of the
surroundings. Such methods will primarily detect the differences in
· electromagnetic radiation; the iron content of the ground, whether natural or artificial;
· radioactive radiation;
3. Natural gamma logging detects the very small background
· magnetic flux density; and radiation emitted by certain layers in the ground.
The seismic method is rapidly becoming more popular in
· gravitational pull. geotechnical investigations because of its ability to give valuable
information on the stiffness variations in the ground.

A seismic disturbance in elastically homogenous 2. Transverse or shear waves (‘S’ waves). Transverse
ground, whether natural or artificially induced, will waves, like longitudinal waves, are propagated as
cause the propagation of four types of elastic wave, spherical fronts. The ground motion, however, is
which travel at different velocities. These waves are as perpendicular to the direction of propagation in this
follows. case. S waves have two degrees of freedom unlike P
1. Longitudinal waves (‘P’ waves). These are waves which only have one. In practice, the S wave
propagated as spherical fronts from the source of motion is resolved into components
p parallel and
p
the seismic disturbance. The motion of the ground perpendicular to the surface of the ground, which are
is in the direction of propagation. These waves known respectively as SH and SV waves.
travel faster than any other type of wave generated
by the seismic disturbance.

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3. Rayleigh waves. These waves travel only along the

P WAVES S WAVES ground surface. The particle motion associated with these
*** Compressivel Waves, longitudinal waves
***shear waves
***2nd to arrive at siesmic stations
waves is elliptical (in the vertical plane). Rayleigh waves
***1st to arrive at seismic stations
***1.7 times slower than P waves generally attenuate rapidly with distance. The velocity of
***travel at 1.5-8 km/sec in the Earth's crust
***shake the ground in the direction they are
***shake the ground perpendicular to the these waves depends on wavelength and the thickness of
propagating
direction in which they are propagating
***do not travel through liquid (ie. water,
the surface layer. In general, Rayleigh waves travel slower
***travel through the Earth's core
molten rock, the Earth's outer core) than P or S waves.
4. Love waves. These are surface waves which occur only
when the surface layer has a low P wave velocity with
respect to the underlying layer. The wave motion is
horizontal and transverse. The velocity of these waves
may be equal to the S wave velocity of the surface layer
or the underlying layer depending on the wavelength of
the Love wave. Energy sources used in seismic work do
not generate Love waves to a significant degree. Love
waves are therefore generally considered unimportant in
seismic investigation.

Shear wave energy travels at a speed which is determined

primarily by the shear modulus of the soil or rock
skeleton, modified by its state of fracturing:

where Vs = shear wave velocity,

velocity G0 = shear modulus at very small
strain and P = bulk density.

SEISMIC REFRACTION
The refraction method is based on the critical
refraction of seismic waves at the boundaries between
materials with different characteristic seismic wave
velocities (Fig. 4.34). Snell’s Law governs the
refraction of seismic waves across a velocity interface.

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The interpretation of the time—distance graphs shown

in Figs is straightforward. In practice, however, the
interpretation is often more complicated. The features
which commonly give rise to a complicated time—
distance graph include:

pp g interface;;
1. dipping
2. irregular interface and buried channels;
3. lateral changes in velocity;
4. buried step faults; and
5. lateral changes in stratum thickness.

CROSS-HOLE AND DOWN-HOLE

SEISMIC SURVEYS
The down-hole seismic method, used in conjunction
with the in situ cone test, has been described under
‘Profiling’, earlier in this chapter.
Cross-hole surveys are described in detail in Ballard et
al. ((1983).
) Theyy are typically
yp y carried out usingg three
parallel in-line boreholes, with plastic lining (typically
about 100mm internal diameter) grouted into them.
Horizontal borehole spacing is typically 5—7 m. The
closest spacing possible is desirable, in order to
achieve a high signal-to-noise ratio, but this
consideration must be tempered by the need to record
accurate travel times between the boreholes.

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THE SURFACE WAVE TECHNIQUE

As seismic energy travels through the ground as both
body waves (longitudinal compressional (P) and shear
(S) waves) and as surface waves (Love waves and
Rayleigh waves). Energy sources used in seismic work
are not generally rich in Love waves,
waves but near-surface
near surface
measurements can be affected by Rayleigh waves,
which travel at a similar (although slightly slower)
velocity to shear waves. Rayleigh waves are
associated with a particle motion which is elliptical in
the vertical plane, and which attenuates rapidly with
depth and with distance from the source.

ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY AND

CONDUCTIVITY METHODS
Electrical resistivity and conductivity methods rely on measuring subsurface
variations of electrical current flow which are manifest by an increase or
decrease in electrical potential between two electrodes.
This is represented in terms of electrical resistivity which may be related to
changes in rock or soil types. The electrical resistivity methods is commonly
used therefore to map lateral and vertical changes in geological (or man-made)
materials.
i l The
Th methodh d may also
l usedd to:
1.assess the quality of rock/soil masses in engineering terms;

2.determine the depth to the water table (normally in arid or semi-arid areas);

3. map the saline/fresh water interface in coastal regions;

4. locate economic deposits of sand and gravel; and

5. locate buried features such as cavities, pipelines, clay-filled sink holes and
buried channels.

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LATERAL VARIABILITY
The positioning of boreholes on a site can only be
carried out on the basis of geological maps and
records, which generally give limited detail, or on
grids or sections.
Where large areas are to be investigated to shallow
depth the positioning of boreholes and trial pits
depth,
becomes very difficult, since the aim is to sample
representative ground.
Similarly, when limited targets, such as dissolution
features, mineshafts, and cavities are to be searched
for, borehole investigation cannot be considered as
viable.

GROUND COUNDUCTIVITY
1. Ground conductivity is an electromagnetic method.
2. Electromagnetic methods are widely used in
mineral exploration, in identifying materials that
are relatively good electrical conductors and are at
shallow depth.
3. As the name implies, the method generally
involves the propagation of continuous or transient
electromagnetic fields in and over the ground.
4. It can also use electromagnetic fields generated by
others (i.e. the high-power VLF (very-low
frequency) transmissions in the 15—25kHz range,
which are used for air and marine navigation).

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MAGNETOMETRY
1. Magnetic methods are based on the measurement of
local variations in the Earth’s magnetic field.
2. Such variations are associated with differences in
magnetic susceptibility (the degree to which a body is
magnetized) of rocks and soils or the presence of
permanently magnetized bodies.
3. Since magnetic
g methods measure variations in a
natural force field, the resulting data cannot be readily
interpreted in a quantitative manner (i.e. depths and
dimensions of subsurface features cannot be
determined directly from field data).
4. Magnetic techniques are particularly useful in locating
localized subsurface features of engineering interest
such as abandoned mineshafts, sink holes, and buried
services.

ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY
TRAVERSING
Resistivity traversing is normally
carried out to map horizontal
changes in resistivity across a
site. Lateral changes in resistivity
are detected by using a fixed
electrode
l t d separationti and d movingi
the whole electrode array
between each resistivity. The
interpretation of resistivity
traverses is generally qualitative
unless it is carried out in
conjunction with sounding
techniques.

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LIMITATIONS
The electrical resistivity method has been used with
limited success in the detection of cavities.
In view of the time required for a resistivity survey
compared with that required for a magnetic survey
(discussed above),
above) the resistivity method is not as cost
effective in view of he small chances of success.

GRAVITY METHODS 1. A gravity survey requires an accurate topographic survey of

the site and surrounding area to be carried out to enable some
1. Gravity methods involve measuring lateral changes in the Earth’s of the corrections to be applied to the field data.
gravitational field. 2. Each observation point must however be accurately levelled.
2. Such variations are associated with near-surface changes in density
Clearly the acquisition of gravity data are extremely time-
consuming and hence expensive.
and hence may be related to changes in soil or rock type.
3. The corrected gravity data are normally presented as a
3. Because gravity methods involve the measurement of a natural force contoured gravity map (Isogal map). The contour values may
field, ambiguous data (in terms of interpretation) are common and hence represent Bouguer anomalies or residual gravity values.
p
the interpretation of field data is qqualitative. 4 Residual gravity values are derived from the difference
4.
4. The effects of rapid near-surface changes in density limit the use of between the regional Bouguer anomaly and the local
this method in practice to the mapping of large- scale geological) Bouguer anomaly.
structures. 5. These gravity maps allow anomalies to be readily identified
5. This can be of great value in oil exploration but on the very much (if of sufficient magnitude) and thus target areas are defined
smaller scale of engineering site investigations it seriously restricts the for direct investigation. Figure 4.7 shows examples of the
use of gravity measuring techniques.
different forms of gravity maps.
6. Gravity methods may be used for the location of large faults and to
find the extent of large buried channels.

PROFILING
1. Most ground investigations will not make use of
geophysical methods for profiling.
2. This will normally be done by describing the
material arising from boreholes, or by carrying out
probing tests (chapter 5).
3. Exceptions may occur when there is need for
information from areas between boreholes, or
where boreholes are deep, and there is a need to
correlate between them.
4. Profiling can be carried out by identifying the
characteristics of the material within each bed.

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ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY
SOUNDING

Vertical changes in electrical resistivity are measured

by progressively moving the electrodes outwards with
respect
p to a fixed central ppoint.
Any variations in electrical resistivity with depth will
be reflected in variations in measured potential
difference.

Errors in apparent resistivity measurements can be caused by the Seismic profiling

following.
1. Electromagnetic coupling between potential and current 1. A relatively quick method of obtaining a profile which
electrode cables. This may be overcome by ensuring that current will approximate to ground stiffness is to drive a probe or
and potential electrode cables do not cross each other, are not penetrometer into the ground, using it either as a seismic
laid very close to each other or are adequately shielded. source, or as a receiver if geophones are incorporated into
2. Interference from high (or low) tension electrical cables or it.
electrified railway lines. Sounding or profiling near electrical 2. The seismic cone is one of a large family of cone
cables of any sort should be avoided.
avoided The interference from p
penetrometers which are widely y used in g geotechnical
overhead high tension cables can be reduced by having the investigation, particularly in relatively soft ground.
azimuth of the electrode array parallel to the line of the cables. 3. Essentially the device consists of a solid metal shaft,
3. Highly heterogeneous ground. If the surface layer is highly 10cm2 in cross-sectional area and with a 60° cone end,
heterogeneous due to complex geology, buried services, old which is pushed hydraulically into the ground. By
foundations, root holes, or waste material, errors may be mounting geophones in the cone, the arrival of seismic
introduced in sounding data even when a Schlumberger waves can be detected, and these can be interpreted in
configuration is used. terms of travel times, and hence seismic velocities and
ground stiffnesses.

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Better results can be obtained by using a cone with

two sets of geophones, mounted a metre or so apart,
in it. Finally, the very small strain shear modulus of
the soil can be determined from the equation:

G = ρ V s2
Where ρ = soil density, which can either be
estimated or determined from samples, and Vs
=seismic shear wave velocity.

NATURAL GAMMA LOGGING

Geophysical logging of boreholes is most widely used
where coring has not been carried out, for example in
oil exploration, to obtain information on:

1. the ggeological
g formations through
g which the
borehole is drilled (Rider 1986);

2. the borehole fluid; and

3. the construction and condition of the borehole.

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SECTIONING
Some geophysical methods can be used to produce cross-
sections of the ground.
Given that it is extremely difficult to find certain targets
(for example, buried valleys, old mineworkings, and
dissolution features) with borehole investigations, this
ability makes geophysics particularly attractive for some
ground investigations.
Three techniques that are either widely used or show
promise are:
· ground-probing radar;
· seismic reflection; and
· seismic tomography.

GROUND PENETRATING RADAR

1. Radar (RAdio Detection And Ranging) was initially
developed as a means of using microwaves to detect
the presence of objects, typically aircraft and ships,
and to derive their range from the transmitter.
2. This process was achieved by transmitting pulses of
radiation
di i and d recording
di the
h reflection.
fl i
3. Advances in radar technology have seen the
development of systems capable of providing images
of the ground surface from aircraft or from space, and
systems that can penetrate the ground enabling
subsurface features to be mapped. This latter system is
known as ground penetrating radar.

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There are two requirements for this method to be

applicable:
1. there must be a planar reflector extended for some
distance along the profile;
2. there must be two antennas, one transmitting and
one receiving.

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN RADAR

AND REFLECTION SEISMICS
The similarities between radar and reflection seismics have resulted in data-
processing techniques that were developed for the latter (such as convolution and
migration) being used for processing radar data. The major factors that affect the
performance of ground penetrating radar are:

1.the contrast in relative p y ((dialectric constant)) between the target

permittivity g and
the surrounding ground;

2. the conductivity of the ground;

3. the shape of the target and its orientation with respect to the radar antenna;

4. the density of scattering bodies within the ground that produce reflection similar
to those from the target.

SEISMIC REFLECTION
Seismic reflection methods have been used on
offshore site investigations since the 1950s.
Traditionally this method has not been used for
conventional, onshore investigations because of the
relatively low cost of boreholes compared with those
offshore, and because the method has in the past been
difficult to apply to shallow investigations. Recent
research has extended the method to shallow depths,
but it has yet to find application in onshore civil
engineering ground investigations.

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The seismic reflection method relies on measuring Clearly the greater the reflection coefficient, the
travel times of P waves which have been reflected stronger the reflections are from the interface and
back to the surface by boundaries separating materials hence more easily identified from the seismic record.
with different characteristic P-wave velocities. The As the density of rocks and soils is not very variable,
proportion of energy reflected by a velocity interface velocity contrast must be the controlling factor with
is defined by the reflection coefficient of that respect to the amplitude of reflected events. Telford et
interface. Accordingg to Dohr ((1975)) the reflection al. ((1990)) g
give the ffollowingg values off R:
coefficient of an interface for a normally incident (i.e.
the angle of incidence is zero) wave is:

where Ar = amplitude of the reflected wave, Ad = amplitude of the

normally incident wave, o = density of upper layer, 1 = density of lower
layer, V0= P-wave velocity of upper layer, and V1 = P-wave velocity of
lower layer.

The most common use of the seismic reflection method in

engineering is in site investigations over water,
particularly offshore investigations (for example,
investigations for offshore platforms for the oil industry).
Common CSP energy sources include the following.
1. Sparkers. Shock waves are produced by the explosive
formation of steam bubbles, resulting from electrical
discharge between two electrodes.
2. Boomers. Shock waves are produced by explosive
repulsion of a metal plate, spring loaded against the force
of an insulating coil. The repulsion of the plate is
triggered by passing a high voltage through the coil.
3. Pingers. These produce an acoustic pulse using
piezoelectric or magnetostrictive transducers.
4. Air guns. Shock waves are produced by explosive
release of high pressure air from an immersed pressure
chamber.

SEISMIC TOMOGRAPHY In seismic velocity tomography, an image of the

distribution of the seismic propagation velocity properties
Tomography (from the Greek, tomos: a slice or section) is a within a region of the ground is deduced from
method whereby an image of the distribution of a physical measurements of the transit times of artificially induced
property within an enclosed region is produced without direct seismic waves crossing the zone.
access to the zone.
Seismic velocity tomography is a geophysical sectioning The process can be divided into a number of activities,
technique which determines the spatial seismic velocity each of which requires careful attention if useful results
d st but o w
distribution t
within a ggiven
ve aarea
ea oof interest.
te est. are to be achieved:
Seismic velocity tomography is potentially extremely useful in
geotechnical ground investigations, for two reasons. · data acquisition and reduction;
1.tomography can give information on the general variability
(i.e. of seismic velocity) beneath a site 2.technique can be used
to provide values of the ‘very small strain’ stiffness (G0, or Gmax) · reconstruction of velocities; and
of the ground, since this is uniquely linked to seismic shear wave
G = ρ V s2
velocity (Vs)
· interpretation.
through the equation:

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The preliminary design of a tomographic survey On the basis of our experience to date, the following
should consider: may be stated.
1. the type of wave to be used (i.e. P or S). This 1. Low-velocity anomalies (such as cavities) appear
decision should be made on the basis of the expected more difficult to detect than highvelocit anomalies (for
velocity contrasts in each case, and the predicted example, hard inclusions).
wavelength in relation to any target; 2. The absolute values of seismic velocity recovered
2 the expected signal-to-noise
2. signal to noise ratio,
ratio and the from a survey may be regarded as indicative of ground
repeatability with which the seismograph can be stiffness variations, but should not be used in an
triggered by the source; these will influence the travel absolute way in engineering calculations.
time errors; and 3. Velocity variations are likely to be most reliably
3. the size and geometry of the required tomogram, reconstructed when velocity contrasts are low.
based on the amount of ground to be investigated, and
the expected size of the target.

SEISMIC TOMOGRAPHIC SURVEYS

Tomographic surveys are commonly carried out between
two boreholes.
In the simplest case an energy source is placed in one
borehole (transmitter borehole) and an array of receivers
placed in the second borehole (receiver borehole) as
shown in Fig. 4.31.
The survey is performed by keeping the energy source
stationary in the transmitter borehole and moving the
receiver array up or down the receiver borehole taking a
record for each receiver array position.
The energy source is then moved to a new position and
the process of moving the receiver array is repeated.
When the energy source has traversed the section of
interest the survey is complete.

BOREHOLE PREPARATION
When carrying out seismic tomographic surveys with
either P waves or S waves the boreholes must be lined
with plastic (ABS) casing. The use of plastic casing is
critical to the success of the survey because metal
casing presents significant velocity contrast with the
surrounding ground. The casing is capped at the base
and inserted into a grout-filled borehole. The grout is
necessary to provide acoustic coupling between the
borehole and the ground. A bentonite or cement-
bentonite grout is generally suitable.

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EQUIPMENT AND FIELD TECHNIQUES The borehole spacing and measurement interval used in
tomographic surveys are similar tothose used in conventional
cross-hole seismic surveys which are discussed later.
The basic equipment required for most tomographic The time taken to conduct a tomographic survey will depend
surveys includes: upon:

• Energy source (P wave or S wave); 1.the length of the section being surveyed;

2. the station interval;

•Receiver array;
3. the number of receivers in the array;
•Compressed air for use with clamped sources and
receivers; 4. whether the source and receiver array are clamped or freely
suspended; and
•Winches for lowering tools down the boreholes; and
5. the amount of stacking required to reduce the signal-to-noise
ratio to an acceptable level.
•Seismograph.

DETERMINATION OF PROPERTIES
Geophysics is generally of very little use in providing
parameters for geotechnical analysis and design. There is,
however, one important exception.
As already noted above, several seismic methods can be
used to obtain information on the stiffness of the ground.
Traditionally, the seismic methods preferred by
geophysicists have been based upon methods used for
deep mineral exploration,
exploration and they have therefore relied
upon P waves.
Compressive (or primary) waves are convenient for these
purposes because they can be readily generated (for
example using hammer blows or explosives), and their
identification on the seismic record in simple — they are
the first arrivals. Deep rocks have high skeletal stiffnesses,
and therefore the P-wave velocity of the rock is usually
much greater than that of its interstitial fluid.

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