SYNTAX II

Week 2: Types and Positions of Complement Clauses

- There are four major types of complement clauses:
a) That-clause: that-clauses are finite. Therefore, they are marked for tense or
modality.
They warned him that it’s dangerous.
b) Wh-clauses: wh-clauses are finite as well and they can show tense or modality and
must have a subject.
She didn’t ask what my plans were.
c) To-infinitive clauses: to-infinitive clauses are non-finite complement. They cannot
have tense or modals and they do not have a subject.
We wanted to talk in front of my aunt.
d) Ing-clauses: ing-clauses are non-finite; they have an ing-participle as their main
verb form.
He began crunching it gently but firmly.

- There are two less common types of complement clause:

a) Bare infinitive clauses: are a special type of infinitive clause with an infinitive
verb form, but without to.
Surrey police say the film would help identify participants at the weekend party.
b) Ed-complement clauses: are rare and very restricted in their distribution.
I got the door unlocked.

Week 2: Grammatical Positions of Complement Clauses

- There are three major grammatical positions for complement clause:
a) Subject (pre-predicate): this position is possible for complement clauses
controlled by a verb or an adjective.
That they are already struggling troubles Graham Taylor.
b) Post-predicate: Post predicate clauses can function as direct object (following a
transitive verb), subject predicative (following a copular verb), or an adjective
complement (following a predicative adjective).
They are trying to hold it together.
c) Extraposed: In an extraposed structure, dummy it fills the subject slot, and the
complement clause occurs after the predicate. Dummy it does not refer to
anything – it simply fills the grammatical place of the subject. However, the post-
predicate complement clause functions as the logical subject.
It appears that Big Blue does not lead the market.
- Extraposed is actually an alternative to subject position.

Week 3: That-clauses
- That-clauses in the post-predicate position are by far the most common type of that-
clause – they account for 80% of all that-clauses. They typically report the speech and
thoughts of humans. The subject of the main clause usually refers to a person, the main
verb clause presents the type of reporting (e.g. speech or thought), and the that-clause
presents the reported speech or thought.
 I think Stuart’s gone a bit mad.
- Each of the other types of that-clauses has particular functions in discourse also.
- There are three grammatical patterns for verbs that take a that-clause in post-predicate
position:
a) Pattern 1: verb + that-clause (e.g. agree, ask)
I didn’t agree that he should be compelled to do singing.
b) Pattern 2: verb + NP + that-clause (e.g. tell, persuade)
I persuaded [myself] that something awful might happen.
c) Pattern 3: verb + to NP + that-clause (e.g. suggest)
I suggested [to Miss Kerrison] that she sit down on the chair and wait.

- Ten verbs are especially common controlling that post-predicate clauses: think, say,
know, see, find, believe, feel, suggest, show and guess (in American English
conversation).
- Mental verbs are very common with that-clauses, reporting various mental states and
attitudes (Example: I think we picked it.)
- Speech act and other communication verbs: the second common use of that-clauses is to
report what someone said. (Example: She said that it’s lovely to wear.)
- These verbs reflect the primary function of that-clauses for reporting thoughts and
speech.
- Many of the verb + that-clause combinations also convey stance.
- Subject-position and extraposed that-clauses are much less common than post predicate
that-clauses.
- For verbs, only be is common controlling extraposed that-clauses.
- The adjectives that control that-clauses all covey stance.
- They fall into three major categories:
a) Degrees of certainty (e.g. certain, confident, evident)
b) Affective states (e.g. annoyed, glad, sad)
c) Evaluations (e.g. appropriate, odd, good, important, advisable)
- Extraposed that-clauses are far more common than subject that-clauses.
- As a result, when subject that-clauses are used, they serve special discourse functions.
- When subject that-clauses are used, they usually conform to particular characteristics of
register (subject that-clauses are rare in all registers), grammatical complexity (in almost
every case where a subject that-clause is used, it presents information that is already
presupposed as factual or generally accepted), and information structure (the main clause
predicate has a complex constructions with many phrases or clauses).
- In addition, some topics and individual writers favour subject that-clauses.

Week 4: Wh-clauses
- There are three basic types of wh-complement clauses:
a) Interrogative clauses: are used with verbs such as ask and wonder to present an
indirect question.
Jill was asking what happened.
b) Nominal relative clauses: can be paraphrased with a general head noun + relative
clause
What baffles me is how few of them can spell/The thing that baffles me is…
 c) Exclamatives: they begin with how + adjective or with what as a predeterminer.
He still remembered how wonderful it had been.
- Wh-clauses can be complements of verbs, adjectives, or prepositions.
- With verbs, wh-clauses often occur in object position
You give him what he wants.
- Wh-clauses can also follow adjectival predicatives
She wanted to be careful what she said.
- Wh-clauses can be the complement of a preposition or the object of a prepositional verb
She was amazed at how exhausted she was.
- Wh-complements can occur with or without a noun phrase between the verb and wh-
clause.
- The most common verbs controlling a wh-clause fall into four major semantic domains:
mental, speech, other communication, and perception.

- There are two important grammatical patterns used with wh-complement clauses in post-
predicate position
a) Pattern 1: verb + wh-clause (e.g. know, remember, see)
I don’t know what they are.
I can’t remember how I used to be
b) Pattern 2: verb + NP + wh-clause (e.g. ask, show, tell)
I didn’t tell [you] what Emma thought.
I want you to show [me] where the car went off.

- Whether and if are used as complementizers to introduce dependent yes/no interrogative

clauses that express indirect questions.
- If-clauses are more common than whether-clauses, especially in conversation.
- Whether-clauses are used with more formal discourse and with clauses that include
choices with or and or not.

Week 5: Post-predicate Infinitive Clauses

- Infinitive clauses are more common in written registers than in conversation, unlike that-
clauses and wh-clauses.
- They report speech and mental states, and they are also used to report intentions, desires,
efforts, perceptions, and other general actions.
- They usually occur in post-predicate position, although they can occur in subject position
and extraposed constructions.

- There are 5 major patterns for post-predicate infinitive clauses following a verb:
a) Pattern 1: verb + to-clause (e.g. try, hope) - most common type.
I’m just trying to get away early.
b) Pattern 2: verb + NP + to-clause (e.g. tell, believe, enable)
It enables [the farmer] to maintain uniform.
Pattern 2P (corresponding passive form): be + verb-ed + to-clause
Heavy fighting with the government troops was expected to break out soon.
c) Pattern 3: verb + for NP + to-clause (e.g. ask, love, arrange)
Hire a van and wait for [Mrs Jones] to arrive.
 d) Pattern 4: verb + bare infinitive clause (e.g. dare, help, let)
The police didn’t dare touch them because of the United Nations.
e) Pattern 5: verb + NP + bare infinitive clause (e.g. have, feel, make, help)
I'll have [Judy] do it.
He actually felt [the sweat] break out on his forehead.

- The patterns vary in the way noun phrases come between the verb and to-clause, and in
the choice of to or bare infinitive.
- Some factors to consider in the grammatical patterns with to-clauses are:
passive alternatives, the implied subject of the to-clause, the relationship between the
object of the main clause and the to-clause, and prepositional verbs.
- The semantic category of a verb often influences the grammatical patterns that are
possible for that verb.

- The verbs that are common with to-clauses vary across registers and cover many
semantic categories.
- Conversation uses far fewer verbs commonly; most of those are verbs of desire (e.g.
want, like), plus the verbs seem and try.
- The combination want + to-clause is extremely common in conversation.
- The other registers have more variation, including more verbs of effort (e.g. try), of
aspect (e.g. begin, continue), of probability (e.g. tend) and of causation (e.g. allow).
- Subject predicative to-clauses have 4 major functions:
a) introducing points
b) introducing objectives or plans
c) introducing methodologies
d) making a balanced structure when a to-clause is also the subject of the main
clause
- Likely/unlikely is the only adjective that commonly controls a to-clause.
- Many other adjectives occur, conveying certainty, ability, stance, ease/difficulty, or
evaluation

Week 6: More on Infinitive Clauses; Raising

- Raising describes the relationship between the main clause subject and the to-clause. To-
clauses controlled by verbs can have subject-to-subject raising (grammatical subject of
the main clause is the implied subject of the to-clause).
To-clauses controlled by adjectives can have subject-to-subject or object-to-subject
raising.

- Raising with to-clauses controlled by an adjective

- In the simplest case, the implied subject of the to-clause is the same as the subject of the
main clause.
Millar was determined to change the content of education.
- However, there are two major groups of adjectives that differ from this simple case:
a) certainty adjectives controlling subject-to-subject raising (certainty adjectives:
likely, sure, certain)
[The government] is unlikely to meet the full cost.
 b) Adjectives of ease or difficulty controlling object-to-subject raising (adjectives
of ease/difficulty: hard, easy, (im)possible)
Without those powers, [computer hacking] would be almost impossible to prove.
- Extraposed to-clauses:
- There are a few verbs that control extraposed to-clauses.
- The most common one is the copula be combined with a subject predicative NP or PP.
It is still an adventure to travel down the canyon of the Colorado river in a small
boat.
- Adjectives taking extraposed to-clauses come from three major semantic domains:
a) necessity and importance adjectives,
b) ease and difficulty adjectives,
c) evaluation adjectives (e.g. essential, important, interesting, necessary).
If you want peace it is important to stay cool.
- Extraposed clauses are more common than subject position clauses.
- The choice of subject position rather than extraposed is related to register, cohesion and
information structure, the complexity of the main clause predicate, and individual style.

- To-clauses with raising are alternatives to some extraposed constructions.

- With certain verbs and adjectives, to-clauses with raising are more common than
extraposed that-clauses.
- This choice is usually due to information structure.
- Adjectives of ease or difficulty are slightly more common with raised to-clauses than
extraposed to-clauses.
- Information structure and cohesion are again important to the choice.
- The different types of to-clauses have different frequencies across registers, which reflect
their functions.
- Post-predicate to-clauses are most common in conversation, fiction and news.
- They usually report activities, desires, and thoughts of humans.
- To-clauses controlled by adjectives are most common is news and academic prose.
- They usually describe a state or an attitude.

Week 7: Ing-clauses, Ellipsis/Substitution, and Review

- Ing-clauses are used most often with verbs like begin, start and stop to convey aspect,
emotions and other actions.
- They are more common in written registers than in conversation.
- Ing-clauses are most common in post-predicate positions, where they can be controlled
by verbs and adjectives.
Gizmo keeps trying to persuade me to go with her.

- There are three major patterns for ing-complement clauses in post-predicate position
(with and without a NP between the verb and the ing-clause):
a) Pattern 1: verb + ing-clause (e.g. begin, remember):
He began paging through old newspapers.
I remember reading this book.
b) Pattern 2: verb + NP + ing-clause (e.g. see, find)
When you see [a geek] walking down the street, give it a good throw.
 Don’t be surprised to find [me] sitting on the tee in the lotus position.
c) Pattern 2a: verb + possessive determiner + ing-clause:
Did you mind [me] saying it, Stephen?
And maybe you won’t mind [my] saying that you’re getting a little old for
studying.
d) Pattern 3: prepositional verb + ing-clause:
We were thinking of bringing our video camera.
She complained of feeling feverish and went early to bed.

- Verbs of aspect and manner are the most common verbs controlling ing-clauses,
especially in conversation and fiction.
- The verb keep shows that the action in the ing-clause is continuous or repeated.
- The verbs start and stop show the beginning or ending of an activity.

- Most adjectives that control ing-clauses express a personal feeling or attitude, or some
evaluation of the idea in the ing-clause (e.g. sorry, afraid, capable).
- In most cases, the controlling adjective is followed by a preposition (e.g. sorry about,
afraid of, good at, useful in).

- Ellipsis and substitution in complement clauses is most common in conversation.

- Ellipsis can occur with to-clauses and wh-clauses, where the complement clause is
omitted but the complementizer (to or a wh-word) is retained
A: Are we having that tonight too?
B: If you want to.
- Substitution occurs by far most often with think + so
A: Have they found him?
B: I don’t know – I don’t think so.
- With certain verbs, so or not can substitute for a that-clause
- This substitution is most common is the expression think so, but occurs with several other
verbs also.