Chapter nine

Control Loops in power system

9.1 Introduction:

It is necessary in certain studies to know how the various load vary with frequency
and voltage. It is simple to find these relationships analytically if the load consists
of an impedance, for example, consider a series RL load. From the formula.

The load formulas in this case are:

In other form:

The formulas reveal that both P and Q increase as the square of the voltage
magnitude, also they clarify that P decreases but Q increases with increasing
frequency.

Composite load, which constitute the majority of actual loads, also vary with
voltage and frequency. However, for this type of load the functional relationships
cannot solve analytically. The best for in a practical situation is to estimate, measure,
or by empiric method find the voltage and frequency dependency.
9.1.1 The Real Power Balance and its Effect on Power System:

There are three reason why system frequency should be kept with strict limits:

1. Most types of ac motors run at speeds that are directly related to the frequency.
2. A large number of electrically operated clocks are used. They are all driven
by synchronous motors, and the accuracy of these clocks is a function not only
of frequency error but of the integral of this error.
3. The overall operation of power system can be much better controlled if the
frequency error would kept within strict limits

The frequency is closely related to the real power balance in overall network

Under normal operating conditions the system generators run synchronously and
generate together the power that at each moment is being drawn by all loads plus the
real transmission lines, taking into account that the energy is being transmitted at the
velocity of light, and since it is not stored somewhere in the system.

Within each generator there are an automatic torque balancing mechanism.

Once a generator has been synchronized onto a network, electromechanical forces

build up within the machine that tend to keep it running at the same speed as the rest
of the network. Once the speed of the generator has been thus locked to that of the
rest of the system, its real power generation can be controlled from its prime mover.
A greater torque will be apply to the generator, tending to accelerate the generator.
However, its speed is tide to rest of the system, therefore, its rotor advances its
running angle a few degrees. This results in an increase in delivered current and
power, and at the same time the current builds up a decelerating torque within the
machine that exactly counteracts the increase in accelerating torque. If all generators
have a perfect torque balance, their speed and thus frequency must remain constant.
 The decrease in load results in a current decrease that would be distributed among
all generators, resulting in a slight decrase in electromechanical torque in every
machine. Every generator would experience a small surplus accelerating torque, with
speed (and frequency)incease.

9.1.2 The Reactive power Balance and Its effect on System Voltage

The unchanged bus voltage profile represent the criterion that balance is kept
between produced and consumed reactive power. Whenever the magnitude of a
particular bus voltage undergoes variations, this means that Q balance is not kept at
the that bus. Consider the two bus system shown in figure (9.1), the load P + j Q is
tapped from load bus 2. Since no generator exists at this bus, the load must be
transmitted via the line from bus 1.

Assume that:

1. V1 is constant, and to be choose as reference bus.

2. Z = jX.
3. The line power is P + j Q.

Figure (9.1)

Due to the voltage drop along the line :

The current is

Identifying these three voltage terms in a phasor diagram as shown in figure (9.2)

Figure (9.2)

One can realize that:

1. A change in the real load P affects the voltage – drop phasor which is
perpendicular to V1, there will be no change in the magnitude of V2.
2. A change in the reactive load Q affects the voltage – drop phasor which is in
phase with V1. The change of V2 is proportional to Q. ( the dotted voltage
phasor illustrate the change in V2 if the reactive load is doubled)

If the value of V2 is to be constant, Q must be shifted at bus 2. This can be achieved

by shunt capacitors and/or synchronous condensers.

The opposite effect is during light – load. Due to the shunt capacitance in lines and
cables, there would be a surplus of reactive power. This means that the Q flow will
be reversed in direction and so does the phasor XQ/V1. With the results that the
voltage drop changes to voltage rise. To keep the voltage from going to high, shunt
reactors may connected to a certain points in the network.

9.2 Load frequency Control

Frequency changes occur because system load varies randomly throughout the
day so that an exact forecast of real power demand cannot be assured. The imbalance
between real power generation and load demand (plus losses) throughout the daily
load cycle causes kinetic energy of rotation to be either added to or taken from the
on-line generating units, and frequency throughout the interconnected system varies
as a result.
The topic of maintaining the system frequency constant is commonly known as
AUTOMATIC LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL (ALFC). It has got other
nomenclatures such as Load Frequency Control, Power Frequency Control, Real
Power Frequency Control and Automatic Generation Control.
The basic role of ALFC is:
1. To maintain the desired megawatt output power of a generator matching with the
changing load.
2. To assist in controlling the frequency of larger interconnection.
3. To keep the net interchange power between pool members, at the predetermined
values.
The ALFC loop will maintain control only during small and slow changes in load
and frequency. It will not provide adequate control during emergency situation when
large megawatt imbalances occur. We shall first study ALFC as it applies to a single
generator supplying power to a local service area.
9.2.1 Real Power Control Mechanism of a Generator:
To help understand the control actions at the power plants, consider the boiler-
turbine-generator combination of a thermal generating unit.
Most steam turbo generators (and also hydro turbines) now in service are equipped
with turbine speed governors. The function of the speed governor is to monitor
continuously the turbine-generator speed and to control the throttle valves which
adjust steam flow in to the turbine (or the gate position in hydro turbines) in
response to changes in "system speed" or frequency.
The real power control mechanism of a generator is shown in figure (9.3). The
main parts are: 1) Speed changer 2) Speed governor 3) Hydraulic amplifier 4)
Control valve. They are connected by linkage mechanism. Their incremental
movements are in vertical direction. In reality these movements are measured in
millimeters; but in analysis they expressed as power increments in MW or p.u.
MW as the case may be. The movements are assumed positive in the directions of
arrows.
The position of the pilot valve can be affected via the linkage system in three
ways:
1. Directly, by moving the linkage point A “raise” or “lower” commands of the
speed governor.
2. Indirectly, via feedback, due position changes of the main piston.
3. Indirectly, via feedback, due to position changes of linkage point B resulting
from speed changer.
Corresponding to “raise” command, linkage movements will be: “A”
moves downwards; “C” moves upwards; “D” moves upwards; “E” moves
downwards. This allows more steam or water flow into the turbine resulting
incremental increase in generator output power. When the speed drops, linkage
point “B” moves upwards and again generator output power will increase.
 Figure (9.3)
The governor output command ∆Pg is measured by the position change ∆ xC.
The governor has two inputs:
1. Changes ∆Pref. in the reference power setting.
2. Changes in ∆f in the speed of the frequency of the generator, as measured by
∆xB.
It is to be noted that a positive ΔPref will result in positive ΔPg, A positive
Δf will result in linkage points B and C to come down causing negative ΔPg.
Thus ΔPg = ΔPref – (1/R) Δ f
Taking Laplace transform yields
ΔPg (s) = ΔPref (s) – (1/R) Δf (s)
The block diagram corresponding to the above equation is shown in figure (9.4) R
 Figure (9.4)
The speed-versus power output governing characteristic of each unit has
droop, which means that a decrease in speed should accompany an increase in
load, as depicted by the straight line. See figure (9.5)

Figure (9.5)
The speed regulation Ru of the generating unit is defined as the magnitude of the
change in steady-state speed. Expressed in per unit of rated speed, when the output
of the unit is gradually reduced from 1.00 per-unit rated power to zero.
Thus, per-unit regulation is simply the magnitude of the slope of the speed-versus-
power output characteristic when the frequency axis and the power-output axis are
each scaled in per unit of their respective rated values.
In practice, both the frequency and the power can be expressed in per unit.
Where: f2: frequency (Hz) at no load.
f1: frequency (Hz) at rated megawatt out put
fR :rated frequency (Hz) of the unit
SR: megawatt base
9.2.2 Static Performance of Speed Government

At steady state, ΔP0 is equal to ΔPg. i.e. ΔP0 = ΔPg 0, consider the following three
cases.
ΔPg 0 = ΔPref 0 – (1/ R1) Δ f 0
Case A: The generator is synchronized to a network of very large size, so large in
fact, that its frequency will be essentially independent of any changes in the power
output of this individual generator (“infinite” network).
Since Δf0 = 0, the above equation becomes:
ΔPg 0 = ΔPref 0
Thus for a generator operating at constant speed, (or frequency) there exists a direct
proportionality between turbine power and reference power setting. When the
generator is operating at constant frequency, if the speed changer setting is
INCREASED, (DECREASED) turbine output power will increase (decrease) to that
extent.
Example 1: A 100-MW, 50-Hz generator is connected to “infinite” network. How
would you increase its turbine power by 5 MW?
Sol.: Its turbine power can be increased by 5 MW by simply giving a “raise” signal
of 5 MW to the speed changer motor.

Case B: Now we consider the network as “finite”. i.e. its frequency is variable. If
the speed changer is kept at constant setting. i.e. ΔPref = 0.
Since ΔPg 0 = ΔPref 0 – (1/ R) Δ f 0
Then ΔPg 0 = (- 1 / R) Δ f 0
1. The above equations show that for a constant speed changer setting, the static
increase in turbine power output is directly proportional to the static frequency drop.
2. The above equation can be rewritten as Δ f 0 = - R ΔPT 0. This means that the plot
of f0 with respect to PT 0 (or PG 0) will be a straight line with slope of – R.

Example 2: Consider 100-MW 50-Hz generator in the previous example. It has a

regulation parameter R of 4 %. By how much will the turbine power increase if the
frequency drops by 0.1 Hz with the speed changer setting unchanged.
Sol. : Regulation is 4%. 4% of 50 = 2 Hz. This means that for frequency drop of
2 Hz the turbine power will increase by 100 MW.
Thus R = 2 / 100 = 0.02 Hz per MW
It is given Δ f 0 = - 0.1 Hz
ΔPg0 = ΔPref 0 – (1/ R) Δ f 0
Setting ΔPref as zero, ΔPg 0 = ( - 1/ R) Δ f 0
i.e. ΔPg 0 = - 1/ 0.02 (- 0.1) = 5 MW
Thus the turbine power will increase by 5 MW.
Example 3: Consider again 100-MW, 50-Hz generator in the previous example. If
the frequency drops by 0.1 Hz, but the turbine power remains unchanged, by how
much should the speed changer setting be changed?
Sol.: As ΔPg0 = 0,
ΔPg 0 = ΔPref 0 – (1/ R) Δ f 0
We have ΔPref 0 = (1/ R) Δ f 0
Given that R = 0.02 Hz per MW and Δ f 0 = - 0.1 Hz
ΔPref 0 = 1/ 0.02 x (- 0.1) = - 5 MW
Therefore, speed changer setting must be lowered by 5 MW

Case C: In general case, changes may occur in both the speed changer setting and
frequency in which case the relationship ΔPg 0 = ΔPref 0 – (1/ R) Δf 0 applies.
This means that for a given frequency, generation power can be increased or
decreased by suitable raise or lower command. Thus the relationship ΔPT 0 = ΔPref 0
– (1/ R) Δf 0 represents a family of sloping lines. See figure (9.) which represents the
static frequency-power response of speed governor (R = 0.04 p.u.).
The thick line shows that corresponding to 100% rated frequency, the output power
is 100 % of rated output. But for the new speed changer setting as shown by the
dotted line, for the same 100% rated frequency, output power is 50 % of rated output.
Hence the power output of the generator at a given frequency can be adjusted as will,
by suitable speed changer setting. Such adjustment will be extreme importance for
implementing the load division as decided by the optimal policy.

Figure (9.6)

Example 4: Two synchronous generators operating in parallel supply a total load

of 200 MW. The ratings of the machines 1 and 2 are 100 MW and 200 MW.
Machines 1 and 2 have governor droop characteristic of 4% and 3% respectively,
from no load to full load. Assume that at full load, machines run at rated speed and
the system frequency is 50 Hz. Calculate the load taken by each machine and the
operating frequency.
The figures show the characteristics of the machines.
Let x MW be the load taken by the machine 1. Then the load taken by the machine
2 is 200-x MW. Both should operate at same speed and frequency. Equating the
common frequency:

On solving the above, x = 72.73 MW and 200 - x = 127.27 MW. Thus Load on
machine 1 = 72.73 MW; Load on machine 2 =127.27 MW

9.2.2.1 Automatic Generation Control (AGC)

The isolated unit would continue to operate at the reduced frequency f except for
the supplementary control action of the speed changer.
The speed control mechanism has a speed changer motor which can parallel-shift
the regulation characteristic to the new position shown by the dashed line of
Figure (9.7). Effectively, the speed changer supplements the action of the governor
by changing the speed setting to allow more prime-mover energy through to increase
the kinetic energy of the generating unit so that it can again operate at the desired
frequency f0 while providing the new output Pg. Suppose that the unit is supplying
output power PgQ at frequency f0, when the load is increased to Pg = PgO + ∆ Pg .
As the speed of the unit decreases, the speed governor allows more steam from
the boiler (or water from the gates) through to the turbine to arrest the decline in
speed. Equilibrium between input and output power occurs at the new frequency f =
(f0 + ∆ f) as shown. According to the slope of.
 Figure (9.7)
When K generating units are operating in parallel on the system, their speed drop
characteristics determine how load changes are apportioned among them in the
steady state.
Consider that the K units are synchronously operating at a given frequency when
the load changes by ∆ P megawatts. The corresponding changes in the outputs of the
units are given by:

Adding these equations together gives the total change in output

From which the system frequency change is

Then the additional output Pg i of Unit I is:

Which combines with the additional outputs of the other units to satisfy the load
change ∆P of the system. The units would continue to operate in synchronism at the
new system frequency except for the supplementary control exercised by the AGC
system at the energy control center of the area in which the load change occurs. Raise
or lower signals are sent to some or all the speed changers at the power plants of the
particular area. Through such coordinated control of the set points of the speed
governors it is possible to bring all the units of the system back to the desired
frequency f0 and to achieve any desired load division within the capabilities of the
generating units.

Therefore, the governors of units of the interconnected system tend to maintain load-
generation balance rather than a specific speed and the supplementary control of the
AGC system within the individual control area functions so as to:

• Cause the area to absorb its own load changes,

• Provide the prearranged net interchange with neighbors,

• Ensure the desired economic dispatch output of each area plant, and

• Allow the area to do its share to maintain the desired system frequency.
 The areas are connected to each other by tie-lines. The most important difference
between a normal transmission line and a tie-line is that in normal operation the
power flows in the transmission line is

Sij = Vi Iij*

In the tie-line connecting the areas 1 and 2 is given by

Which means that it in this case it is essential to take into account the frequency
differences between the two areas

Figure (9.8) shows the block diagram indicates the flow of information in a
computer controlling a particular area.

 Position 1 processing of information about power flow on tie lines to other

control areas is indicated. The actual net interchange Pa is positive when net
power is out of the area. The scheduled net interchange is Ps.
 Position 2 the scheduled net interchange is subtracted from the actual net
interchange.
 Position 3 indicates the subtraction of the scheduled frequency fs (for
instance, 60 Hz) from the actual frequency fa to obtain ∆f, the frequency
deviation.
 Position 4 indicates that the frequency bias setting Bf, a factor with a negative
sign and the units MW /0.1 Hz, is multiplied by 10 ∆f to obtain a value of
megawatts called the frequency bias (10 Bf ∆f). which is positive when the
actual frequency is less than the scheduled frequency,
 Figure (9.8)

 Position 5 indicates the subtraction of the frequency bias from (Pa – Ps) to
obtain the ACE (Area control error), which may be positive or negative. As
an equation

The ACE (area control error) is continuously recorded within the energy
control center to show how well the individual area is accomplishing these
tasks.
 A negative ACE means that the area is not generating enough power to send
the desired amount out of the area. There is a deficiency in net power output.
Without frequency bias, the indicated deficiency would be less because there
would be no positive offset (10 Bf ∆f) added to Ps (subtracted from Pa) when
actual frequency is less than scheduled frequency and the ACE would be less,
the area would produce sufficient generation to supply its own load and the
prearranged interchange but would not provide the additional output to assist
neighboring interconnected areas to raise the frequency.

 Position 6 indicates Station control error (SCE is the amount of actual

generation of all the area plants) minus the desired generation. This SCE is
negative when desired generation is greater than existing generation.
 Position 7 indicates the key to the whole control operation which is the
comparison of ACE and SCE. Their difference is an error signal.
if both ACE and S CE are negative and equal, the deficiency in the output
from the area equals the excess of the desired generation over the actual
generation and no error signal is produced . However, this excess of desired
generation will cause a signal, indicated at position 11, to go to the plants to
increase their generation and to reduce the magnitude of the SCE; the
resulting increase in output from the area will reduce the magnitude of the
ACE at the same time. If ACE is more negative than SCE, there will be an
error signal to increase the A of the area, and this increase will i n turn cause
the desired plant generation to increase (posit ion 9). Each plant will receive
a signal to increase its output as determined by the principles of economic
dispatch.
 Position 10 on the diagram indicates the computation of penalty factors for
each plant. The penalty factors are transmitted to the section (position 9),
 which establishes the individual plant outputs for economic dispatch and the
total desired plant generation.

Example 5: Two thermal generating units arc operating in parallel at 60 supply Hz

to a total load of 700 MW. Unit 1, with a rated output of 600 MW and 4% speed-
droop characteristic, supplies 400 MW, Unit 2 of 500 MW and 5% rated output
speed droop, supplies the remaining 300 MW of load. If the total load increases to
800 MW, determine the new loading of each unit and the common frequency change
before any supplementary control action occurs. Neglect losses.

The load increased by 100 Mw, then the per unit frequency deviation is:

Since fR is 60 Hz, then the frequency is changed by 0.24 Hz, and the new frequency
of operation is 59.76.
The load located for each unit is:

Whereas Unit 2 supplies 340 MW at the new operating points b shown in

Figure (9.9). If supplementary control were applied to unit 1 alone, the entire 100-
MW load increase could be absorbed by that unit by shifting its characteristic to
the final 60-Hz position at point c. Unit 2 would then automatically return to its
original operating point to supply 300 MW at 60 Hz.
 Figure (9.9)

The large number of generators and governors within a control area combine to
yield an aggregate governing speed-power characteristic for the area as a whole. For
relatively small load changes this area characteristic is often assumed linear and then
treated like that of a single unit of capacity equal to that of the prevailing on-line
generation in the area. On this basis, the fo1lowing example demonstrates the steady-
state operation of AGC for a three-area system in which losses are neglected.

Example 6: Three control areas with autonomous AGC system comprise the
interconnected 60-Hz system shown in figure (2). The aggregate speed-droop
characteristics and on-line generating capacities of the areas are:

Area A: RAu = 0.0200 P.U : SAu = 16000 Mw

Area B: RBu = 0.0200 P.U : SBu = 12000 Mw

Area C: RCu = 0.0200 P.U : SCu = 6400 Mw

Each area has a load level equal to 80% of its rated on-line capacity. Area C is
importing 500Mw of its load requirements from area B, and 100Mw pass over the
tie line of area A, which has zero scheduled interchange. Determine:
1. The system frequency deviation and the generation changes of each area when a
full loaded 400Mw generator is forced out of service in area B. The areas
frequencies are: BfA = - 1200 Mw/ 0.1 Hz

BfB = - 1500 Mw/ 0.1 Hz

BfC = - 950 Mw/ 0.1 Hz

2. The ACE of each area before AGC action began.

Sol. 1)
2)

Ideally, the ACE in areas A and C would be zero. The predominating ACE is
in area B where the 400-MW forced outage occurred. The AGC system of area B
will command the on - line power plants under its control to increase generation t
offset the loss or the 400-MW unit and restore system frequency at 60 Hz. Areas A
and C then return to their original conditions.