Unit – 2

Modeling of Turbine, Generator and Governing System

Modeling of Speed governing system, free governor operation, Turbine-Stages, Generator
and load systems, complete block diagram of an isolated power system.
Necessity of keeping voltage and frequency constant

GOVERNOR CHARACTERISTICS OF A SINGLE GENERATOR

Prime movers driving the generators are fitted with governors, which are regarded as
primary control elements in the LFC system. Governors sense the change in a speed control
mechanism to adjust the opening of steam valves in the case of steam turbines and the
opening of water gates in the case of water turbines. The characteristics of a typical
governor of a steam turbine are shown in Fig.1, which is linearized by dotted lines for
studying the system behavior.

Characteristics of a typical governor of a steam turbine

The amount of speed drop as the load on the turbine is increased from no load to its full-
load value is (No–N), where No is the speed at no load and N is the speed at rated load.
The steady-state speed regulation in per unit is given by

The value of R varies from 2% to 6% for any generating unit. Since the frequency and speed
are directly related, the speed regulation can also be expressed as the ratio of the change in
frequency from no load to its full load to the rated frequency of the unit:

i.e.,

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If there is a 4% speed regulation of a unit, then for a rated frequency of 50 Hz, there will be
a drop of 2 Hz in frequency.
If the generation is increased by ΔPG due to a static frequency drop of Δf, then the speed
regulation can be defined as the ratio of the change in frequency to the corresponding
change in real-power generation:

i.e.,
The unit of R is taken as Hz per MW. In practice, power is measured in per unit and
hence R is in Hz/p.u. MW.
ADJUSTMENT OF GOVERNOR CHARACTERISTIC OF PARALLEL OPERATING UNITS
When two generators are running in parallel, the governor characteristic of the first unit
(Line 1) is shown towards the right, while that of the second unit (Line 2) is shown towards
the left of the frequency axis as shown in Fig.
The characteristics are obviously different and hence corresponding to the rated
frequency fr, the two units carry loads P1 and P2 so that the system load PD = P1 + P2. If the
system load is now increased to P′D, the system frequency will drop down to f ′, since the
units can only increase their output by decreasing the speed.
To restore the system frequency, the characteristic of one of the unit’s say of Unit 1 needs
to be shifted upwards as indicated by the dotted characteristic, so that it can carry the
increased load. The share of Unit 1 will be P1′ and that of Unit 2 will be P2 so that the
increased total load, PD′ = P1′ + P2.

Sharing of load by two units (parallel) with a speed-governor characteristics setting

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PROBLEM-1
A 100-MW generator has a regulation parameter R of 5%. By how much will the turbine
power increase if the frequency drops by 0.1 Hz with the reference unchanged?
Solution:

PROBLEM-2
A 100-MW generator with R50.02 Hz/MW has its frequency fallen by 0.1 Hz. By how much
the reference power setting be changed if the turbine power remains unchanged.
Solution:

PROBLEM-3
Two generators with ratings 100 and 300 MW operate at 50 Hz frequency. The system load
increases by 100 MW when both the generators are operating at about half of their
capacity. The frequency then falls to 49.5 Hz.
If the generators are to share the increased load in proportion to their ratings, what should
be the individual regulations? What should be regulations if expressed in per-unit Hertz/
per-unit MW?
Solution:

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Both have the same value, even though based on their individual ratings, they have
different regulation.
PROBLEM-4
Determine the primary load frequency control loop parameters for a control area having
the following data:
Total rated area capacity Pr=1000 MW
Normal operating load=500 MW
Inertia constant H5=4.0 s
Regulation R5=2.5 Hz/p.u. MW
Solution:

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PROBLEM-5
Solution:
Determine the area frequency response characteristic and the static frequency error for a
system with the following data, when 1% load change occurs?
D= 0:01 p:u: MW/Hz
R= 2:5 Hz/p:u: MW
TP =16 s
KP =100 Hz/p:u: MW

Problem-6
Two generators of rating 100 and 200 MW are operated with a droop characteristic of 6%
from no load to full load. Determine the load shared by each generator, if a load of 270 MW
is connected across the parallel combination of those generators.
Solution:
The two generators are operating with parallel connection; the % drop in frequency from
two generators due to different loads must be same.
Let power supplied by (100 MW) Generator-1 = x
Percentage drop in frequency = 6%

Total load across the parallel connection = 270 MW

Power supplied by (200 MW) Generator-2 = (270 – x)

Percent drop in frequency (or speed) of both machines must be the same:

By solving the above equation, we get x = 90 MW

∴ Load shared by Generator-1 (100 MW unit) = 90 MW
Load shared by Generator-2 (200 MW unit) = 270 – x
= 270 – 90 = 180 MW

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Problem-7
Two 750 kW alternators operates in parallel. The speed regulation of 1 set 100% to 103%
from full load to no load and that of other is 100% to 104%. How will the two alternators
share a load of 1000kW and at what load will one machine cease to supply any portion of
the

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Problem-8

Solution

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SPEED-GOVERNING SYSTEM
The speed governor is the main primary tool for the LFC, whether the machine is used
alone to feed a smaller system or whether it is a part of the most elaborate arrangement. A
schematic arrangement of the main features of a speed-governing system of the kind used
on steam turbines to control the output of the generator to maintain constant frequency is
as shown in Fig. 1.

Speed-governor system

Its main parts or components are as follows:

Fly-ball speed governor: It is a purely mechanical, speed-sensitive device coupled
directly to and builds directly on the prime movers to adjust the control valve opening via
linkage mechanism. It senses a speed deviation or a power change command and converts
it into appropriate valve action. Hence, this is treated as the heart of the system, which
controls the change in speed (frequency). As the speed increases, the fly balls move
outwards and the point B on linkage mechanism moves upwards. The reverse will happen
if the speed decreases.
The horizontal rotating shaft on the lower left may be viewed as an extension of the shaft of
a turbine-generator set and has a fixed axis as shown in Fig.. The vertical shaft, above the
fly-ball mechanism, also rotates between fixed bearings. Although its axis is fixed, it can
move up and down, transferring its vertical motion to the pilot point B.

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Hydraulic amplifier: It is nothing but a single-state hydraulic servomotor interposed
between the governor and valve. It consists of a pilot valve and the main piston. With this
arrangement, hydraulic amplification is obtained by converting the movement of low-
power pilot valve into movement of high-power level main piston.
In hydraulic amplification, a large mechanical force is necessary so that the steam valve
could be opened or closed against high-pressure inlet steam.
Speed changer: It provides a steady-state power output setting for the turbines. Its
upward movement opens the upper pilot valve so that more steam is admitted to the
turbine under steady conditions. This gives rise to higher steady-state power output. The
reverse will happen if the speed changer moves downward.
Linkage mechanism: These are linked for transforming the fly-balls moment to the
turbine valve (steam valve) through a hydraulic amplifier.
ABC is a rigid link pivoted at point B and CDE is another rigid pivoted link at point D. Link
DE provides a feedback from the steam valve moment.
The speed-governing system is basically called the primary control loop in the LFC. If the
control valve position is indicated by xE, a small upward movement of point E decreases the
steam flow by a considerable amount. It is measured in terms of valve power ΔPv. This flow
decrement gets translated into decrement in turbine power output ΔPT.
With the help of linkage mechanism, the position of the pilot valve can be changed in the
following three different ways:
1. Directly by the speed changer: A small upward moment of linkage point A
corresponds to a decrease in the steady-state power output or reference power
Δ Pref.
2. Indirectly through the feedback due to the position changes in the main system.
3. Indirectly through feedback due to the position changes in linkage point E resulting
from a change in speed.
MODELING OF SPEED GOVERNING SYSTEM
Let us assume that the steam is operating under steady state and is delivering
power P0G from the generator at nominal speed or frequency f o.
Under this condition,
1. The prime mover valve has a constant setting χ0E,
2. The pilot valve is closed,
3. The linkage mechanism is stationary.
Now, we will increase the turbine power by ΔPC with the help of the speed changer.
Δx ἀ ΔP
A C
Δx = K ΔP
A c C

With the movement of A moves in the downward direction by ΔXA, the link point C move
upwards by an amount Δ XC
Temporarily if B is fixed then

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 =-
l2
X C   X A
l1
  K11 K C PC
  K1PC      (1)
The link point C moves upwards by an amount Δ XC and so does the link point D by an amount
ΔXD upwards. Due to the movement of link point D, the pilot valve moves upwards, then the
high-pressure oil is admitted into the cylinder of the hydraulic amplifier and flows on to the
top of the main piston. Due to this, the piston moves downward by an amount ΔXE and results
in the opening of the steam valve. Due to the opening of the steam valve, the flow of steam
from the boiler increases and the turbine power output increases, which leads to an increase in
power generation by ΔPG. The increased power output causes an accelerating power in the
system and there is a slight increase in frequency say by Δf if the system is connected to a
finite size (i.e., not connected to infinite bus).
Now with the increased speed, the fly balls of the governor move downwards, thus causing
the link point B to move slightly downwards by a small distance ΔXB proportional to Δf. Due
to the downward movement of link point B, the link point C also moves downwards by an
amount Δ XC, which is also proportional to Δf.

The relation between C & B by taking A is constant

X C X B

l1  l 2 l1
l l 
X C   1 2 X B
 l1 
l l 
  1 2  K 21 f
 l1 
X C  K 2 f      (2)
The net movement of link point C contributes two factors as follows:
X A contributi on i.e. X C   K1PC      (1)
f contributi on i.e. X C  K 2 PC      (2)
ΔXC = −K1ΔPC + K2Δ f ------(3)

The constants K1 and K2 depend upon the length of linkage arms AB and BC and also
depend upon the proportional constants of the speed changer and the speed governor.

The movement of link point D, ΔXD is the amount by which the pilot valve opens and it is
contributed by the movement of point C, ΔXC, and movement of point E, ΔXE.

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The response of D based on E &C for fixed C

The response of D based on E &C for fixed E

Therefore, the net movement of point D can be expressed as

 l   l 
X D   3 X E   4 X C
 l3  l 4   l3  l 4 
X D  K 3 X C  K 4 X E      (4)
The movement ΔXD, results in the opening of the pilot valve, which leads to the admission
of high-pressure oil into the hydraulic amplifier cylinder; then the downward movement of
the main piston takes place and thus the steam valve opens by an amount ΔXE.
Two assumptions are made to represent the mathematical model of the movement of point
E:
The main piston and steam valve have some inertial forces, which are negligible when
compared to the external forces exerted on the piston due to high-pressure oil. Because of
the first assumption, the amount of oil admitted into the cylinder is proportional to the port
opening ΔXD, i.e., the volume of oil admitted into the cylinder is proportional to the time
integral of ΔXD.
t
Volumeof oil admitted 1
 X D dt
area of cross  sec tionof the piston A 0
X E  

Where A is the area of cross-section of the piston:

t
 X E  K 5   X D dt      (5)
0

In Equation (5), the negative sign represents the movements of link points D and E in the
opposite directions. For example, the small downward movement of ΔXD causes the
movement ΔXE in the positive direction (i.e., upwards).

Taking the Laplace transform of Equations (3), (4), and (5), we get

ΔxC (s) = −K1ΔPC(s) + K2ΔF(s)--------(6)

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ΔxD = K3ΔXC (s)+ K4 ΔXE(s)--------(7)

Eliminating ΔXC(s) and ΔXD(s) in the above equations and substituting ΔXD(s) from
Equation (7) in Equation (8), we get

Substituting ΔXC(s) from Equation (6) in the above equation, we get

The above equation can be modified as

Block diagram model of a speed-governor system

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FREE GOVERNOR OPERATION
When the speed changer has a fixed setting, which means ΔPC = 0 and the load demand
alone changes. Such an operation is known as free governor operation or uncontrolled case
since the speed changer is not manipulated (or controlled to achieve better frequency
constancy).

TURBINE MODEL
We are interested not in the turbine valve position but in the generator power
increment ΔPG. The change in valve position ΔXE causes an incremental
increase in turbine power ΔPT and due to electromechanical interactions
within the generator, it will result in an increased generator power ΔPG, i.e.,
ΔPT = ΔPG, since the generator incremental loss is neglected.

Non-reheat-type steam turbines

Figure below shows a single-stage non-reheat type steam turbine.

In this model, the turbine can be characterized by a single gain constant Kt and
a single time constant τt as

Transfer function representation of speed control mechanism of a generator

with a non-reheat-type steam turbine

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The combined transfer function of the turbine and the speed-governor mechanism will be

Therefore,

Block diagram of a simplified turbine governor

The above block diagram gives the derivation of an incremental or small signal model. The
model is adopted for large signal use by adding a saturation-type non-linear element, which
introduces the obvious fact that the steam valve must operate between certain limits. The
valve can neither be more open than fully open nor more closed than fully closed.
This model may also be modified to account for reheat cycles in the turbine and more
accurate representation of fluid dynamics in the steam inlet pipes or in the hydraulic
turbines in the penstock.
Reheat type of steam turbines
Modern generating units have reheat-type steam turbines as prime movers for higher
thermal efficiency.

Figure shows a two-stage reheat-type steam turbine

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In such turbines, steam at high pressure and low temperature is withdrawn from the
turbine at an intermediate stage. It is returned to the boiler for resuper heating and then
reintroduced into the turbine at low pressure and high temperature. This increases the
overall thermal efficiency. Mostly, two factors influence the dynamic response of a reheat-
type steam turbine.
1. Entrained steam between the inlet steam valve and the first state of turbine.
2. The storage action in the reheater, which causes the output of the low-pressure
stage to lag behind that of the high-pressure stage.

In this case, the turbine transfer function is characterized by two time

constants.
It involves an additional time lag τr associated with the reheater in addition to
the turbine time constant τt.
Hence, the turbine transfer function will be of a second order and is given by

The time constant τr has a value in the range of 10 s and approximates the
time delay for charging the reheat section of the boiler. Kr is a reheat
coefficient and is equal to the proportion of torque developed in the high-
pressure section of the turbine

• Kr = (1 – fraction of the steam reheated)

• When there is no reheat Kr = 1 and the transfer function reduces to a
single time constant given in Equation

GENERATOR LOAD MODEL

The generator–load model gives the relation between the change in frequency (Δf) as a
result of the change in generation (ΔPG) when the load changes by a small amount (ΔPD).
When neglecting the change in generator loss, ΔPG = ΔPT (change in turbine power output),
net-surplus power at the bus bar = (ΔPG – ΔPD).
This surplus power can be absorbed by the system in two different ways:
(i) By increasing the stored kinetic energy of the generator rotor at a rate
(ii) The load on the motors increases with increase in speed. The load on the
system being mostly motor load, hence some portion of the surplus power is

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 observed by the motor loads. The rate of change of load with respect to
frequency can be regarded as nearly constant for small changes in frequency.
PD
B
f
dWE
1. By increasing the stored kinetic energy of the generator rotor at a rate
dt
 Initially rotating parts having some Kinetic Energy i.e W0KE at normal speed and
frequency f0
 WKE be the Kinetic Energy when the frequency is (f 0 + Δf).
Since the stored KE is proportional to the square of speed and the frequency is
proportional to the speed,

Differentiating the above expression with respect to ‘t’, we get

Let H be the inertia constant of a generator (MW-s/MVA) and Pr the rating of the turbo-
generator (MVA):
W0KE = H × Pr (MW-s or M-J)-----------(2)
Hence, Equation (1) becomes

(ii) The load on the motors increases with increase in speed. The load on the system being
mostly motor load, hence some portion of the surplus power is observed by the motor
loads. The rate of change of load with respect to frequency can be regarded as nearly
constant for small changes in frequency.
 dPD 
 f  Bf      (4)
 df 
Where the constant B is the area parameter in MW/Hz and can be determined empirically.
B is positive for a predominantly motor load.
Now, the surplus power can be expressed as

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Substitute Equations (3) and (4), the above equation can be modified as

Dividing throughout by Pr of Equation (5), we get

Taking Laplace transform on both sides, we get

Equation (6) can be represented in a block diagram model as given in Fig.1

The overall block diagram of an isolated power system is obtained by combining individual
block diagrams of a speed-governor system, a turbine system, and a generator–load model
and is as shown in Fig. 2
This representation being a third-order system, the characteristic equation for the system
will be of the third order.

FIG.1 Block diagram representation of a generator–load model

Complete block diagram representation of an isolated power system

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Problem-1
Two generating stations 1 and 2 have full-load capacities of 200 and 100 MW, respectively,
at a frequency of 50 Hz. The two stations are interconnected by an induction motor and
synchronous generator set with a full-load capacity of 25 MW as shown in Fig. 1. The speed
regulation of Station-1, Station-2, and induction motor and synchronous generator set are
4%, 3.5%, and 2.5%, respectively. The loads on respective bus bars are 750 and 50 MW,
respectively. Find the load taken by the motor-generator set.

Solution

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Problem-3

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Problem-4

Necessity of keeping voltage and frequency constant

Constant frequency is to be maintained for the following functions:
 All the AC motors should require constant frequency supply so as to maintain speed
constant.
 In continuous process industry, it affects the operation of the process itself.
 For synchronous operation of various units in the power system network, it is
necessary to maintain frequency constant.
 Frequency affects the amount of power transmitted through interconnecting lines.
 Electrical clocks will lose or gain time if they are driven by synchronous motors, and
the accuracy of the clocks depends on frequency and also the integral of this
frequency error is loss or gain of time by electric clocks.

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