Partial Differential Equations For Engin PDF

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Author : K.Santhanam
Partial Differential Equations for Engineering
Application of Partial Differential Equations – boundary value problems
Author : K.Santhanam,MSc.,M.Phil.,
Chapter 1.
Introduction
Partial differential equations (PDEs) are the most common method by which we model
physical problems in engineering. Finite element methods are one of many ways of solving
PDEs.
PDEs can be used to describe a wide variety of phenomena such as sound, heat,
electrostatics, electrodynamics, fluid flow, elasticity, or quantum mechanics. These seemingly
distinct physical phenomena can be formalised similarly in terms of PDEs. Just as ordinary
differential equations often model one-dimensional dynamical systems, partial differential
equations often model multidimensional systems. PDEs find their generalisation in stochastic
partial differential equations.
Partial differential equations (PDEs) are equations that involve rates of change with
respect to continuous variables. The position of a rigid body is specified by six numbers, but the
configuration of a fluid is given by the continuous distribution of several parameters, such as the
temperature, pressure, and so forth. The dynamics for the rigid body take place in a finite-
dimensional configuration space; the dynamics for the ﬂuid occur in an infinite-dimensional
conﬁguration space. This distinction usually makes PDEs much harder to solve than ordinary
differential equations (ODEs), but here again there will be simple solutions for linear problems.
Classic domains where PDEs are used include acoustics, fluid flow, electrodynamics, and heat
transfer.
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A boundary value problem is a differential equation together with a set of additional
constraints, called the boundary conditions. A solution to a boundary value problem is a solution
to the differential equation which also satisfies the boundary conditions. Much theoretical work
in the field of partial differential equations is devoted to proving that boundary value problems
arising from scientific and engineering applications are in fact well-posed.
Preliminaries and Notations.
Independent and unknown variables
Partial differential equation is an equation involving an unknown function (possibly a
vector-valued) of two or more variables and a finite number of its partial derivatives.
In the sequel we reserve the following terminology and notations:
Independent variables: denoted by x = ( ) ( )
Dependent variables: denoted by ( ) , is also called unknown function.
Definition1.1. Partial Differential Equation
A differential equation involving partial derivatives of a dependent variable (one or more)
with more than one independent variable is called a partial differential equation, hereafter
denoted as PDE.
Notations:
, , , ,
Examples 1.1.1:
1. 2.
3
2.
3.
4. ( )
5. . / . /
6. . /
7. =0
8. . / . /
Definition 1.2. Order of a PDE
The order of the highest derivative term in the equation is called the order of the PDE.
In above example 1.1.1, equations (1) to (8) are all of second order.
Definition 1.3.Linear PDE
If the dependent variable and all its partial derivatives occur linearly in any PDE then
such an equation is called linear PDE otherwise a non-linear PDE.
(i.e)A PDE which is linear in the unknown function and all its derivatives with coefficients
depending on the independent variables alone is called a Linear PDE.
In the above example 1.1.1, equations 1, 2, 3, 4 and 7 are linear whereas 5, 6 and 8 are non-
linear.
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Definition 1.4.Quasi-linear PDE
A PDE is called as a quasi-linear if all the terms with highest order derivatives of
dependent variables occur linearly, that is the coefficients of such terms are functions of only
lower order derivatives of the dependent variables. However, terms with lower order derivatives
can occur in any manner.
(i.e) A PDE of order m is called Quasi-linear if it is linear in the derivatives of order m
with coefficients that depend on the independent variables and derivatives of the unknown
function or order strictly less than m.
Simply, a partial differential equation is said to be Quasi- linear if it is linear with respect
to all the highest order derivatives of the unknown function.
In above example 1.1.1, equations 5, 7 and 8 are Quasi-linear.
Definition 1.5.Semi-linear PDE
A Quasi-linear PDE where the coefficients of derivatives of order m are functions of the
independent variables alone is called a Semi-linear PDE.
In above example1.1.1, equation 8 is semi-linear.
Definition 1.6. Fully nonlinear PDE
A PDE which is not Quasi-linear is called a fully nonlinear PDE
Definition 1.7. First order Quai-linear PDE.
A first order Quasi-linear PDE must be of the form ( ) ( ) ( )
Example 1.7.1.
Definition 1.8.First order Semi-linear PDE.
In a first order Quasi-linear PDE where a, b are functions of x and y alone is a Semi-linear PDE.
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(i.e) in the form ( ) ( ) ( )
Example 1.8.1
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Chapter 2.
Classification of second order Quasi-linear PDE.
Consider the second order PDE in the function u of the two independent variables x, y as
. /
The above equation is classified as elliptic, parabolic or hyperbolic depending on
If < 0, then the equation represents elliptic.
If = 0, then the equation represents parabolic.
If > 0, then the equation represents hyperbolic.
Notations: , , , ,
Example 2.1.
Find the nature of the partial differential equation 4 +4 + +2 - =0
Solution.
Here A = 4, B = 4 and C = 1
Therefore = ( )( ) = 16 -16 = 0
The given equation is parabolic equation.
Example 2.2.
Classify the PDE ( )
Solution.
Here A = ( ) , B = -4x and C = 1
Now =( ) ( ) ( )= ( )
= = = ( )
= ( )( )
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Case (i) . If x = 0 , = -4 < 0 , the PDE is elliptic.
Case (ii) if x = 1, = 0 , the PDE is parabolic.
Case (iii) if x < 1, < 0 , the PDE is elliptic.
Case (iv) if x > 1, > 0 , the PDE is hyperbolic.
Note : Fourier Series (formulae) If f(x) has at most maxima and minima,
1.Fourier series of
( ) ∑ ( ) , ,Where ∫ ( ) ,
∫ ( ) , ∫ ( ) are Fourier constants.
2. Fourier series of
( ) ∑ ( ) , ,Where ∫ ( ) ,
∫ ( ) , ∫ ( ) are Fourier constants.
3. Suppose f(x) is an odd function , ,Where ∫ ( ) ,
∫ ( ) , ∫ ( ) ∫ ( ) (half range
Fourier sine series) and ( ) ∑
4. Suppose f(x) is an even function , ,Where ∫ ( ) ∫ ( ) ,
∫ ( ) ∫ ( ) (half range Fourier cosine series),
∫ ( ) and ( ) ∑
5.If n is a positive integer ( )
6. ( ) ( )
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Chapter 3.
Wave Equation
The Wave equation is a partial differential equation that describes the shape and movement of
waves, given a set of boundary conditions (such as the initial shape of the wave, or the evolution
of a force affecting the wave).
(i.e) it is a differential equation expressing the properties of motion in waves.
The wave equation is an important second-order linear partial differential equation for the
description of waves ,such as sound waves, light waves and water waves. It arises in fields like
acoustics, electromagnetics, fluid dynamics and engineering.
3.1 Derivation of one Dimensional Wave Equation (Equation of a vibrating string)
Consider a uniform elastic string of length l stretched tightly between two points O and A with
O as the origin. Let us take the vertical and horizontal lines through O respectively as the x and
y-axes. Let m be the mass per unit length of the string.
Let us assume the motion of the string entirely in XY-plane, the equilibrium position of the
string is OA, Each particle of the string moves only in perpendicular direction to OA and the
string is perfectly flexible and does not have any resistance to bending.
Let us find the displacement y in terms of x and the time t.
Let P (x,y) and Q(x+δx,y+δy) be any two points (close to each other)on the string such that the
small portion PQ = δs.
Let T1 and T2 be the tension acting along the tangential directions at the points P and Q
respectively.
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Let α and α + δα be angles inclined by the tangents with x-axis at P and Q respectively.
Since there is no movement of the string in the horizontal direction, the horizontal components of
forces (tension) acting at P and Q are equal.
The horizontal component of tension T1 at P is T1cosα
The horizontal component of tension T2 at Q is T2cos(α+δα)
∴ T1cosα = T2cos (α+δα) = T (say) a constant.
Considering α, α+δα as very small, the value of cosα, cos(α+δα) is 1
Hence T1 = T2 = T --------- (I)
The vertical component of tension T1 at P is T1sinα
The vertical component of tension T2 at Q is T2sin (α+δα)
The vertical component of total force action on PQ is T2 sin (α+δα) - T1sinα
= T sin (α+δα) – Tsinα --------------- (II) (by I)
( )
Considering α, α+δα as very small, the value of is 1 (as α, α+δα tends to zero)
(i.e) sinα = α and sin(α+δα) = α+δα
(II) ⟹ Force acting on PQ along vertical direction = T( α+δα) – T α = T α + Tδα - T α = Tδα

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The displacement along vertical direction is y , the velocity is
And hence the acceleration is .
The mass of the portion PQ is mδs
As per Newton s’ law of motion, Force = (mass) x (acceleration)
∴ Tδα = mδs .
⟹ = =
As δs → 0,
∴ -------------- (III)
We know that the curvature

6√. / 7
Neglecting , we have
(III) ⟹
(i.e) , where =
This PDE is called one dimensional wave equation. It is homogeneous of second order.
3.2. Solutions of one Dimensional Wave Equation
We know that one dimensional wave equation is given by ----- (i)
Solve this PDE by using separation of variable method.
Let the complete solution of (i) be y = XT ------ (ii)
where X and T are respectively the function of x and t alone.
Now differentiating partially (ii) with respect to t,

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( )
= =0+ =
( )
= ------- (iii)
( )
( )
----------- (iv)
From (i), (iii) and (iv),
(i.e)
Let
Consider
⟹ --------- (v)
Consider
⟹ -------- (vi)
The solutions of (v) and (vi) depends on the value of k.
Case I. If k is positive
Let k = p2, where p is an integer. Then (v) becomes,
The auxiliary equation is given by
∴m=±p
The solution is given by ---------- (vii)

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Now put k = p2 in (vi) then,
∴ m = ± pc
The solution is given by --------- (viii)
The complete solution is y = XT (from (ii))
y=( )( ) ---------- (ix) (by (vii) & (viii))
Case II. If k is negative
Let k = - p2, where p is an integer. Then (v) becomes,
∴ m = ± pi
The solution is given by -------- (x)
Now Put k = - p 2 in (vi), then
∴ m = ± pci
The solution is given by ---------(xi)
y=( )( ) ---------- (xii) (by (x) & (xi))
Case III. If k = 0
Then (v) becomes,
The auxiliary equation is given by m2 = 0
∴ m = 0 (twice)
The solution is given by ---------------- (xiii)
Put k = 0 in (vi),
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∴ m = 0 (twice)
The solution is given by ---------------- (xiv)
y=( )( ) ------------ (xv)
Hence the complete solutions for one dimensional wave equation are
y=( )( ) ---------- (ix)
y=( )( ) ---------- (xii)
y=( )( ) ------------ (xv)
Note: In the case of vibration of an elastic string, y(x,t) representing the displacement of the
string at any point x, at the time t (which is periodic in t), hence the proper complete solution of
the one dimensional wave equation must be taken as
y=( )( ) which is periodic in t.
We can classify the vibrating string problems in following three types,
1. Problems with zero initial velocity.
2. Problems with non-zero initial velocity.
3. Problems with initial velocity and initial displacement.
3.3. Problems with zero initial velocity. ( )
Example 3.3.1.
A string is stretched and fastened to two points x = 0 and x = l apart. Motion is started by
displacing the string into the form y = f(x) from which it is released at time t = 0. Find the
displacement of any point on the string at a distance of x from one end at time t.
Solution.
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We know that the wave equation is
Given boundary conditions are as follows.
(i) ( )
(ii) ( )
(iii) ( ) (∵ initial velocity is zero), 0 < x < l
(iv) ( ) ( ), 0 < x < l
We know that the proper complete solution of the wave equation is
( )=( )( ) -------- (1)
Case (i) Use the boundary condition ( )
Put x = 0, t = t in (1), we will get ( )=0
⟹ either( ) or A = 0
Suppose ( ) , then (1) ⟹ ( )
This means there is no solution for the given problem and hence ( )
∴A=0
Put A = 0 in (1), we have ( )= ( ) --------- (2)
Case (ii) Use the boundary condition ( )
Put x = l and t = t in (2), we will get ( )
Clearly( ) , we have
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⟹
Put in (2), we have ( )= . / ( . / . /) -------- (3)
Case (iii) Use the boundary condition ( )
Differentiate (3) with respect to t,
= . /( . / . / . / . /)
Put x= x and t =0 and in above equation, we have . / . /
Clearly . / ≠ 0, . / and B ≠ 0, hence D = 0
Put D = 0 in (3), we have ( )= . / . /
= . / . /
= . / . / , where
The most general form is ( ) ∑ . / . / --------- (4)
Case (iv) Use the boundary condition ( ) ( )
Put x = x, t = 0 in (4), we have ∑ . / ( )
Using the half-Fourier sine series, we have ∫ ( ) . /
∴ (4) ⟹ the general solution is ( ) ∑ . / . /
where ∫ ( ) . / .
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Example 3.3.2.
A tightly stretched string with fixed end points x = 0 and x = l is initially displaced in a
sinusoidal arc of length and then released from rest. Find the displacement y at any
distance x from one end at time t.
Solution.
(v) ( )
(vi) ( )
(vii) ( ) (∵ initial velocity is zero), 0 < x < l
(viii) ( ) ,0<x<l
( )=( )( ) -------- (1)
⟹ either( ) or A = 0
Suppose ( ) , then (1) ⟹ ( )
∴A=0
Put A = 0 in (1), we have ( )= ( ) --------- (2)

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Put in (2), we have ( )= . / ( . / . /) -------- (3)
= . /( . / . / . / . /)
Put D = 0 in (3), we have ( )= . / . /
= . / . /
= . / . / , where
Case (iv) Use the boundary condition ( )
Put x = x , t =0 in (4), we have ∑ . /
(i.e)
Comparing the co-efficient both sides, we have B1 = y0, B2 = B3 = …. = 0
∴ (4) ⟹ the general solution is ( )

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∴ ( )
Example 3.3.3.
An elastic string is stretched between two points at a distance apart. In its equilibrium position
the string is in the shape of the curve f(x) = k(sinx –sin3x). Obtain y(x,t) the vertical
displacement.
Solution.
(i) ( )
(ii) ( )
(iii) ( ) (∵ initial velocity is zero), 0 < x <
(iv) ( ) ( ), 0 < x <
( )=( )( ) -------- (1)

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⟹ either ( ) or A = 0
Suppose ( ) , then (1) ⟹ ( )
∴A=0
Put A = 0 in (1), we have ( )= ( ) --------- (2)
Put x = and t = t in (2), we will get ( )
Put in (2), we have ( )= ( ) -------- (3)
= ( )
Put x= x and t =0 and in above equation, we have
Clearly ≠ 0, cn and B ≠ 0, hence D = 0
Put D = 0 in (3), we have ( )=
= , where
The most general form is ( ) ∑ --------- (4)

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Put x = x , t =0 in (4), we have ∑ ( )
We know that –
⟹ ( )
(i.e) ( )
= ( ). /
=. /
Comparing the co-efficient both sides, we have B1 = , B3 = , B2 = B4 = … = 0
∴ (4) ⟹ the general solution is ( )
Example 3.3.4.
A string is stretched and fastened to two points x = 0 and x = l apart. Motion is started by
displacing the string into the form y = k(lx-x2) from which it is released at time t = 0. Find the
displacement of any point on the string at a distance of x from one end at time t.
Solution.
(i) ( )
(ii) ( )

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(iv) ( ) ( ) 0<x<l
( )=( )( ) -------- (1)
Suppose ( ) , then (1) ⟹ ( )
∴A=0
Put A = 0 in (1), we have ( )= ( ) --------- (2)
⟹
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Put in (2), we have ( )= . / -------- (3)
= . /( . / . / . / . /)
Put D = 0 in (3), we have ( )= . / . /
= . / . /
= . / . / , where
Put x = x , t =0 in (4), we have ∑ . / ( )
Using half-Fourier sine series , we will get ∫ ( )
= ∫ ( ) ( )
= * ( )( ) ] ∫( ) ( ( ))+
=0+ ∫ ( )
= ∫ ∫
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( )
= ] ∫ ( )
=( )
( ) * ] ∫ + ( ∵ sin n = sin 0 = 0)
=0– ( ) ∫
( )
=( )
( )] = ( )
( )
= ( )
( )
=( ( )=( ( ( ) ) ( ∵ cos 0 = 1 & cos n = (-1)n)

) )
∴ ( ( ) )
( )
( )
( )
= {
( )
( )
= {
( )
∴ (4) ⟹ the general solution is ( ) ∑ . / . /
{
∑ . / . /
( )
( ) ( )
(i.e) ( ) ∑ . / . /
(( ) )
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Example 3.3.5.
Find the displacement of a string of length l vibrating between fixed end points with initial
velocity zero and initial displacement is given by ( ) {
Solution.
(i) ( )
(ii) ( )
(iv) ( ) {
( )=( )( ) -------- (1)
Suppose ( ) , then (1) ⟹ ( )

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∴A=0
Put A = 0 in (1), we have ( )= ( ) --------- (2)
Put in (2), we have ( )= . / -------- (3)
= . /( . / . / . / . /)
Put D = 0 in (3), we have ( )= . / . /
= . / . /
= . / . / , where

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Case (iv) Use the boundary condition ( ) {
Put x = x , t =0 in (4), we have ∑ . / {
Using half-Fourier sine series ,
we will get ∫ ∫ . /
= ∫ ∫ . / ( )
= ∫ ( ) ∫ . / ( )
= * ( )] – ∫ ( ) +
*. /( )] ∫ ( ) ( )+
= ∫ ∫ ( ) ,(∵ )
= ] ∫
=( )
]
=( ) ( )
( )
=( ) ( )
=( )
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∴ ( )
Hence (4) ⟹ the general solution is ( ) ∑ . / . /
=∑ ( )
. / . /
Example 3.3.6.
A string of length 2l is fastened at both ends. The midpoint of the string is taken to a height b and
then released from rest in the position. Find the displacement.
Solution.
(i) ( )
(ii) ( )
(iii) ( ) (∵ initial velocity is zero), 0 < x <2l
Let OA = 2l where O(0,t) and A (2l,t)
Let B (l,b) be the midpoint of the string.
The line equation OB is given by
Here ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
∴ ⟹ ⟹ ⟹ ( )
⟹ ( )
(i.e) ( ) ( )
Put t = 0, we have ( )
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The line equation BA is given by
Here ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
∴ ⟹ ⟹ ( )
⟹ ( )
(i.e) ( ) ( )
( )
Put t =0, we have ( ) ( )
Hence we have the following fourth boundary condition
(iv) ( ) {( )
( )=( )( ) -------- (1)
Suppose ( ) , then (1) ⟹ ( )

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∴A=0
Put A = 0 in (1), we have ( )= ( ) --------- (2)
Put x =2l and t = t in (2), we will get ( )
Put in (2), we have ( )= . / -------- (3)
= . /( . / . / . / . /)
Put D = 0 in (3), we have ( )= . / . /
= . / . /
= . / . / , where

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Case (iv) Use the (iv) boundary condition ( ) {( )
Put x = x , t =0 in (4), we have ∑ . / {( )
Using half-Fourier sine series ,
( )
we will get ∫ ∫
∫ ∫ ( )
∫ ( ) ∫ ( ) ( )
* ( )] ∫ ++ *( )( )] ∫ ( )+
( )
∫ ( )
∫
] ]
( ) ( )
(∵ )
( )
∴ 8
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
=∑ . / . /
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
=∑ ( ) . / . / (∵ ( ) )
( )
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Example 3.3.7.
The points of trisection of a string of length with fixed ends aside through a distance h on
opposite sides of the position of equilibrium and the string is released from rest. Find an
expression for the displacement of the string at any subsequent time. Also show that the midpoint
of the string always remains at rest.
Solution.
(i) ( )
(ii) ( )
(iii) ( ) (∵ initial velocity is zero), 0 < x <l
Let OA = l where O(0,t) and A (l,t)
Let B ( )&C( ) be the points of the string.
The line equation OB is given by
Here ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
∴ ⟹ ⟹ ( )
∴ ( ) ( )
Put t =0 , ( ) ,
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Now the line equation BC is given by
Here ( ) . / ( ) ( )
( )( )
⟹ ⟹ ( ) ⟹
( )
∴ ( ) = = =
( )
Put t=0 , ( )
Now the line equation CA is given by
Here ( ) . / ( ) ( )
∴ ⟹ ⟹ ⟹
⟹ ( )
∴ ( ) ( )
( )
Put t = 0, we have ( )
( )
( )
Hence we have the following fourth boundary condition

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( )
(iv) ( )
( )
{
( )=( )( ) -------- (1)
Suppose ( ) , then (1) ⟹ ( )
∴A=0
Put A = 0 in (1), we have ( )= ( ) --------- (2)
Put in (2), we have ( )= . / -------- (3)

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= . /( . / . / . / . /)
Put D = 0 in (3), we have ( )= . / . /
= . / . /
= . / . / , where
( )
( )
{
( )
Put x = x , t =0 in (4), we have ∑ . /
( )
{
Using half-Fourier sine series , we will get
( ) ( )
∫ ∫ ∫
= ∫ ( ) ∫ ( ) ( ) ∫( ) ( )
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= * ( )] ∫ + *( )( )] ∫ ( ) (
)+ *( )( )] ∫ ( ) ( )+
= * ( ) ∫ +
*. /. / . /. / ∫ ( )+ *.
/ ∫ +
= ] . / ]
= ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
=( )
( )
( )
( ( ))
=( )
( . /)
=( )
( ) (∵ sin n = 0)
=( ( )
)
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=( ( ( ) )
)
∴ 8
( )
=∑ ( )
. / . /
= ∑ . / . /
∴ ( ) ∑ . / . / -------- (I)
Now to find the displacement at the midpoint of the string
(i.e) at x = l/2 (midpoint)
Put x = l/2 in (I), we have . / ∑ . / . /
= ∑ . / = 0 ,(∵ sin n = 0)
Hence there is no displacement at the midpoint x = l/2 of the string.
(i.e) the midpoint is at rest.
3.4. Problems with non-zero initial velocity. ( ) ( )
Example 3.4.1.
A tightly stretched string with fixed end points x = 0 and x = l is initially at rest in its equilibrium
position. If it is set vibrating string giving each point a velocity g(x), then find the displacement.
Solution.

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(i) ( )
(ii) ( )
(iii) ( )
(iv) ( ) ( ) (∵ non-zero initial velocity ), 0 < x <l
( )=( )( ) -------- (1)
Suppose ( ) , then (1) ⟹ ( )
∴A=0
Put A = 0 in (1), we have ( )= ( ) --------- (2)
⟹
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Put in (2), we have ( )= . / -------- (3)
Put x = x and t = 0 in (3), we have
∵ B ≠ 0,
(3) ⟹ ( )=
= = where Bn = BD
Now ∑ ( )
(i.e) ( ) ∑ . / --------- (5)
Case (iv) Use the boundary condition ( ) ( ) in (5), we will get
∑ . / ( )
Using half – Fourier sine series , we will have . / ∫ ( )
⟹ ∫ ( )
Hence (4) ⟹ the most general solution is ( ) ∑ . / . /
Where ∫ ( )
Example 3.4.2.
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If a string of length l is initially at rest in its equilibrium position and each of its points is given
the velocity , determine the displacement of a point distant x from one end
at time t.
Solution.
(i) ( )
(ii) ( )
(iii) ( )
(iv) ( )
( )=( )( ) -------- (1)
Suppose ( ) , then (1) ⟹ ( )
∴A=0
Put A = 0 in (1), we have ( )= ( ) --------- (2)
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⟹
Put in (2), we have ( )= . / -------- (3)
∵ B ≠ 0,
(3) ⟹ ( )=
= = where Bn = BD
Now ∑ ( )
(i.e) ( ) ∑ . / --------- (5)
Case (iv) Use the boundary condition ( ) in (5), we will get
∑ . / ------- (6)
We know that , (∵ sin 3A = 3 sin A - 4 sin3A)
(6) ⟹
Comparing the co-efficients of both sides, we have ,

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and =0
⟹ , and =0
∴ (4) ⟹ the most general solution is ( ) ∑ . / . /
Example 3.4.3.
If the string of length l is initially at rest in equilibrium position and each of its points is given the
velocity where 0 < x < l at t =0 determine the displacement function y(x,t).
Solution.
(i) ( )
(ii) ( )
(iii) ( )
(iv) ( )
( )=( )( ) -------- (1)
Suppose ( ) , then (1) ⟹ ( )
∴A=0
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Put A = 0 in (1), we have ( )= ( ) --------- (2)
Put in (2), we have ( )= . / -------- (3)
∵ B ≠ 0,
(3) ⟹ ( )=
= = where Bn = BD
Now ∑ ( )
(i.e) ( ) ∑ . / --------- (5)
Case (iv) Use the boundary condition ( ) in (5), we will get
∑ . / ------- (6)
We know that sin (A+B) = sin A cos B + Cos A sin B
Sin (A-B) = sin A cos B – Cos A sin B

43
∴ 2 sin A cos B = sin (A+B) + sin (A-B)
(i.e) , ( ) ( )-
Let A = and B =
∴ , ( ) ( )-
= , -
∴ = 0 1
(6) ⟹
Comparing the coefficients of both sides, we have
And
(i.e) , and
(4) ⟹the most general solution is ( ) ∑ . / . /
Example 3.4.4.
A tightly stretched string with fixed end points x = 0 and x = l is initially at rest in its equilibrium
position. If it is set vibrating string giving each point a velocity ( ) then find the
displacement function.
Solution.

44
(i) ( )
(ii) ( )
(iii) ( )
(iv) ( ) ( )
( )=( )( ) -------- (1)
Suppose ( ) , then (1) ⟹ ( )
∴A=0
Put A = 0 in (1), we have ( )= ( ) --------- (2)
Put in (2), we have ( )= . / -------- (3)

45
∵ B ≠ 0,
(3) ⟹ ( )=
= = where Bn = BD
Now ∑ ( )
(i.e) ( ) ∑ . / --------- (5)
Case (iv) Use the boundary condition ( ) ( ) in (5), we will get
∑ . / ( ) ------- (6)
Using half-Fourier sine series, we will get . / ∫ ( )
= ∫ ( ) ( )= *, ( )- ( )] ∫ ( ) ( ( ))+
=0+ ∫ , ( ) -
= ∫ ( ) ∫
= ∫( ) ( ) ∫ ( )
=( 8( )( )] ∫ ( ) ( )9 8 ( )] ∫ ( ) 9
) ( )
= 0+( )
∫ ( )
∫
=( )
∫ =( )
( )] = ( )
( )
46
=( ( ( ) )
)
∴. / ( ( ) )
( )
⟹ ( ( ) )
( )
⟹ { ( )
(4) ⟹the most general solution is ( ) ∑ . / . /

( )
( ) ( )
= ∑ ( )
Example 3.4.5.
A string of length l is initially at rest in its equilibrium position and motion is started by giving
each of its points a velocity given by { Find the displacement.

( )
Solution.
(i) ( )
(ii) ( )
(iii) ( )
(iv) ( ) {
( )
( )=( )( ) -------- (1)

47
Suppose ( ) , then (1) ⟹ ( )
∴A=0
Put A = 0 in (1), we have ( )= ( ) --------- (2)
Put in (2), we have ( )= . / -------- (3)
∵ B ≠ 0,
(3) ⟹ ( )=
= = where Bn = BD
Now ∑ ( )
48
(i.e) ( ) ∑ . / --------- (5)
Case (iv) Use the boundary condition ( ) { in (5), we will get

( )
∑ . / { ------- (6)
( )
Using half-Fourier sine series, we will get
. / ∫ ∫ ( )
∫ ( ) ∫ ( ) ( )
= {( ( ))] ∫ ( ) }
{(( )( ))] ∫ ( )( )}
= ∫ ∫
= ] ]
=( ) ( )
( )
=( ) ( )
( )
=( ) ( )
( ), (∵ sin n = 0)
=( ) ( )
49
=( )
∴. / ( )
( )
(4) ⟹ the most general solution is ( ) ∑ . / . /
=∑ ( )
. / . /
3.5. Problems with non-zero initial velocity and initial displacement
(i.e) ( ) ( ) and ( ) ( )
Example 3.5.1.
A string is stretched between two fixed points at a distance of l cm and the points of the string
are given initial velocity g(x) after displacing it to the position y(x,0) = f(x). Find the
displacement of the string at any time.
Solution.
(i) ( )
(ii) ( )
(iii) ( ) ( )
(iv) ( ) ( )
50
( )=( )( ) -------- (1)
Suppose ( ) , then (1) ⟹ ( )
∴A=0
Put A = 0 in (1), we have ( )= ( ) --------- (2)
Put in (2), we have ( )= . /
( ) ( )=
51
⟹ ( )= , where
Hence the most general form is given by
y( )=∑ ---------- (3)
Case (iii) Use the boundary condition ( ) ( )
(3)⟹ ( )=∑
Now ∑ ( )( ) ( )( )
Since ( ) ( ), we have ∑ ( ) ( )
( )∑ ( ) ( )
Using Half-Fourier sine series, we have ( ) ∫ ( )
⟹ ∫ ( ) ------------ (I)
Put x = x and t =0 in (3),
(3)⟹ ( )=∑
⟹∑ ( )
Using Half-Fourier sine series, we have ∫ ( ) ---------- (II)
From (3), (I) and (II), the most general solution is
y( )=∑ ,
where ∫ ( ) and ∫ ( )
Example 3.5.2.
52
Find the displacement of a tightly stretched string of length 7 cms vibrating between fixed end
points if initial displacement is and the initial velocity is .
Solution.
Let l = 7 cms
(i) ( )
(ii) ( )
(iii) ( )
(iv) ( )
( )=( )( ) -------- (1)
Suppose ( ) , then (1) ⟹ ( )
∴A=0
Put A = 0 in (1), we have ( )= ( ) --------- (2)
53
⟹
Put in (2), we have ( )= . /
( ) ( )=
⟹ ( )= , where
y( )=∑ ---------- (3)
(3)⟹ ( )=∑
Now ∑ ( )( ) ( )( )
Since ( ) , we have ∑ ( )
( )∑ ( )
Comparing the co-efficients of both sides, we will get
⟹ --------(I)
(3)⟹ ( )=∑
54
⟹∑
Comparing the coefficients of both sides, we will get
------(II)
From (3), (I) and (II) , the most general solution is
( )=∑
= , where l =7.
Example 3.5.3.
A string is stretched between two fixed points at a distance of l cm and the points of the string
are given initial velocities ( ) and the initial displacements
( ) { . Find the displacement of the string at any time.
Solution.
(i) ( )
(ii) ( )
(iii) ( ) ( )
(iv) ( ) {
55
( )=( )( ) -------- (1)
Suppose ( ) , then (1) ⟹ ( )
∴A=0
Put A = 0 in (1), we have ( )= ( ) --------- (2)
Put in (2), we have ( )= . /
( ) ( )=
⟹ ( )= , where
y( )=∑ ---------- (3)
Case (iii) Use the boundary condition ( ) ( )

56
(3)⟹ ( )=∑
Now ∑ ( )( ) ( )( )
Since ( ) ( ), we have ∑ ( ) ( )
( )∑ ( ) ( )
Using Half-Fourier sine series, we have ( ) ∫ ( )
⟹ ∫ ( )
= ∫ ( ) ( )
= 8( ( )) ( )] ∫ ( ) .( ( )) 9
= ∫ , -
( )
= ∫ , -
( )
= ( )
∫ ( )
∫
= ( )
∫ ( ) ( )
]
= ( )
8 ( )] ∫ 9 ( )
( ), (∵ sin n = 0)
= ( )
( )1 = ( )
( )= ( )
( )
= ( )
( ( ) ) (∵ cos n = (-1)n)
∴ ( ( ) )
( )
57
⟹ { ---------- (I)
( )
Case (iv) Use the boundary condition ( ) {
(3)⟹ ( )=∑
⟹∑ {
Using Half-Fourier sine series, we have ∫ ∫( )
= ∫ ( ) ∫( ) ( )
= { ( )] ∫ ( ) } {( )( )] ∫ ( )( )}
= ∫ ∫
. / . /
= 7 7
=( ) ( )
( )
=( ) ( )
( )
=( ) ( ) ( )
=( )
, (∵ sin n = 0)
∴ =( )
58
⟹ = =8 ----------- (II) (∵ { )
( ) ( )
( )
From (3), (I) and (II) , the most general solution is
( )=∑
( ) ( )
∑ ( ) ∑
( ) ( )
59
Chapter4.
Heat Equation
The heat equation is a parabolic partial differential equation that describes the distribution of heat
(or variation in temperature) in a given region over time.
4.1. Derivation of One dimensional heat equation.
We know that
1.Heat flows from higher temperature to lower temperature.
2.The rate of flow of heat through an area is proportional to the area into the temperature
gradient where u (x, t) is temperature distribution normal to the area. Constant of
proportionality is called the thermal conductivity (k) of the material.
3.The amount of heat required to change the temperature through the given range is proportional
to the mass of the given the body and the change of temperature. The constant of proportionality
is termed as specific heat (c).
Consider a homogeneous bar of uniform cross-section, sides are insulated. It is assumed that the
loss of heat from the sides by conduction or radiation is negligible. One end of the bar treated as
the origin and the direction of heat flow as positive x-axis. Let ρ be the density (gm/cm3) , 'c' the
specific heat (cal/cm-deg.sec). The temperature at any point of the bar depend on the distance x
of the point from one end and time 't' and is denoted by u (x, t).
Let us take the uniform cross-sectional area be A and take an end of the bar as the origin and the
direction of heat flow as the positive x-axis.

60
We know that the quantity of the heat crossing any section of the bar is proportional to the area
and the temperature gradient normal to the area.
If Q1 and Q2 are respectively the rates of inflow and outflow for the sections x = x and x = x+δx
then . / and . /
The quantity of the heat retained by the portation(increase of heat) of thickness δx is
. / . / -------------- (I)
Now the mass of the portation with thickness δx = Aρδx
The quantity of increase heat in the portation δx is proportational to the mass of the portation
and the rate of change of temperature with respect to time .
(i.e) the increase of heat in the portation of thickness δx = c Aρδx where the constant of
proportationality is called the specifice heat capcity c. -------------- (II)
From (I) and (II),
c Aρδx . / . /
.. / . / /
⟹
Taking lim δx → 0,
.. / . / /
61
⟹ where ( )( )
4.2.Solution of one dimensional heat equation.
We know that one dimensional heat equation is ---------- (i)
Lat us take the solution be u = XT, --------- (ii) where X is a function of x alone and T is a
function of t alone.
( )
Now
= =0+ = -------- (iii)
( )
( )
----------- (iv)
From (i) ,(iii) and (iv) we have
⟹ (say)
⟹ ---------- (v)
-------- (vi)
The solutions of (v) and (vi) depends on the value of k.
Case I. If k is positive
Let k = p2, where p is an integer. Then (v) becomes,

62
∴m=±p
The solution is given by ---------- (vii)
Now put k = p2 in (vi) then,
The solution is given by --------- (viii)
The complete solution is u = XT (from (ii))
u=( ) ---------- (ix) (by (vii) & (viii))
Case II. If k is negative
Let k = - p2, where p is an integer. Then (v) becomes,
∴ m = ± pi
The solution is given by -------- (x)
Now Put k = - p 2 in (vi), then
The solution is given by ---------(xi)
u=( ) ---------- (xii) (by (x) & (xi))
Case III. If k = 0
Then (v) becomes,
∴ m = 0 (twice)
63
The solution is given by ---------------- (xiii)
Put k = 0 in (vi),
The auxiliary equation is given by m = 0
The solution is given by ---------------- (xiv)
u=( ) ------------ (xv)
Hence the complete solutions for one dimensional heat equation are
u=( ) ---------- (ix)
u=( ) ---------- (xii)
u=( ) ------------ (xv)
Note: In the case of a rod with insulated sides, u(x,t) representing the temperature at any point x,
at the time t (which is periodic in t), hence the proper complete solution of the one dimensional
heat equation must be taken as u(x,t) = ( )
We can classify the one dimensional heat problems in following types,
1. Problems with zero boundary values.
2. Problems with steady state condition and zero boundary values.
3. Problems with steady state condition and non-zero boundary values.
4.2.1. Problem with zero boundary value.
Example 4.2.1.1
A rod of length l with insulated sides is initally at a uniform tempeature f(x).Its ends are
suddenly cooled to 0o C and are kept at the temperature. Find the temperature function u(x,t).
Solution.
We know that the temperature function u(x,t) satisfies the one dimentional
64
heat equation
Given boundary conditions are
(i) u(0,t) = 0 , t ≥ 0
(ii) u(l,t) = 0 , t ≥ 0
(iii) u(x,0) = f(x) , 0 ≤ x ≤ l
we know that the suitable solution of the one dimentional heat equation is given
by u(x,t) = ( ) -------------- (1)
Case (i) Use the boundary condition u(0,t) = 0
(1) ⟹ A =0
Since C ≠ 0 & we have A = 0
Hence (1) ⟹ u(x,t) =
∴ u(x,t) = ------------- (2)
Case (ii) Use the boundary condition u(l,t) = 0
(2) ⟹
Since B ≠ 0 & C ≠ 0, we have
⟹ pl = n
⟹p=
. /
(2)⟹ u(x,t) = . /
. /
(i.e) u(x,t) = . / , where BC = Bn
. /
The complete solution will be u(x,t) = ∑ . / ---------- (3)
Case (iii) Use the boundary condition u(x,0) = f(x)

65
(3) ⟹ f(x) = ∑ . /
By using half range Fourier sine series ∫ ( )
. /
The complete general solution is u(x,t) = ∑ . /
where ∫ ( )
Example 4.2.1.2
Solve subject to the boundary conditions
(i) u(0,t) = 0 for all t ≥ 0
(ii) u(l,t) = 0 for all t ≥ 0
(iii) u(x,t)= {
Solution.
We know that the suitable solution for the one dimensional heat equation is
u(x,t) = ( ) -------------- (1)
(1) ⟹ A =0
∴ u(x,t) = ------------- (2)
(2) ⟹

66
⟹ pl = n
⟹p=
. /
(2)⟹ u(x,t) = . /
. /
. /
Case (iii) Use the boundary condition u(x,0) = f(x) = {
= {∫ ∫( ) }
= *∫ ( ) ∫( ) ( )+
= { ( )] ∫ } {( )( )] ∫ ( )}
= { ∫ } { ∫ }
= ] ]
= ( )
= +
∴ =
67
. /
(3) ⟹ the general complete solution is given by u(x,t) = ∑ . /
. /
∑
Example 4.2.1.3.
A homogeneous rod of conducting material of length l has its ends kept at zero temperature.
The temperature at the centre is T and falls uniformly to zero at the ends. Find u(x,t).
Solution.
We know that the temperature function satisfies the one dimensional heat
equation
(i) u(0,t) = 0 for all t ≥ 0
Also given that the temperature at the centre of the rod is T and it falls uniformly to zero at the
ends.
Now equation of OB is given by
Here ( ) ( ) ( ) . /
⟹
68
⟹ ( ) ,
Now equation of BA is given by
Here B( ) . / ( ) ( )
( )
⟹
( )
⟹
( )
⟹
( )
⟹
( )
⟹ ( )
∴ the (iii) boundary condition is given by u(x,0) = f(x) = { ( )
We know that the suitable solution for the one dimensional heat equation is
u(x,t) = ( ) -------------- (1)
(1) ⟹ A =0

69
∴ u(x,t) = ------------- (2)
(2) ⟹
⟹ pl = n
⟹p=
. /
(2)⟹ u(x,t) = . /
. /
. /
Case (iii) Use the boundary condition u(x,0) = f(x) = { ( )
( )
= {∫ ∫ }
= ∫ ∫( )
= ∫ ( ) ∫( ) ( )
{ ( )] ∫ } {( )( )] ∫ ∫ ( )}
= ∫ ∫
70
= { ] ]}
= 2 . /3
∴ =
. /
(3) ⟹ the complete solution ( ) ∑ . /
. /
=∑ . /
= ∑ . /
4.2.2. Problems with steady state condition and zero boundary values.
Example 4.2.2.1.
An insulated rod of length l has the ends A and B kept at a0 c and b0 c respectively until steady
state conditions prevail. The temperature at each end is suddenly reduced to zero degree Celsius
and kept so. Find the resulting temperature at any point of the rod taking the end A as origin.
Solution.
We know that the one dimensional heat equation is given by
The steady state condition means ,
Integrating both sides ,
Again integrating , u (x) = cx +d
(i.e) u(x,0) = cx + d ------ (1)
Put x = 0 in (1) , u (0) = d

71
Given u(0) = a
∴ d= a
(1) ⟹ u(x) = cx + a
Put x = l in (1), u(l) = cl + d
Given u(l) = b
∴ cl + d = b
cl + a = b
cl = b - a
∴ (1) ⟹ u(x,0) = . /
The boundary conditions are
(i) u(0,t) = 0 for all t ≥ 0
(iii) u(x,0) = . /
We know that the suitable complete solution of this one dimensional heat equation is
( ) ( ) ---------- (2)
(2)⟹ A =0
∴ u(x,t) = ------------- (3)

72
(1) ⟹
⟹ pl = n
⟹p=
. /
(3)⟹ u(x,t) = . /
. /
. /
Case (iii) Use the boundary condition u(x,0) = f(x) = . /
(4) ⟹u(x,0) = ∑ . / . /
Using half range Fourier sine series , we have ∫ ( )
∫ 2. / 3
∫ 2. / 3 ( )
*. / +( )⟧ ∫ ( )
( ) ( )
. /. / ( )( ) ∫
( )
⟧
( )
∴ ( ( ) )
73
. /
(4)⟹the complete general solution is u(x,t) = ∑ ( ( ) ) . /
. /
= ∑ ( ( ) ) . /
Example 4.2.2.2.
A rod of length 30 cm long has its ends A and B kept at 200 c and 800 c respectively until steady
state condition prevail the temperature at each end is then suddenly reduced to 00c and kept so.
Find the temperature function u(x,t) taking x = 0 at A.
Solution.
We know that one dimension heat equation is given by
Again integrating , u (x) = cx +d
(i.e) u(x,0) = cx + d ------ (1)
Put x = 0 in (1) , u (0) = d
Given u(0) = 20
∴ d = 20
(2) ⟹ u(x) = cx + 20
Put x = l in (1), u(l) = cl + d
Given u(l) = 80
∴ cl + d = 80
cl + 20 = 80
74
cl = 80 – 20 =60
c ( given l = 30 cm)
∴ (1) ⟹ u(x,0) = 2
(iv) u(0,t) = 0 for all t ≥ 0
(v) u(30,t) = 0 for all t ≥ 0
(vi) u(x,0) = 2
( ) ( ) ---------- (2)
(2)⟹ A =0
∴ u(x,t) = ------------- (3)
Case (ii) Use the boundary condition u(30,t) = 0
(2) ⟹
⟹ p30 = n
⟹p=
. /
(3)⟹ u(x,t) = . /
. /
75
. /
Case (iii) Use the boundary condition u(x,0) = f(x) = 2
(5) ⟹u(x,0) = ∑ . /
Using half range Fourier sine series , we have ∫ ( )
∫ * +
∫ * + ( )
* +( )⟧ - ∫
= ( ( ) ) ∫
= ( ( ) ) ⟧
∴ = ( ( ) )
. /
(4)⟹the complete general solution is u(x,t) = ∑ ( ( ) ) . /
. /
= ∑ ( ( ) ) . /
4.2.3. Problems with steady state condition and non-zero boundary values.
Example 4.2.3.1.
A rod of length l cm with insulated sides has its ends A and B kept at a0 c and b0 c respectively
until steady state conditions prevail. The temperature at A is then suddenly raise to c0 c and that
at B is lowered d0 c. Find the subsequent temperature distribution function.
Solution.
76
Again integrating , u (x) = sx + t
(i.e) u(x,0) = sx + t ------ (1)
Put x = 0 in (1) , u (0) = t
Given u(0) = a
∴ t= a
(1) ⟹ u(x) = sx + t
Put x = l in (1), u(l) = sl + t
Given u(l) = b
∴ sl + t = b
sl + a = b
sl = b - a
∴ (1) ⟹ u(x,0) = . /
In this case we have to split the temperature function u(x,t) as follows
u(x,t) = us (x,t) + ut(x,t) --------------- (2)
(s- steady state , t- transient state)
The 2nd conditions are given as follows
u(0,t) = c, for all t ≥ 0

77
u(l,t) = d, for all t ≥ 0
u(x,0) = . / for all x
To find steady state temperature us :
Since the steady state temperature will satisfies the one dimensional heat equation
Hence
The steady state condition
Integrating both sides, we will get
Integrating again , ( ) ------ (3)
Given conditions are ( ) ( ) for all t ≥ 0
Put x = 0 in (3) , ( )
But ( )
Hence B = c
Put x = l in (3), ()
But ()
Hence
⟹ Al + c = d
⟹ Al = d – c
Hence (3) ⟹ ( ) ( ) -------- (A)
To fine transient state temperature ut :

78
From (2) , ut(x,t) = u(x,t) – us(x,t)
When x = 0, ( ) ( ) ( )
When x = l , ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) * +
= , for all x
We have the following conditions
(i) ( )
(ii) ( )
(iii) ( ) . /
( ) ( ) --------------- (4)
(4)⟹ A =0
Hence (4) ⟹ ut(x,t) =
∴ ut(x,t) = ------------- (5)
Case (ii) Use the boundary condition ut(l,t) = 0
(5)⟹
⟹ pl = n
⟹p=
79
. /
(3)⟹ ut(x,t) = . /
. /
(i.e) ut(x,t) = . / , where BC = Bn
. /
The complete solution will be ut(x,t) = ∑ . / ---------- (6)
Case (iii) Use the boundary condition ( ) . /
(6)⟹ ∑ . / . /
Using half range sine Fourier series ∫ 2. / 3 . /
∫ 2. / 3 ( )
, -
2 3( )⟧ ∫ ( ) 2. / 3
( ) ( )
20 1 , - 3 ∫
( )
*( )( ) + ⟧
,( )( ) -
∴ ,( )( ) -
. /
(6)⟹ The complete solution will be ut(x,t) = ∑ . /
. /
∑ ,( )( ) - . /
,( )( ) - . /
∑ . / ---------- (B)
( )⟹ ( ) ( ) ( )
,( )( ) - . /
. / ∑ . / (from A and B)
80
Example 4.2.3.2
The ends A and B of a rod l cm long have their temperatures kept at 300c and 800c and steady
state conditions prevail. The temperature of the end B is suddenly reduced to 600c and that of
A is increased to 400c. Find the temperature distribution in the rod after time t.
Solution.
Again integrating , u (x) = sx + r
(i.e) u(x,0) = sx + r ------ (1)
Put x = 0 in (1) , u (0) = r
Given u(0) = 30
∴ r= 30
(2) ⟹ u(x) = sx + r
Put x = l in (1), u(l) = sl + r
Given u(l) = 80
∴ sl + r = 80
sl + 30 = 80
sl = 80 - 30
∴ (1) ⟹ u(x,0) = . /
81
u(x,t) = us (x,t) + ut(x,t) --------------- (2)
u(0,t) = 40, for all t ≥ 0
u(l,t) = 60, for all t ≥ 0
Hence
Put x = 0 in (3) , ( )
But ( )
Hence B = 40
Put x = l in (3), ()
But ()
Hence
⟹ Al + 40 = 60
82
⟹ Al = 60 – 40
Hence (3) ⟹ ( ) ( ) -------- (A)
When x = 0, ( ) ( ) ( )
When x = l , ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) * +
= , for all x
(iv) ( )
(v) ( )
(vi) ( ) . /
( ) ( ) --------------- (4)
(4)⟹ A =0
∴ ut(x,t) = ------------- (5)
(5)⟹
83
⟹ pl = n
⟹p=
. /
(3)⟹ ut(x,t) = . /
. /
. /
(6)⟹ ∑ . / . /
∫ 2. / 3 ( )
, -
2 3( )⟧ ∫ ( ) 2. / 3
( ) ( )
20 1 3 ∫
*( )( ) + ⟧
,( )( ) -
∴ , ( ) -
. /
. /
∑ , ( ) - . /
84
, ( ) - . /
∑ . / ---------- (B)
( )⟹ ( ) ( ) ( )
, ( ) - . /
. / ∑ . / (from A and B)
Example 4.2.3.3
A rod of length l cm long with ends A and B have the temperature 400c and 800c until steady
state prevails. The temperature at A is suddenly raised to 900c and at the same time that at B is
lowered to 400c. Find the temperature distribution in the rod at time t, also show that the
temperature at the mid point of the rod remains unaltered for all time, regardless of the
material of the rod.
Solution
Again integrating , u (x) = sx + r
(i.e) u(x,0) = sx + r ------ (1)
Put x = 0 in (1) , u (0) = r
Given u(0) = 40
∴ r= 40
(3) ⟹ u(x) = sx + r
Put x = l in (1), u(l) = sl + r

85
Given u(l) = 90
∴ sl + r = 90
sl + 40 = 90
sl = 90 - 40
∴ (1) ⟹ u(x,0) = . /
u(x,t) = us (x,t) + ut(x,t) --------------- (2)
u(0,t) = 90, for all t ≥ 0
u(l,t) = 40, for all t ≥ 0
Hence

86
Put x = 0 in (3) , ( )
But ( )
Hence B = 90
Put x = l in (3), ()
But ()
Hence
⟹ Al + 90 = 40
⟹ Al = 40 – 90
Hence (3) ⟹ ( ) ( ) -------- (A)
When x = 0, ( ) ( ) ( )
When x = l , ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) * +
= , for all x
(vii) ( )
(viii) ( )
(ix) ( ) . /
( ) ( ) --------------- (4)
87
(4)⟹ A =0
∴ ut(x,t) = ------------- (5)
(5)⟹
⟹ pl = n
⟹p=
. /
(3)⟹ ut(x,t) = . /
. /
. /
(6)⟹ ∑ . / . /
∫ 2. / 3 ( )
, -
2 3( )⟧ ∫ ( ) 2. / 3
( ) ( )
20 1 3 ∫
88
*( )( ) + ⟧
,( )( ) -
∴ ,( ) -
. /
. /
∑ ,( ) - . /
,( ) - . /
∑ . / ---------- (B)
( )⟹ ( ) ( ) ( )
,( ) - . /
. / ∑ . / (from A and B)
, - . /
=. / ∑ . / if n is even
, - . /
=. / ∑ . / if n is odd
. /
∴ ( ) . / ∑ . /
. /
. / ∑ . /
. /
. / ∑ . /
89
4.3. Derivation of Two dimensional Heat flow equation
Consider the heat flow in a metal plate XOY. If the temperature at a point depends only on
x,y ordinates and time t and does not depend on z-co-ordinate then the heat flow is called two
dimensional heat flow on the XOY plane and heat flow on z-axis is zero.
Consider a rectangular plate with uniform thickness h , density ρ , thermal conductivity k ,
specific heat capacity s with sides δx and δy.
The quantity of heat entering the plate ABCD per sec through the surface AB is
. /
The quantity of heat entering the plate ABCD per sec through the surface AD is
. /
The quantity of heat entering the plate ABCD per sec through the surface CD is
. /
The quantity of heat entering the plate ABCD per sec through the surface BC is
. /
90
Hence the total heat gain by the rectangular plate ABCD is . / . / +
. / + . /
= 8 . / . / . / . / 9
. / . / . / . /
= { } --------- (1)
The rate of gain of heat by the area ABCD is given by ρδxδyhs --------- (2)
From (1) and (2) ,
. / . / . / . /
= { }
. / . / . / . /
⟹ { }
Taking limits δx → 0 and δy → 0, we have
. / . / . / . /
{ }
2 3
Let
2 3
In the steady state u is independent of t, hence

91
∴ which is the two dimensional heat flow equation.
This is also called two dimensional Laplace’s equation.
4.4. Solution of two dimensional heat flow equation.
We know that two dimensional heat equation is -------(1)
Here u is a function of x and y, let as assume the solution be u = XY -------- (2)
where X is a function of x alone and Y is a function of y alone.
(2) ⟹ =
Hence (1) ⟹ =0
Let ( )
(i.e)
(i.e) -------- (3)
-------- (4)
Case (i) If k is positive , let k =
(3) and (4) ⟹ and
The auxiliary equations are and
⟹m= and
92
Hence the solution is X = and Y =
∴ (2) ⟹ the solution of the two dimensional heat equation is ( )(
Case (ii) If k is negative
(3) and (4) ⟹ and
⟹m= and
Hence the solution is X = A and Y = C
∴ (2) ⟹ the solution of the two dimensional heat equation is
(A )( C )
Case (iii) If k = 0
(3) and (4) ⟹ and
Hence the solution is X = A and Y = C
∴ (2) ⟹ the solution of two dimensional heat equation is
(A )( C )
∴ the solutions of two dimensional heat flow equation are as follows
( ) ( )( )
( ) (A )( C )
( ) (A )( C )
93
Note 4.4.1. The solution of the heat equation for a finite plate with value given in x direction is
( ) (A )( C )
Note 4.4.2. The solution of the heat equation for a finite plate with value given in y direction is
( ) ( )( )
We can classify two dimensional heat flow problems in the following
1.Finite plate with value given in x direction
2.Finite plate with value given in y direction
3.Finite plate with values given in both x & y directions
4.Infinite plate with value given in x direction
5.Infinite plate with value given in y direction
4.4.1. Finite plate with value given in x direction.
Example 4.4.1.1.
A square plate is bounded by the lines x = 0 , y=0 , x= l and y = l. Its faces are insulated. The
temperature along the upper horizontal edge is given by f(x) while the other three edges are kept
at 00c. Fine the steady state temperature of the plate.
Solution
We know that two dimensional heat equation is given by

94
Also the complete suitable solution is ( ) (A )( C ) -------
(1)
(i) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
(iv) ( ) ( )
Case (i) . Use the boundary condition ( )
(1)⟹ A(C )= 0
Since (C ) , we have A = 0
(1) ⟹ (C ) ------- (2)
(2)⟹ ( )
Since B ≠ 0 and ( C )≠ 0, we have
(2)⟹ ( ) -------- (3)
(3)⟹ ( )
Since , we have C+D = 0
(3) ⟹ ( )
95
= ( )
, where
The general complete solution is ∑ ---------- (4)
(4) ⟹ ∑ ( )
∑ ( )
∑ ( ) where
Using the half range Fourier sine series , we have ∫ ( )
∴ the general complete solution is ( ) ∑ where
∫ ( )
Example 4.4.1.2.
The boundary value problem governing the steady state temperature distribution in a flat, thin,
square plate is given by
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Solution.

96
(1)
(i) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
(iv) ( )
(1)⟹ A(C )= 0
(1) ⟹ (C ) ------- (2)
(2)⟹ ( )
(2)⟹ ( ) -------- (3)
(3)⟹ ( )
(3) ⟹ ( )
97
= ( )
, where
(4) ⟹ ∑
∑ ---------- (5)
We know that
∴ ( )
(5) ⟹ ∑
Comparing the co-efficients on both sides
∴ the general complete solution is ( ) ∑
=
98
Example 4.4.1.3.
A square plate is bounded by the lines x = 0 , y=0 , x= 10 and y = 10. Its faces are insulated. The
temperature along the upper horizontal edge is given by ( ) ( ) while the other
three edges are kept at 00c. Fine the steady state temperature of the plate.
Solution.
(1)
(i) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
(iv) ( ) ( )
(1)⟹ A(C )= 0
(1) ⟹ (C ) ------- (2)
(2)⟹ ( )
⟹
99
(2)⟹ ( ) -------- (3)
(3)⟹ ( )
(3) ⟹ ( )
= ( )
, where
(4) ⟹ ∑ ( )
∑ ( )
∑ ( ) where
Using Half range Fourier sine series ∫ ( )
= ∫ ( ) ( )
( )⟧ ∫ ( )
∫ ( )
∫ ∫
100
∫ ∫ ( )
= ⟧ ⟧ ∫
( )
, ( ) -
( )
∴ = 8
(4) ⟹ the general complete solution is ( ) ∑
( )
∑
( ) ( )
∑
( ) ( )
101
4.4.2.Finite plate with value given in y direction
Example 4.4.2.1.
A square plate is bounded by the lines x = 0 , y=0 , x= l and y = l. Its faces are insulated. The
temperature along the left vertical edge is given by f(y) while the other three edges are kept at
00c. Fine the steady state temperature of the plate.
Solution
Also the complete suitable solution is ( ) ( )( ) ---------
(1)
(i) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
(iv) ( ) ( )
(1)⟹ ( )
Since ( ) , we have C = 0
102
(1) ⟹ ( ) ------- (2)
(2)⟹ ( )
Since D ≠ 0 and ( )≠ 0, we have
(2)⟹ ( ) -------- (3)
(3)⟹ ( )
Since , we have A+B = 0
⟹B
(3) ⟹ ( )
= ( )
, where
The general complete solution is ( ) ∑ ---------- (4)
(4) ⟹ ∑ ( )
∑ ( )
∑ ( ) where
103
Using the half range Fourier sine series , we have ∫ ( )
∴ the general complete solution is ( ) ∑ where
∫ ( )
Example 4.4.2.2.
A square plate is bounded by the lines x = 0 , x = a, y = 0, y = a , the temperature of the sides
bounded by the lines x = a , y = 0, y = a are kept 00c. The side x = 0 is kept at temperature given
by ( ) . Find u(x,y).
Solution
Also the complete suitable solution is ( )( ) --------- (1)
(i) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
(iv) ( )

104
(1)⟹ ( )
(1) ⟹ ( ) ------- (2)
(2)⟹ ( )
Since D ≠ 0 and ( )≠ 0, we have
(2)⟹ ( ) -------- (3)
(3)⟹ . /
Since , we have
⟹ =
∴ (3) ⟹ ( )
= 4 5 , (multiplied Nr and Dr by )
. /
= ( )
. / ( )
( ) , where
( )
The general complete solution is ∑ ( ) ---------- (4)

105
(4) ⟹ ∑ ( )
∑ (∵ ( ) )
∑ where
Using the half range Fourier sine series , we have ∫
( )⟧ = ( )
,( ) -
Since
⟹ = ,( ) -
( )
⟹ 8
⟹ 8
∴ (4) ⟹ the general complete solution is ( )
∑ ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ∑ ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
4.4.3. Finite plate with value given in both x and y directions
Example 4.4.3.1.
A rectangular plate is bounded by the lines x = 0 , y= 0, x=a and y = b. Its surfaces are insulated
and the temperature along two adjacent edges is kept at 1000 C, while the temperature along the
other edges is at 00C. Find the steady state tempetature at any point in the plate. Also find the
106
steady state temperature at any point of a square plate os side ‘a’ if two adjacent edges are kept at
1000C and the others at 00C.
Solution
Let u(x,y) be the temperature function satisfying the equation ------ (1)
(i) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
(iv) ( )
Let us split the solution into two solutions
Let ( ) ( ) ( )
Where ( ) is the temperature with edge BC maintained at 1000C and the other edges at 00C.
And ( ) is the temperature with edge AB maintained at 1000C and the other edges at 00C.
Clearly both ( ) and ( ) satisfy the equation (1).
To find ( ):
The boundary conditions for ( ) are given by

107
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
(iva) ( )
The complete suitable solution is ( ) ( )( ) ------ (2)
(2)⟹ ( )
Since ( ) , we have A = 0
(2) ⟹ ( ) ( ) ------- (3)
(3)⟹ ( )
Since B ≠ 0 and ( )≠ 0, we have
(3)⟹ ( ) ( ) -------- (4)
(4)⟹ B ( )
108
Since , we have
∴ (4) ⟹ ( ) ( )
= . /
( )
=. / , (multiplied Nr and Dr by )
( )
=. / , (∵ )
The general complete solution is ( ) ∑ ---------- (5)
(5) ⟹ ∑
( )∑
Using the half range Fourier sine series, we have ∫
( )⟧ = ( )
,( ) -
, ( ) -
, ( )-
{
, ( )-
( )
={
( )
109
=8
⟹ {
∴ (5) ⟹ the general complete solution is ( )
( ) ( )
∴ ( ) ∑ ,( ) -
( )
To find ( ):
The boundary conditions for ( ) are given by
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
(ivb) ( )
Similarly as per above

110
( ) ( )
( ) ∑ ,( ) -
( )
Hence the required solution is ( ) ( ) ( )
4.4.4 Infinite plate with value given in x direction
Example 4.4.4.1
An infinitely long uniform plate is bounded by two parallel edges and an end
at right angles to them. The breath of this edge and is maintained at the temperature
( ) all the other three edges at temperature zero. Find the steady state temperature at any
interior point of the plate.
Solution
Let u(x,y) be the temperature function satisfying the equation ------ (1)
111
The boundary conditions are given by
(i) ( )
( ) ( )
(iii) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
(2)⟹ ( )
(2) ⟹ ( ) ( ) ------- (3)
(3)⟹ ( )
(3)⟹ ( ) ( ) -------- (4)
(4)⟹ B ( ) , (∵ )
Since , we have
⟹ , (∵ )
(4)⟹ ( ) ( )
⟹ ( )
112
The general complete solution is ( ) ∑ , where -----(5)
(5) ⟹ ∑ ( ) ( )
⟹ ∑ ( )
Using the half range Fourier sine series, we have ∫ ( )
(5) ⟹ The general complete solution is ( ) ∑ ∫ ( )
Example 4.4.4.2.
An infinitely long uniform plate is bounded by two parallel edges and an end at right angles to
them. The breath is . This end is maintained at a constant temperature at all points and other
edges are kept zero temperature. Find the steady state temperature at any point of the plate.
Solution
Let ( ) be the steady state temperature at any point of the plate, satisfying the equation
------ (1)
113
(i) ( )
( ) ( )
(iii) ( )
( ) ( )
(2)⟹ ( )
(2) ⟹ ( ) ( ) ------- (3)
(3)⟹ ( )
(3)⟹ ( ) ( ) -------- (4)
(4)⟹ B ( ) , (∵ )
Since , we have
⟹ , (∵ )
(4)⟹ ( ) ( )
⟹ ( )

114
(5) ⟹ ∑ ( )
⟹ ∑
Using the half range Fourier sine series, we have ∫
, -
, ( ) -
, ( )-
∴ {
, -
, -
8
(5) ⟹ The general complete solution is ( ) ∑
( ) ∑
( ) ( )
⟹ ( ) ∑
Example 4.4.4.3.
A rectangular plate with insulated surface is 10 cm wide so long compared to its width that it
may be considered infinite length. If the temperature along short edge y = 0 is given
115
( ) when 0 < x < 10, while the two long edges x = 0 and x = 10 as well as the
other edge are kept at 00 C, find the steady state temperature.
Solution
------ (1)
(i) ( )
( ) ( )
(iii) ( )
( ) ( )
(2)⟹ ( )
116
(2) ⟹ ( ) ( ) ------- (3)
(3)⟹ ( )
(3)⟹ ( ) ( ) -------- (4)
(4)⟹ B ( ) , (∵ )
Since , we have
⟹ , (∵ )
(4)⟹ ( ) ( )
⟹ ( )
(5) ⟹ ∑ ( )
⟹∑
Comparing both sides, we will get,

117
( ) ( )
∴ ( )
4.4.5 Infinite plate with value given in y direction
Example 4.4.5.1
An infinitely long rectangular plate with insulated surface is 10 cm wide. The two long edges
and one short edge are kept at zero temperature, while the other short edge x = 0 is kept at
temperature given by u(o,y) = { . Find the steady state temperature of

( )
the plate.
Solution
------ (1)
118
(i) ( )
( ) ( )
(iii) ( )
( ) ( ) {
( )
(2) ⟹ ( )
(2) ⟹ ( ) ( ) ---------- (3)
Case (ii) . Use the boundary condition ( )
(3) ⟹ ( )
Since ( ) , we have
⟹ p10 = n
(3) ⟹ ( ) ( ) ---------- (4)
Case (iii) . Use the boundary condition ( )
(4) ⟹ ( )
⟹ , (∵ )
Since , we have A = 0
119
(4) ⟹ ( ) ( )
( ) where
The general complete solution is ( ) ∑ -----(5)
Case (iv) . Use the boundary condition ( ) {

( )
(5) ⟹ ∑ ( ) {
( )
( )∑ ={ ( ) (say)
( )
Using Fourier half range sine series , we have ∫ ( )
2∫ ( ) ∫ ( ) 3
2∫ ∫ ( ) 3
2∫ ∫ ( ) 3
2∫ ∫ ∫ 3
{∫ ( ) ∫ ( ) ∫ ( )}
{ ( )] ∫ ( ) ( )] ,( )]
∫ ( ) - }
120
= 84 5 ] ( ) 4 5
∫ 9
= 8( ) ( )
( ) . ( ) / . /
( )] 9
= 2. / ( ) ( ) ( ) . /
( )
( )
. /3
= 2( )
( ) ( )
. /3
= 2( )
( ) ( )
. /3
∴ ( )
⟹∴ 8( )
∑ ( )
( )
( ) ( )
∴ ( ) ∑ ( )
121
Chapter -5
Polar form of the heat equation
5.1 .Polar co-ordinate equation of Heat flow in Two –dimensional
Let ( ) be the temperature function of a uniform heat conduction material.
We know that the Laplace Cartesian equation is
The Cartesian co-ordinates can be represented by the polar coordinates as per below,
and
By Chain rule
--------(1)
. /=
2 . / . /3 2 . / . /3
2 . / . /3 2 . / . /3
. / . / . / . /
---------- (2)
122
= . /
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) 0 1 ( ) ,
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
0 1 0 1---(3)
Using (1) in (3), we will get
0 1------(4)
(2) + (4) ⟹
( ) ( )
123
⟹ + 0 1
⟹ 0 1
Hence the polar heat equation is given by (Laplace)
5.2 Solution of Laplace’s equation in Polar co-ordinate
Our aim is to find the solution for the equation -------- (1)
Let us take the solution be ( ) ( ) ( )
Where ( ) is a function of r only and ( ) is a function of only.
Hence ( ) ( )⟹ ( ) ( )
( ) ( )⟹ ( ) ( )
(1) ⟹ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
⟹ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
⟹ ( ), ( ) ( )- ( ) ( )
[ ( ) ( )] ( )
⟹ ( ) ( )
Here L.H.S. is a function of r only and R.H.S is a function of only, and r , are independent
variables.
[ ( ) ( )] ( )
Hence ( ) ( )
( a constant) ------ (2)
124
[ ( ) ( )]
First consider ( )
⟹ ( ) ( ) ( ) ------- (3)
⟹ ( ) ( ) ( ) , which is a differential equation with variable co-efficients
So take
( )
⟹ ----- (4)
( ) ( ) ( )
Now ( ) . / . / ( ( ))
⟹ ( )
Differentiate again with respect to r
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) . / . /. /
( )
⟹ ( ) ( ) . / , ( by (4) )
( )
⟹ ( ) ( ) ----- (5)
( )
From (3) and (5) , ( ) --------- (6)
( )
Again from (2), consider ( )
⟹ ( ) ( )
⟹ ( ) ( )
⟹ ( ) ( ) --------------- (7)
Case (i) If k is positive, then
So (6) and (7) becomes

125
( )
( ) and ( ) ( )
Auxiliary equation is and
⟹ and
⟹ and
Hence the solution is and
⟹ (∵ )
⟹ and
Hence the general solution is ( ) ( ) ( )
(i.e) ( ) ( )( ) ----------- (I)
Case(ii) If k is negative ,
So (6) and (7) becomes,
( )
( ) and ( ) ( )
Auxiliary equation is and
⟹ and
⟹ and
⟹ ( ) ( ) and , (∵ )
(i.e) ( ) ( ( ) ( ))( ) --------- (II)
Case(iii) If k = 0, then (6) and (7) becomes,
( )
and ( )
126
⟹ and , (∵ )
(i.e) ( ) ( )( ) -------- (III)
∴ (I) , (II) and (III) are the various solution of the Laplace’s polar heat equation.
Example 5.2.1
A thin semicircular plate of radius a has its bounding diameter kept at temperature zero and its
circumference at ( ), 0< < . Find the steady state temperature at any point of the circular
plate.
If ( ) a constant, find the temperature.
Solution
Let O be the origin which is the centre of the semi circular plate with radius r = a
Let AB the diametre of the semi circular plate (bounding line) be the initial line (x-axis)
Let P(r, ) be the any point on the circular plate

127
Let u(r, ) be the temperature function of the plate which satisfies the equation
------------ (1)
() ( ) , for all
( ) ( ) , for all
( ) ( ) ( ) , for all
The suitable solution is ( ) ( )( ) --------- (2)
Case(i) use the boundary condition ( ) , for all
(2) ⟹ ( )( )
⟹( )
Hence (2) becomes, ( ) ( )( ) ---------(3)
Case(ii) use the boundary condition ( ) , for all
(3) ⟹ ( )( )
Since ( ) and D , we have
Hence (3) becomes , ( ) ( )( )
⟹ ( )
⟹ ( ) , where --------- (4)
As a finite value
As , , a finite value
128
As , , ∴ the possibility to get the finite value ,
(4) ⟹ ( )
The most suitable general solution is ( ) ∑ ---------- (5)
Case(iii) use the boundary condition ( ) ( ) , for all
(5)⟹ ∑ ( )
Using half range Fourier sine series, ∫ ( )
⟹ ∫ ( )
(5) ⟹ The most suitable general solution is ( ) ∑ ∫ ( )
( ) ( ) ∑ . / ∫ ( )
If ( ) , then ∫ ( ) ∫
( )
( ( ) )
( ( ) )
∴ {
( )
( )
∴ {
( )
∴ 8
129
(5) ⟹ The most suitable general solution is ( ) ∑
∴ The most suitable general solution is ( ) ∑ ( )

( )
( )
∑ . /
Example 5.2.2
A thin semicircular plate of radius a has its bounding diameter kept at temperature zero and its
circumference at ( ), 0< < . Find the steady state temperature at any point of the circular
plate in the sector
Solution.
Let angle AOC =
Let P(r, ) be the any point on the circular plate in the sector
------------ (1)
130
() ( ) , for all
( ) ( ) , for all
( ) ( ) ( ) , for all
(2) ⟹ ( )( )
⟹( )
Hence (2) becomes, ( ) ( )( ) ---------(3)
(3) ⟹ ( )( )
Since ( ) and D , we have
⟹
131
Hence (3) becomes , ( ) ( )( ( ))
⟹ ( )
⟹ ( ) , where --------- (4)
As a finite value
(4) ⟹ ( )
(5)⟹ ∑ ( )
⟹ ∫ ( )
(5) ⟹ The most suitable general solution is ( ) ∑ ∫ ( )
( ) ( ) ∑ . / ∫ ( )
Example 5.2.3
A semicircular plate of radius a is kept at temperature along the bounding diameter and
along the circumference. Find the steady state temperature at any point of the plate.
Solution
132
------------ (1)
() ( ) , for all
( ) ( ) , for all
( ) ( ) , for all
Let us take ( ) ( )
⟹ ( ) ( ) -------- (2)
Clearly ( ) satisfies the equation (1)
Put in (2)
( ) ( ) , for all
133
Using (i), ( ) , for all --------(iv)
Put in (2),
( ) ( ) , for all
Using (ii), ( ) , for all ---------- (v)
Put and r = r in (2),
( ) ( ) , for all
Using (iii), ( ) , for all ---------- (vi)
We will get new set of boundary conditions
(iv) ( ) , for all
(v) ( ) , for all
(vi) ( ) , for all
From Example 5.2.1, take ( )
( ) ( )
∴ The most suitable general solution is ( ) ∑ . /
From (2), ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
∴ ( ) ∑ . /
( ) ( )
⟹ ( ) ∑ . /
134
Example 5.2.4
The bounding radii and of a circular quadrant are kept at 00C and the temperature
along the curve is kept at ( ) . Find the temperature at any point of the plate and
also at ( ) , if the radius is a.
Solution
------------ (1)
() ( ) , for all
( ) ( ) , for all
( ) ( ) ( ) , for all

135
(2) ⟹ ( )( )
⟹( )
Hence (2) becomes, ( ) ( )( ) ---------(3)
(3) ⟹ ( ). . //
Since ( ) and D , we have ( )
⟹ ( )
Hence (3) becomes , ( ) ( )( )
⟹ ( )
⟹ ( ) , where --------- (4)
As a finite value
(4) ⟹ ( )
(5)⟹ ∑ ( )

136
⟹ ∫ ( )
0( ). / ( ). / ( )( . /)1
. / . /
[( . / . / )4 5 . ( /4 5
( )
( )( ( ))] 0 ( )( . /)1
0 1 0 1
, ( ) - , ( ) -
( ( ) )
{
( )
( )
{
( )
(5) ⟹ The most suitable general solution is ( ) ∑
( )
∴ ( ) ∑ ( ) . /
( )
Now . / ∑ . /( )
137
∴ . / ∑ . /. /
138
Chapter 6
Conclusion
Partial differential equation has long been one of most important field in Mathematics.
This is essentially due to the frequent occurrence and wide range application of PDE in many
branches of Physics, Engineering and other sciences. Historically, partial differential equations
originated from the study of surfaces in geometry and a wide variety of problems in mechanics.
During the second half of the nineteenth century, a large number of famous mathematicians
became actively involved in the investigation of numerous problems presented by partial
differential equations. The primary reason for this research was that partial differential equations
both express many fundamental laws of nature and frequently arise in the mathematical analysis
of diverse problems in science and engineering.
The next phase of the development of linear partial differential equations was
characterized by efforts to develop the general theory and various methods of solution of linear
equations. In fact, partial differential equations have been found to be essential to the theory of
surfaces on the one hand and to the solution of physical problems on the other. These two areas
of mathematics can be seen as linked by the bridge of the calculus of variations. With the
discovery of the basic concepts and properties of distributions, the modern theory of linear
partial differential equations is now important, partial differential equation in applied
mathematics is the potential equation, also known as the Laplace equation, where subscripts
denote partial derivatives. This equation arose in steady state heat conduction problems
involving homogeneous solids. James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) also gave a new initiative to
139
potential theory through his famous equations, known as Maxwell’s equations for
electromagnetic fields.
Lagrange developed analytical mechanics as the application of partial differential
equations to the motion of rigid bodies. He also described the geometrical content of a first-order
partial differential equation and developed the method of characteristics for finding the general
solution of quasi-linear equations. At the same time, the specific solution of physical interest was
obtained by formulating an initial-value problem (or a Cauchy Problem) that satisfies certain
supplementary conditions. The solution of an initial-value problem still plays an important role
in applied mathematics, science and engineering. The fundamental role of characteristics was
soon recognized in the study of quasi-linear and nonlinear partial differential equations.
Physically, the first-order, quasi-linear equations often represent conservation laws which
describe the conservation of some physical quantities of a system.
In its early stages of development, the theory of second-order linear partial differential
equations was concentrated on applications to mechanics and physics. All such equations can be
classified into three basic categories: the wave equation, the heat equation, and the Laplace
equation (or potential equation). Thus, a study of these three different kinds of equations yields
much information about more general second-order linear partial differential equations. .Jean
d’Alembert (1717-1783) first derived the one dimensional wave equation for vibration of an
elastic string and solved this equation in 1746. His solution is now known as the d’Alembert
solution. The wave equation is one of the oldest equations in mathematical physics. Some form
of this equation, or its various generalizations, almost inevitably arises in any mathematical
analysis of phenomena involving the propagation of waves in a continuous medium. In fact, the
studies of water waves, acoustic waves, elastic waves in solids, and electromagnetic waves are
140
all based on this equation. A technique known as the method of separation of variables is
perhaps one of the oldest systematic methods for solving partial differential equations including
the wave equation. The wave equation and its methods of solution attracted the attention of many
famous mathematicians including Leonhard Euler (1707 1783), James Bernoulli (1667 1748),
Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782), J.L. Lagrange (1736-1813), and Jacques Hadamard (1865-1963).
They discovered solutions in several different forms, and the merit of their solutions and
relations among these solutions were argued in a series of papers extending over more than
twenty-five years; most concerned the nature of the kinds of functions that can be represented by
trigonometric (or Fourier) series. These controversial problems were finally resolved during the
nineteenth century.
In recent years, the partial differential equations, both fractional and integer orders, have
been recognized as a powerful modeling methodology. They are inspired by problems which
arise in diverse fields such as biology, fluid dynamics, physics, differential geometry, control
theory, materials science, and engineering.
The purpose of this special issue is to report and review some recent developments in
methods and applications of partial differential equations. The majority of the papers contained
in this special issue are based on areas of research ranging from functional analytic techniques
and singularity methods as well as numerical methods that are applied to both partial and
ordinary differential equations. There are papers which deal with fractional partial differential
equations and in addition papers analyzing equations that arise in engineering as well as classical
and fluid mechanics.

141
Considering as a rich source, partial differential equation has its own value in the
development of all engineering science and many other sectors. Further to my polar heat
equation, it can be extended to find the temperature of circular annuals. In this consequences I
am working further on this PDE to provide another useful application.

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1

Application of Partial Differential Equations – boundary value problems

electrostatics, electrodynamics, fluid flow, elasticity, or quantum mechanics. These seemingly

differential equations often model one-dimensional dynamical systems, partial differential

partial differential equations.

arising from scientific and engineering applications are in fact well-posed.

Preliminaries and Notations.

Independent and unknown variables

Partial differential equation is an equation involving an unknown function (possibly a

In the sequel we reserve the following terminology and notations:

Independent variables: denoted by x = ( ) ( )

Dependent variables: denoted by ( ) , is also called unknown function.

Definition1.1. Partial Differential Equation

A differential equation involving partial derivatives of a dependent variable (one or more)

Definition 1.2. Order of a PDE

Definition 1.3.Linear PDE

such an equation is called linear PDE otherwise a non-linear PDE.

depending on the independent variables alone is called a Linear PDE.

can occur in any manner.

(i.e) A PDE of order m is called Quasi-linear if it is linear in the derivatives of order m

function or order strictly less than m.

to all the highest order derivatives of the unknown function.

In above example 1.1.1, equations 5, 7 and 8 are Quasi-linear.

Definition 1.5.Semi-linear PDE

independent variables alone is called a Semi-linear PDE.

In above example1.1.1, equation 8 is semi-linear.

Definition 1.6. Fully nonlinear PDE

A PDE which is not Quasi-linear is called a fully nonlinear PDE

Definition 1.7. First order Quai-linear PDE.

A first order Quasi-linear PDE must be of the form ( ) ( ) ( )

Definition 1.8.First order Semi-linear PDE.

Classification of second order Quasi-linear PDE.

The above equation is classified as elliptic, parabolic or hyperbolic depending on

If < 0, then the equation represents elliptic.

If = 0, then the equation represents parabolic.

If > 0, then the equation represents hyperbolic.

Find the nature of the partial differential equation 4 +4 + +2 - =0

The given equation is parabolic equation.

Classify the PDE ( )

Here A = ( ) , B = -4x and C = 1

Case (ii) if x = 1, = 0 , the PDE is parabolic.

Case (iii) if x < 1, < 0 , the PDE is elliptic.

Case (iv) if x > 1, > 0 , the PDE is hyperbolic.

∫ ( ) , ∫ ( ) are Fourier constants.

∫ ( ) , ∫ ( ) are Fourier constants.

3. Suppose f(x) is an odd function , ,Where ∫ ( ) ,

Fourier sine series) and ( ) ∑

4. Suppose f(x) is an even function , ,Where ∫ ( ) ∫ ( ) ,

∫ ( ) ∫ ( ) (half range Fourier cosine series),

5.If n is a positive integer ( )

of a force affecting the wave).

(i.e) it is a differential equation expressing the properties of motion in waves.

acoustics, electromagnetics, fluid dynamics and engineering.

3.1 Derivation of one Dimensional Wave Equation (Equation of a vibrating string)

y-axes. Let m be the mass per unit length of the string.

Let us find the displacement y in terms of x and the time t.

small portion PQ = δs.

forces (tension) acting at P and Q are equal.

The horizontal component of tension T1 at P is T1cosα