The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Chapter 48
Nuclear Steam Generators

Nuclear steam generators provide the principal iso- single pass. The other fundamental design used by a
lation barrier between the primary coolant system in number of suppliers and in the CANDU PHWR is a
contact with the reactor core and the secondary power recirculating steam generator (RSG) where only part
cycle system, as discussed in Chapter 46. Nuclear of the feedwater is converted to steam as the water
steam generators also serve two other functional re- passes through the unit. After the steam is separated
quirements as they transfer energy from the primary from the water, the steam is sent to the turbine for
reactor coolant system to the secondary-side power- power generation while the water is returned to the
producing system. The first functional requirement is tube bundle for additional steam generation. These
as the heat sink for the reactor core. The decrease of steam generator designs use a vertical shell and an
primary coolant temperature through the steam gen- inverted U-tube heat exchanger bundle, with steam
erators is virtually the same as the increase of the pri- separation equipment located inside the top shell of
mary coolant temperature through the reactor core. the RSG. With this design there are significant dif-
Any difference is attributable to the fluid energy sup- ferences between suppliers and between different
plied by the reactor pumps, less any heat loss to ambi- models regarding materials of construction, thermal
ent. The second functional requirement is to generate hydraulic parameters, manufacturing techniques and
the flow rate of steam from the feedwater supply at the tube supports, all of which can significantly influence
temperature, pressure and enthalpy conditions neces- performance.
sary to efficiently drive the steam turbine/electric gen- A few other commercial PWR steam generator de-
erating system. signs have been used, primarily in early units. The
Each commercial pressurized water reactor (PWR) first commercial U.S. power reactor at Shippingport,
power system combines two to four steam generators Pennsylvania, used two different horizontal tube
with a nuclear reactor, pressurizer, and multiple pri- bundle steam generator designs. NPD (Nuclear Power
mary coolant pumps to form the nuclear steam sup- Demonstration), the first CANDU power reactor, had
ply system (NSSS). The 69 operating PWR systems one horizontal U-tube, U-shell steam generator. Cur-
in the United States (U.S.) use a total of 209 steam rent Russian PWR plants use horizontal bundle steam
generators. In addition, the 22 Canada Deuterium generators. No horizontal units are in commercial op-
Uranium (CANDU) pressurized heavy water reactor eration today in North America.
(PHWR) systems installed in Canada employ a total A variety of aging issues have been observed in the
of 184 with as many as 12 steam generators per reac- existing fleet of PWR steam generators. These factors
tor, although 4 is more typical. have reduced the performance of some steam genera-
There are two fundamental steam generator de- tors and thus effectively reduced their useful life. In-
signs used in commercial power systems in North tergranular attack, stress corrosion cracking, tube
America. The Babcock & Wilcox Company (B&W) denting, tube wall thinning, fretting wear damage,
once-through steam generator (OTSG) is a vertical foreign object damage and other issues have all had
shell counterflow straight-tube heat exchanger design an impact on unit performance because of the need
which directly generates superheated steam as the to plug significant numbers of steam generator tubes.1
feedwater flows through the steam generator in a In some cases, the degradation has reached a stage

Steam 41 / Nuclear Steam Generators 48-1

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

where repair is no longer a viable option and steam tubes. The steam generator is a once-through design
generator replacement is needed. These replacement in that the secondary fluid makes only one pass through
steam generators employ new technologies to address the unit. Because the OTSG produces superheated
the aging issues and to extend their useful life. steam, it does not require steam separators or dryers.
The balance of this chapter focuses on the funda- Referring to Figs. 1 and 3, the feedwater flows
mentals of steam generator design and on the design downward within the annular region formed by the
improvements that are incorporated into the replace- lower shroud and the steam generator inside wall.
ment OTSG and RSG units. Steam generator service Near the bottom of the downcomer the feedwater
issues are discussed in Chapter 49, Nuclear Services passes through the adjustable orifice plate, and then
and Operations. Steam generator manufacturing is turns inward toward the bottom of the bundle. The
discussed in Chapter 50. fluid then flows upward around the tubes, passing

From Reactor
B&W once-through nuclear steam Reactor
Coolant Inlet
generator (OTSG)
Design configuration and flow
The B&W once-through nuclear steam generator
(see Fig. 1) is a vertical, straight tube and shell,
counterflow heat exchanger, approximately 73 ft
(22.25 m) tall and 13 ft (3.96 m) in diameter, each
weighing approximately 570 tons (517 tm). Each steam
generator produces approximately 5.4 million lb/h
Tube
(680.4 kg/s) of steam at 925 psi (6.38 MPa) and 595F Support Plates
(313C). This provides 60F (33C) of superheat. The (Typ.)
more than 15,000 Inconel 600 tubes in each steam
generator are positioned by broached tube support Steam Outlet

plates (see Figs. 1 and 2) which are set within the bundle
shroud, which is in turn positioned to the vessel shell by To
shroud pins. These plates are spaced to minimize tube Turbine
vibration. The distance between tubesheets is 52.1 ft
(15.9 m). Aspirated Steam
to Downcomer
As shown in Figs. 1 and 3, primary coolant enters
at the top, flows downward through the tubes, and
exits at the bottom through two primary outlets. The
carbon steel shell surfaces exposed to the primary side
coolant are clad with stainless steel to avoid corrosion Feedwater Inlet
Header
in the primary side chemistry environment. The gen-
erator functions as a counterflow heat exchanger, i.e.,
the primary coolant flows downward within the tubes From
Feedwater
and the secondary fluid flows upward around the Annulus Water System
Level
Tube (Typ.) Downcomer
Annulus
Broached Flow
Passages (3)
Bundle
Shroud

Tube Diameter
0.625 in.

Tubesheet (Typ.)

Reactor Coolant
Outlet
Tube Support
Lands (3)
To Reactor
Coolant Pumps

Tube Pitch Primary Coolant Loop

0.875 in. Secondary Coolant Loop
Fig. 2 OTSG broached support plate. Fig. 3 Simplified OTSG flow circuits.

48-2 Steam 41 / Nuclear Steam Generators

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

through broached holes in the 15 tube support plates.

The steam is superheated prior to leaving the top of
the tubed region. It turns outward and downward,
flowing down the upper annular downcomer to the
steam outlet nozzles.
The feedwater is introduced into the annular down-
comer through thirty-two 3 in. (76 mm) connections
with attached spray nozzles located 31.9 ft (9.7 m)
above the lower tubesheet. The exit flow from these
nozzles aspirates steam through a gap in the bundle
shroud, thereby allowing the feedwater to reach satu-
ration temperature before entering the tube bundle.
This arrangement was designed to mitigate tempera-
ture mismatches between the shell and tube bundle.
Later integral economizer once-through steam gen-
erator (IEOTSG) designs introduced feedwater
through two nozzles lower in the shell where it directly
enters an integral economizer section in the lower
portion of the tube bundle region as shown in Fig. 4.
With this design, external feedwater heating is used
at some loads to adjust the feedwater temperature to
approximate tube bundle and shell temperatures,
thereby avoiding excessive temperature differentials
between shell and tube bundle and within the lower
tubesheet. This design is able to achieve more steam
output at a higher pressure to match the output of the
1300 MW 205 fuel bundle core. Most of the discussion
which follows relates to the standard OTSG design.
In the OTSG design, an adjustable orifice is located
near the bottom of the downcomer, just above the ports
into the tubed region. This device consists of a mov-
able plate overlaying a fixed plate; both plates con-
tain 24 identical flow passages. This adjustable ori-
fice allows downcomer flow resistance to be adjusted
to optimize flow stability and downcomer water level.
These factors may change with operation as tube sup-
port plate deposits increase riser-side flow resistance.
Key information about the OTSG design is provided
in Table 1.
Modes of secondary-side heat transfer
The secondary-side feed entering an OTSG down-
comer annulus is quickly brought to saturation tem-
perature by contact heating between the feedwater
spray and aspirated steam drawn from the riser (in
an IEOTSG it is heated by convective heat transfer
as it begins to pass upward within the tube bundle).
The remaining heat transfer is by nucleate boiling,
film boiling and superheating. Nucleate boiling which
begins at the bundle entrance in the OTSG (and at
the top of the preheater zone in the IEOTSG) involves
the formation of discrete vapor bubbles on the tubes
and the release of these bubbles into the secondary
flow. This combination of phase change and bubble
motion creates very efficient heat transfer, in contrast
to film boiling and superheating which both involve
heat removal from the tube by steam convection and,
consequently, are much less efficient. (See Chapter 5.)
As a result, these latter modes occupy a large part of
the bundle surface to transfer a relatively small por-
tion of the heat load. The ratio of steam mass to total
fluid mass (i.e., steam quality) increases as the sec-
ondary fluid flows upward. As the steam quality Fig. 4 Integral economizer once-through steam generator (IEOTSG).

Steam 41 / Nuclear Steam Generators 48-3

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Table 1
Once-Through Steam Generator (OTSG) Operating and Design Information

OTSG
Oconee (177)

Plant Information
Power level, MWt 2568
Power level, MWe 846
No. steam generators 2

Steam Generator Design Conditions

Primary T (Hot), F (C) 604 (317.7)
Primary T (Cold) F (C) 554 (290.0)
Primary flow, lb/h (kg/s) 65.66 x 106 (8273.16)
Primary operating pressure, psia (MPa) 2200 (15.17)
Secondary steam temperature, F (C) 595 (312.8)
Secondary feedwater temperature, F (C) 460 (237.8)
Steam flow, lb/h (kg/s) 5.4 x 106 (680.4)
Secondary operating pressure, psia (MPa) 925 (6.38)

Steam Generator Design Data

No. tubes per generator 15,531
Tube OD, in. (mm) 0.625 (15.875)
Tube minimum wall thickness, in. (mm) 0.034 (0.864)
Tube material Inconel 600
Surface area, ft2 (m2 ) 133,000 (12,356)
Tube pitch, in. (mm) 0.875 (22.225)
No. support plates 15
Support plate type Broached
Support plate material Carbon steel
Integral economizer No

reaches the high nineties, there is insufficient liquid graduated in percentage of full (operating) range, from
to wet the tubes and nucleate boiling gives way to film 0% at 102 in. (2.6 m) above the lower tubesheet to 100%
boiling. Still farther up the generator where the mois- at a height of 394 in. (10.0 m). Whereas the common
ture content of the fluid is depleted and the steam upper tap of the startup and operate range levels ex-
begins to superheat, heat transfer is by forced convec- tends into the tubed region, their lower taps are in the
tion of vapor. The primary and secondary fluid tem- steam generator lower downcomer. Feed and steam sys-
peratures and the modes of secondary heat transfer tem measurements also indicate steam generator status.
are indicated in Figs. 5 and 6. The secondary-side tem- These include steam pressure and the pressure drop
perature remains at saturation through the nucleate across the feedwater control valves. The flow rate of main
and film boiling regions. The counterflowing primary feedwater is indicated in two ranges: startup to 15% of
fluid gradually cools as it flows through the steam gen- full flow range, and operating range. The majority of
erator. The drop in primary fluid temperature in the these steam generator measurements are supplied to the
upper areas of the unit is relatively slow due to the plant computer and the integrated control system.
less efficient heat transfer in the film boiling and su-
perheater regions. In the lower regions of the unit, the
primary fluid temperature change is much more rapid Recirculating steam generator (RSG)
due to more efficient nucleate boiling heat transfer.
Design configuration and flow
Instrumentation Recirculating steam generators are supplied by a
The steam generator thermal performance mea- number of manufacturers worldwide as part of PWR
surements include fluid pressure, temperature, and and PHWR (mainly CANDU) systems. Two, three or
level. Shell temperatures are measured at five equally four steam generators are supplied for each PWR sys-
spaced locations along the length of the generator. tem and 4 to 12 steam generators are supplied for each
These measurements are used to determine tube to CANDU system. They range in height from approxi-
shell temperature differentials. A steam generator mately 38 to 73 ft (11.6 to 22.3 m) weighing from ap-
downcomer temperature measurement indicates the proximately 50 to 790 tons (45 to 717 tm) each. See
temperature of the incoming feed; this temperature Fig. 7 for selected comparisons of sample units.
is used in the temperature compensation of level. Each RSG is a vertical shell, inverted U-tube heat
There are three ranges of steam generator level mea- exchanger with steam-water separation equipment
surement: full, operate and startup. The operate range located above the tube bundle inside the upper shell
begins 8.5 ft (2.59 m) above the lower tubesheet. It is (or steam drum). A cylindrical shroud or bundle wrap-

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620
(327)

600
(316)

Primary
Water
580
(304)

Temperature, F (C)
560
(293)
Secondary
Fluid

540
(282)

Nucleate Boiling Superheat

520 Film
(271) Boiling

Fig. 5 Steam generator heat transfer for an OTSG. 500

(260) 0 20 40 60 80 100
Tube Length, % of Total
per surrounds the tube bundle separating it from the Fig. 6 Approximate primary and secondary temperature profiles at
lower shell. This creates an annular region which full load for an OTSG.
serves as the downcomer to return the recirculated
water from the steam separators to the tube bundle erator through a nozzle and feedwater distribution
inlet at the bottom of the unit. In a feed ring type box to the baffled section at the cold leg outlet end of the
RSG, feedwater is introduced by a nozzle and header tube bundle where it is heated to saturation before join-
to the top of the downcomer, and flows with the sepa- ing with the hot leg riser flow within the tube bundle. A
rator return flow down and into the tube bundle. In typical RSG supplied by B&W to replace an original
a preheater type RSG, feed flow enters the steam gen- equipment manufacture (OEM) unit is shown in Fig. 8.

Replacement Recirculating Steam Generators (RRSG)

CANDU
CANDU 6 Series 44 Series 51 System 67 Model D Darlington
Weight (tons) 237 316 343 543 398 368
MW t per SG 547 764 816 1355 857.5 660
Heat Transfer Area (ft2) 34,394 54,000 54,500 93,707 79,800 52,000
Number of Tubes 3,530 4,765 3,496 8,523 6,633 4,663
Height 63 ft-5 in. 62 ft-11 in. 67 ft-7 in. 62 ft-8 1/2 in. 68 ft-1 in. 72 ft-10 in.

Fig. 7 Relative sizes of recirculating steam generators (RSG).

Steam 41 / Nuclear Steam Generators 48-5

 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

separators in the upper shell to send effectively mois-

ture-free (<0.25% water) steam to the secondary-side
power cycle. Water leaving the steam separators is re-
circulated down the annulus where it mixes with the
feedwater before being returned to the bundle inlet
for further steam generation.
The natural recirculation within the RSG is driven
by the density difference between the higher density
water column in the downcomer annulus area and the
lower density steam-water mixture in the tube bundle.
The RSG recirculation rate is set by the balance be-
tween the pressure drop through the flow path (down-
comer, tube bundle and steam separation equipment)
with the driving head created by the density differ-
ential (see Chapter 5). To minimize the potential

Steam Outlet
To Turbine

Upper Shell or
Steam Drum

Secondary
Steam
Separator
(Typ.)
Primary Steam
Separator (Typ.) Recirculated
Separated
Return Water
Water
Level
Steam/Water Feedwater
Mixture Inlet Flow

Feedwater
Header

Fig. 8 B&W replacement recirculating steam generator. U-Bend Restraints

or Supports (Typ.) Downcomer
Annulus

A simplified schematic shown in Fig. 9 provides an Tube Supports

overview of the flow configuration and the major de- (Typ.)
sign features of a typical feed ring type RSG. The hot U-Tube
primary coolant enters a portion of the vessel primary (Typ.)
head which is separated into two plenums by a divider
plate. The primary coolant flows through the inside Shroud
or Wrapper
of the U-tube bundle and exits the steam generator
Lower Shell
through the primary head outlet plenum. In most
RSG designs, the U-tubes make a continuous 180 Tubesheet
degree bend at the top of the tube bundle; one major Blowdown Outlet
OEM design uses two 90 degree bends separated by
a horizontal section at the top of the tube bundle. Primary Head
In the configuration shown, secondary-side feed- Reactor Coolant Reactor Coolant
water enters the upper shell via a feed ring and is Outlet Inlet
mixed with water returning from the steam-water
separation equipment. The water flows down the
downcomer annulus between the shroud and the shell
to the tubesheet where it enters the tube bundle. The Divider
Plate
secondary-side water is heated as it passes up through
the tube bundle generating steam through nucleate
boiling heat transfer, creating a two-phase flow. Steam
of 10 to 40% quality, depending on hot-side or cold- Primary Coolant Loop
side U-tube bundle location, exits the tube bundle and Secondary Coolant Loop
is distributed to the primary and secondary steam Fig. 9 Simplified recirculating steam generator (RSG) flow circuits.

48-6 Steam 41 / Nuclear Steam Generators

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buildup of any contaminants, a blowdown system is Additional tube supports or restraining systems are
located in the bottom of the RSG near or as part of required in the upper bundle U-bend area (see Fig. 14).
the tubesheet to remove a controlled quantity of wa- These maintain the position of the tubes and prevent
ter inventory. Blowdown is not very efficient at removal excessive flow-induced vibration as the high velocity
of many feedwater contaminants but it is the only steam-water mixture flows out through the U-bends.
way, other than moisture carryover, for feedwater con- Key information on the various RSG designs is pro-
taminants to be removed from the steam generator dur- vided in Table 2.
ing operation. Contaminants remaining in the steam
generator can deposit onto the tubes and to a lesser de- Steam-water separation
gree build up on the tubesheet and tube supports. High efficiency steam-water separation is a vital
Preheater (integral economizer) designs are also function in all recirculating steam generators, as dis-
used for some RSGs. Here the feedwater is introduced cussed in Chapter 5. This is particularly true in
near the tube bundle cold leg outlet to increase over- nuclear RSGs. Low moisture carryover in the steam
all thermal efficiency. Several options have been used improves turbine efficiency and total power output,
for this integral economizer section: counterflow, axial and minimizes the carryover of any contaminants into
flow and split flow (cold leg side of the tube bundle). the turbine. The traditional limit for nuclear RSG
Simplified schematics are shown in Fig. 10. moisture carryover at full power is less than 0.25%
Horizontal tube supports (support plates and/or lat- moisture by weight, while more recent requirements
tice bar grids) are provided at various elevations along have been for 0.10% or less.
the vertical straight tube bundle section (see Fig. 8). Low steam carryunder (steam entrainment) within
A variety of supports have been used in the various the downcomer return water maximizes the down-
original equipment designs (see Fig. 11). The tube sup- comer annulus driving head, thereby maximizing the
ports provide lateral support to the tubes during steam internal circulation rate. Low separator pressure drop
generator manufacturing, shipment and operation also increases the natural circulation rate through the
and protect against seismic loads. They are spaced at bundle by lowering the overall flow resistance.
intervals to minimize the likelihood of flow-induced vi- The B&W steam separation system combines curved
bration and are designed to provide adequate open arm primary (CAP) separators (see Chapter 5, Fig. 23)
area for the recirculating flow. Many of these designs with cyclone secondary separators (see Fig. 15) to ac-
were prone to accelerated corrosion, particularly if made commodate the necessary steam throughput.2 The ac-
of carbon steel (see Reference 1). B&W’s advanced lat- tual moisture carryover as measured at steam genera-
tice grid tube supports (Figs. 12 and 13) have addressed tor startup has been well below 0.10% moisture by
many of these issues. weight in all B&W replacement RSGs.
Centerline

Shell

Baffles (Typ.)

Feedwater
Inlet
Feedwater Feedwater Nozzle
Inlet Inlet
Nozzle Nozzle
Tube
Supports

Feedwater
Distribution
Box

Tubesheet

Tubesheet Tubesheet

(a) Baffled Counterflow Type (b) Split Flow Type (c) Axial Counterflow Type

Fig. 10 Integral economizer designs used in RSGs.

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 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Tube Low Bars

Tubes

Circulation
Hole

Support
Plate

High High
Bar Bar
(a) Drilled Hole Design

Plate Tube
Tube

Flow
Flow

Low Bars

Fig. 13 B&W lattice grid tube support design details.

ticularly important parameter. Higher circulation rates

reduce the overall steam voidage in the tube bundle
(b) Egg Crate Design (c) Quatrefoil Broached Design and increase the local velocities. Reduced voidage im-
Fig. 11 Original RSG support plate designs by various manufacturers. proves the steam drum water stability during tran-
sients. A higher circulation ratio also increases the
margin for stability, and increases the margin for tube
Circulation and hydraulic performance surface dryout and for critical heat flux in the tube
Detailed thermal-hydraulic design analyses are con- support areas. It also reduces low velocity areas, espe-
ducted on all RSG designs and include, among others: cially near the tubesheet where deposits may accumulate.
1. heat transfer analysis on a local basis, Circulation rate is increased by low flow path pres-
2. three-dimensional analysis of flow (velocities, sure drop at the tube supports and the steam separa-
pressures, qualities, etc.), tors, and by low steam carryunder from the steam-
3. dynamic response of the steam generator to nor- water separators to the downcomer. High circulation
mal and abnormal transients,
4. potential deposit accumulation on the secondary Clamping Bars Arch Bars Tubes (Typ.) Tie Tubes
side of the RSG,
5. recirculation rate within the tube bundle, and
6. flow-induced loadings on internal components.
The circulation ratio (total flow rising through the
tube bundle divided by the exiting steam flow) is a par-

Tube In Plane
Direction

Flat Bar
U-Bend
Tube Out of Plane Restraints
Direction

Fig. 12 B&W lattice grid tube support assembly. Fig. 14 B&W flat bar U-bend restraint system.

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Table 2
Selected OEM Recirculating Steam Generator Operating and Design Information
(Reference 3, Supplemented)

Model
RSG Series Model or Type System 67 System 80 Series 44 Series 51 Model F D2/D3

Plant Information
Plant capacity MWt 2,700 3,817 1,520/2,200/3,000 1,650/2,660/3,300 3,425 2,800/3,411
Plant capacity MWe 865 1,270 470/700/1,000 560/833/1,100 1,150 930/1,180
No. steam generators 2 2 2/3/4 2/3/4 4 3/4

Steam Generator Operating Conditions (per steam generator)

Primary T (Hot) F 594.0 621.2 603.9 599.1 620.0 619.0
Primary T (Cold) F 548.0 564.5 543.1 535.5 557.0 558.0
Primary flow 106 lb/h 74.00 82.00 32.95 34.1 37.60 35.10
Primary operating
pressure psig 2,235 2,235 2,235 2,235 2,235 2,235
Secondary steam temp. F 530.0 554.6 511.7 513.1 541.0 546.5
Secondary feed temp. F 435.0 450.0 425.0 432.0 440.0
Steam flow 106 lb/h 5.90 8.59 3.30 3.58 3.95
Secondary operating
pressure psig 865 1,070 740 750 955 1,000

Steam Generator Design Data (per steam generator)

No. tubes 8,519 11,000 3,260 3,388 5,626 4,674
Tube OD in. 0.750 0.750 0.875 0.875 0.6875 0.750
Tube wall in. 0.048 0.042 0.050 0.050 0.040 0.043
Tube material Inconel 600 Inconel 600 Inconel 600 Inconel 600 Inconel 600 Inconel 600
Surface area (OD) ft2 90,675 124,800 44,430 51,000 55,000 48,300
Tube pitch in. 1.000 1.000 1.234 1.280 0.980 1.0625
Tube pitch Triangular Triangular Square Square Square Square
No. of support plates 6 8 6 7 7 8
Support type Egg crate Egg crate Drilled Drilled Quatrefoil Quatrefoil
Support material Carbon Carbon Carbon Carbon Ferritic Carbon
steel steel steel steel Stainless steel
steel
Integral economizer No Yes No No No Yes

Note: SI Conversions: C = (F−32) x 5/9; mm = in. x 25.4; m2 = ft2 x 0.09290; kg/s = lb/h x 0.000126; MPa = psi x 0.006895

ratios (up to 6.0) have been a significant feature in 5. wall thinning/wastage/pitting involving sludge
B&W designs. near the tubesheets,
6. denting or permanent deformation of the tubes at
the carbon steel support plates due to corrosion
Replacement steam generators product buildup and volume expansion,
Of the 69 operating PWR nuclear power plants in 7. fretting wear,
the U.S., 56 had 163 individual steam generators re- 8. tube circumferential cracking due to high fre-
placed or awarded by 2005. Additional RSG replace- quency fatigue,
ments are anticipated as the remaining installations age. 9. erosion-corrosion in higher velocity regions, and
The previously unanticipated aging issues experi- 10. foreign object damage.
enced by nuclear steam generators generally involve
In many cases, the affected tubes are plugged when
complex interactions between the materials of con-
significant leakage is detected or when degradation
struction, water chemistry operation and contaminant
reaches a critical level. However, with time the over-
ingress, tube support arrangements, fabrication tech-
all bundle degradation can reach a stage where re-
niques, and local thermal-hydraulic conditions. These
pair is no longer a viable option and steam generator
only became apparent with long-term operation of the
replacement is needed. References 1 and 3 explore this
equipment. Examples of this damage include:
in more depth.
1. intergranular attack, B&W’s advanced series replacement steam generators
2. stress corrosion cracking (SCC), are designed with the most current technology available
3. primary- and secondary-side cracking at the to overcome the steam generator issues while still meet-
tubesheet expansion transitions, ing or exceeding all of the steam generator functional
4. primary-side cracking at the U-bends, requirements. Replacement units must fit within the

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 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Cyclone Curved Arm Steam

Outlet
Replacement steam generators are also designed to
Secondary Primary
Separators Separators support extension of power plant operating life. In
Cyclone
Secondary
many cases, the plants with replacement units have
Separator received extended licenses to operate 20 years beyond
the original plant life span and may eventually oper-
ate even further. To achieve these objectives, while
combating the causes of component degradation, em-
phasis is placed on upgrading component materials,
introducing advanced design features and manufac-
turing methods, and incorporating the latest techni-
cal developments.
Curved
Arm
Primary Replacement recirculating steam
Separator
generators (RRSG)
The contract for the first replacement nuclear steam
generator supplied by B&W was awarded in 1988, for
Northeast Utilities’ Millstone Unit 2 nuclear power
Return
plant. Since then and through 2004, B&W has de-
Cylinder signed and manufactured a total of 6 once-through
and 34 replacement recirculating nuclear steam gen-
erator units for the U.S. market.
All of the RSG units are similar but are adapted to
the requirements of the specific power plant. Signifi-
Riser
cant features are shown in Fig. 8. While the basic en-
velope of each RSG type remained the same as the re-
spective OEM equipment, major changes were made
to the tubing and tube support materials. Design fea-
tures were included to enhance reliability and facilitate
Primary in-service inspection and maintenance (see Table 3).
Recirculating
Separator Tubing material The majority of critical degrada-
Deck
Water tion mechanisms involved the tube bundle and the
Return
tube supports; therefore, the selection and quality of
the tubing are the most important factors in steam gen-
Steam/Water erator design. The original equipment tube material
Inlet
was mill-annealed (MA) Alloy 600 (Inconel: Ni-Cr-Fe
Fig. 15 Primary and secondary RSG steam separator system. alloy). However, experience has shown this material
to be susceptible to stress corrosion cracking (SCC), es-
established plant configuration, and must meet all per- pecially in areas of cold work such as at the original
formance and operational requirements. In addition, tubesheet roll expansion transition regions (see Fig.
these replacement units must be redesigned to minimize 16) and in areas of harsh environments such as the
or eliminate the original problematic degradation. top of the tubesheet. The replacement units feature

Table 3
Replacement Recirculating Steam Generator Design Features

Features Original Design Replacement Design Improvement

Tube material Alloy 600MA Alloy 690TT Corrosion resistance

Surface area Nominal Increase Accommodates reduced
conductivity and elimination
of preheater
Provides power uprate capacity
and/or steam pressure increase
Tube support plate material Carbon steel Type 410S Corrosion resistance
Tube support plate design Drilled/broached Lattice bars Improves flow area
Minimizes crevices
Divider plate Floating All welded Minimizes bundle bypass
Drum internals Original Upgraded by test Improves water inventory and
and field experience performance characteristics

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nal in size, dimensions, and pressure rating. The heat

transfer surface (external surface of the tubing) is
sized to match the function of the original surface and/
or any upgrades required by the plant owner.
In defining the heat transfer surface, certain effects
must be taken into account including:
1. the net effect of the reduced thermal conductivity
Tube
of A690TT relative to A600MA,
2. any tube wall thickness and/or diameter change,
3. preheater deletion if applicable, which requires the
addition of a large amount of surface, and
4. any change of rated performance such as power
Tubesheet
increase, steam pressure increase or primary in-
let temperature reduction.
Having defined the vessel envelope and heat trans-
fer surface requirements, the design is refined to ad-
dress other thermal-hydraulic parameters such as
primary-side flow resistance (which must closely
match the original) and the range of secondary-side
thermal-hydraulic issues described above. Finally,
structural and reliability design features are intro-
duced to ensure prolonged and reliable operation.
Tube supports The original equipment incorporated
a variety of tube supports including flat plates with
drilled flow holes, broached plates, and lattice grids
Tube to (see Fig. 11). These have been replaced with a refined
Tubesheet
Transition lattice grid arrangement made of intersecting flat bars
of Type 410S stainless steel. (See Figs. 12 and 13.)
This design is based on the lattice bar arrangement
used in the later CANDU steam generator designs.
(See also Chapter 50.) These lattice bar tube supports
provide anti-vibration restraint for the straight leg
portions of the tubes and provide lateral support for
the entire bundle. Lateral loads include handling and
shipping loads plus seismic and other accident loads.
Normally the lateral in-service loads from the U-bends
are taken through the uppermost lattice grid tube sup-
Fig. 16 Original equipment tube to tubesheet expansion transition. port; these can be well in excess of handling loads.
The U-bends are supported against flow-induced
vibration (FIV) and mechanical loads by flat bar U-
Alloy 690TT (thermally treated) tubing which has a bend supports (see Fig. 14). FIV restraint is provided
high resistance to corrosion. This replacement tubing is by positioning sufficient flat bar supports within the
particularly resistant to SCC due to its higher chrome U-bends to avoid excessive tube response to turbulent
content and thermal treatment. or fluid-elastic instability flow excitation. Support
Tubing today is manufactured to very stringent against mechanical loads, including seismic, is basi-
specifications, resulting in a very high quality prod- cally provided by coordination and transfer of the U-
uct. The new metallurgical treatment offers a mate- bend swaying forces to the uppermost lattice, designed
rial grain structure that is much more resistant to to sustain the lateral load of the overhung U-bends.
cracking. In addition, these tubes are metallurgically The flat bar configurations provide an open flow ar-
very clean and have a minimum of defects and inclu- rangement and line contact tube support to ensure free
sions. As a result, these tubes have very low eddy cur- flowing recirculation conditions and to avoid tube-con-
rent noise, thus improving the resolution of in-service forming crevices or trapped spaces that may accumu-
eddy current testing (ECT) inspections. Any small, late vapor and deposits, which may encourage corrosion.
tight cracks or other defects that may occur will be The Type 410S material selected for lattice bars and
found more easily. U-bend supports is a low carbon version of Type 410.
General design features The first requirement in the This material has excellent strength in its quenched
design of any replacement steam generator is the se- and tempered condition, is resistant to tube fretting,
lection of a general architecture which will, as closely and has good resistance to local and general corrosion.
as possible, match that of the original unit. This is Unlike carbon steel, any oxide that does form by cor-
necessary to comply with Nuclear Regulatory Commis- rosion has a volume not greater than that of the base
sion (NRC) requirements and ensure licensing. The metal. This avoids tube and support plate degrada-
pressure vessel envelope is designed to match the origi- tion caused by voluminous rapid linear oxide growth,

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 The Babcock & Wilcox Company

usually referred to as denting corrosion, that plagued

many earlier carbon steel support plates.
Welded divider plate All recirculating steam gen-
erators feature a flat plate in the primary head to sepa- Tubes
rate the incoming primary flow from the primary out-
let flow. In certain original designs, this was essen-
tially a floating design where the divider plate was
located by engaging seat bars that were welded to the
head and tubesheet surfaces. Because of gaps around Final
the plate, there was some primary flow bypass from Weld
the inlet to the outlet side of the primary head. Replace-
ment steam generators typically have a fully welded
divider plate that is joined around the full perimeter
to the primary head and tubesheet, as shown in Fig.
17. This was not done in some original designs due to
concerns about thermal stresses in the combined head/ Divider
plate/tubesheet structure. However, three-dimensional Plate

finite element elastic-plastic analysis now allows a more

accurate assessment of the operational thermal and me-
chanical loads and shows that the all-welded arrangement Primary
Inlet Nozzle
meets all design and pressure vessel code requirements.
Steam drum internals The steam drum internals for
all B&W replacement RSGs incorporate the high effi- Fig. 17 Fully welded primary head divider plate.

Fig. 18 Replacement recirculating steam generators can be supplied that use the original upper shell, which remains in containment.

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ciency CAP separators and cyclone secondary sepa-

rators as described earlier. The drum internals have
been replaced for all replacement units whether the
steam drum pressure vessel itself was replaced or re-
tained. In many cases the drum was too large to re-
move, so new separators were installed into the exist-
ing drums within the reactor building. Such replace-
ment RSGs are shipped without the upper shell, or
steam drum (see Fig. 18).

Replacement once-through steam

generators (ROTSG)
The Oconee nuclear plant units in the U.S. were
the original lead units of the B&W PWR program.
Over the years, the once-through steam generators
performed very well, but like the recirculating steam
generators, they eventually showed corrosion prob-
lems with their Alloy 600 tubes. Steam generators for
all three Oconee units (two steam generators per unit)
have been replaced.4 (See Fig. 19.)
A major difference between the OTSGs and the re-
circulating steam generators is that since there is no
steam drum there is no large secondary water inven-
tory in the once-through units. Because of such ther-
mal-hydraulic characteristics and because the straight
tubes and the straight shell are bound together at both
ends, the design of these steam generators is very
tightly integrated. Thermal characteristics of heat-up
and cool-down and the thermal hydraulics of the down-
comer flow, feedwater heating, level control, etc. are
highly interdependent with each other and with the
structural and hydraulic configuration of the equip-
ment. The replacement units have been designed to re-
tain, as closely as possible, the thermal and performance
characteristics of the original units so that there is as little
change as possible to this carefully integrated balance.
As with the recirculating design, the tubing mate-
rial for the ROTSGs has been changed from A600MA
to A690TT. The tube support configuration of the origi-
nal OTSGs introduced the industry to the broached
plate design. The broached plate design has been re-
tained for the replacement units but with Type 410S
material. In addition to the broaching, the flow pas-
sages use a patented hourglass configuration and the
surface finish is enhanced by an electropolishing pro-
cess. This minimizes deposition and reduces the po-
tential for tube fretting and any support contact sur-
face anomalies.
The original OTSGs were constructed with a radial
open lane through the bundle to allow inspection of
the bundle inner region. Long-term operation has
shown this to be an undesirable feature. Secondary-
side flow non-uniformity led to thermal tensile stress,
localized high velocities, and localized corrosive envi-
ronments, all of which contributed to fatigue in tubes
adjacent to the lane.
In designing the steam generator shell, the origi-
nal envelope is retained but the material is replaced
with high strength steel to minimize weight, and with
forgings to reduce the number of longitudinal welds.
The original vessel cylindrical support skirt is replaced
with a conical base to improve access for pipe work and Fig. 19 Replacement once-through steam generator.

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Table 4
Replacement Once-Through Steam Generator Design Features

Features Original Design Replacement Design Improvement

Tube material Alloy−600MA Alloy−690TT Corrosion resistance

Pressure vessel Carbon steel High strength steel Reduces weight
Vessel support skirt Cylindrical Conical Improves maintenance access
Tube support plate Broached Broached with added Mitigates deposits
hour-glassing, enhanced Corrosion resistance
surface finish, 410S material Reduces pressure drop
Tube bundle layout Tube-free lane Open lane eliminated Improves flow distribution

for manway access during manufacture, installation

and service (see Fig. 19). Table 5
Other design features have been added such as feed- Major Replacement Recirculating
water header configuration improvements, addition of Steam Generator Development Activities
more inspection ports, and seal welding of infrequently
Materials Cooperative efforts with
used inspection ports. A summary of the major changes international R&D agencies to
to the original design is given in Table 4. evaluate new materials such as
Alloy 690TT
Further development Weld metals Corrosion resistance and mechanical
properties of Alloy 52 and Alloy 152
Research and development (R&D) work defines the
and other materials
technology needs and establishes internal or external
programs to achieve those objectives. The work in- Water chemistry Continued involvement with
cludes development of new design configurations and industry to establish operating
features; development of manufacturing processes guidelines
including specialized welding, cleaning, tube expan- Research on leading issues: tubing
sion and surface conditioning procedures; develop- SCC, feedwater additives, and flow
ment of processes, tooling and robotics for field service accelerated corrosion of SG internals
and inspection processes including water lancing, vi- Thermal-hydraulic 3-D design codes and CFD
sual inspection, cleaning and tube inspection; thermal- design analysis
hydraulic, stress and flow-induced vibration design Flow tests of various internal
procedures; and design elements including steam geometries
separators and tube support structures. This R&D
work includes the materials, chemistry and corrosion Mechanical design Mechanical tests of tube supports,
technology to support component and pressure vessel gasketed closures, tube-to-tubesheet
design and tube longevity. A summary of B&W’s R&D joint
activities is shown in Table 5. Vibration Cooperation with external labs to
develop tube supports and internal
support structures
References Reduced U-bend tube/support
1. Steam Generator Reference Book, Electric Power Re- clearance to reduce wear and
search Institute, Palo Alto, California, 1985. fretting

2. Parkinson, J. R., et al., “Steam Separation Uprate by Manufacturing Development of pressure vessel
Elimination of Capacity-Limiting Mechanisms,” American welding and tube-to-tubesheet
Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Winter Annual welding techniques
Meeting, Miami Beach, Florida, November 17-22, 1985. Steam separation Testing of primary and secondary
3. Cohn, P. Ed., The ASME Handbook on Water in Ther- separators to improve overall
mal Power Systems, American Society of Mechanical En- performance
gineers, New York, New York, 1989. Maintenance Testing of new ECT, UT, and video
4. Klarner, R., Boyd, J.T., and Keck, M., “Once Through services probes for tube examination
Times Two,” Nuclear Engineering International, April, 2004. Tube plugging, sleeving, and
waterlancing equipment
development
Tubing Passivating tube inner surfaces to
reduce primary radiological
Inconel is a trademark of the Special Metals Corporation group of activation
companies.

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Bibliography
Kakaç, S., Ed., Boilers, Evaporators and Condensers, Klarner, R., Fluit, S., and Schneider, W. G., “Replacement
Wiley-Interscience, New York, New York, 1991. See Chap- Steam Generators for Calvert Cliffs, Oconee and Future
ter 9, “Nuclear Steam Generators and Waste Heat Boil- Replacement Designs,” Fourth CNS International Steam
ers” by Collier, J.G. Generator Conference, Toronto, Canada, May, 2002.
Klarner, R., Albert, J., and Schneider, W.G., “SG Replace- Schneider, W. G., Klarner, R. and Smith, J., “Replacement
ment, Operation and Support,” PLIM & PLEX 2003 Con- Steam Generators,” Nuclear Engineering International,
ference, New Orleans, Louisiana, October 13-14, 2003. January, 2002.
Tong, L. S. and Weisman, J., Thermal Analysis of Pres-
surized Water Reactors, Third Ed., American Nuclear
Society, La Grange Park, Illinois, 1996.

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Fig. 1 B&W nuclear once-through steam generator (OTSG).

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