Chap 12

The Babcock & Wilcox Company
Chapter 12
Solid Fuel Processing and Handling
Coal remains the dominant worldwide source of en- transportation costs. Storage and handling of large
ergy for steam generation. However, additional solid coal quantities at the plant site require careful plan-
fuels such as wood by-products and municipal wastes ning to avoid service disruptions.
are also in use. The large scale continuous supply of The changing nature of electric utility industry
such solid fuels for cost-effective and reliable steam regulation, and the increasingly stringent emissions
power generation requires the effective integration of control requirements have dramatically changed the
recovery (e.g., mining), preparation, transportation way coal is used to generate electric power in the
and storage technologies. The relationships between United States (U.S.). Where once a new boiler was
these are illustrated in Fig. 1. While each fuel offers dedicated to one or two sources of coal over its lifetime,
unique challenges, a discussion of the processing and today active fuel management with multiple sources
handling of coal helps identify many of the common of coal and transport options is a core part of power
issues and considerations for all solid fuels. Selected plant competition and profitability. The plant objec-
additional topics about the special aspects of some other tive is to meet the emission control requirements at the
solid fuels are covered in Chapters 28 through 30. lowest overall power production cost.
Mining is the first step in producing coal. Raw coal Coal source flexibility has become necessary for eco-
can be treated to remove impurities and to provide a nomic survival. Plant owners have had to meet these
more uniform feed to the boiler. The resulting reduc- new challenges by employing multiple coal sources,
tion in ash and sulfur can significantly improve over- some very remote from the plant. This typically has
all boiler performance and reduce pollutant emissions. required the installation of new and more flexible coal
The transportation of coal to the plant may represent handling equipment in the plant storage facilities.
a major portion of the plant’s total fuel cost, although
mine-mouth generating stations can minimize these
Coal mining
As discussed in Chapter 9, electric utility coal con-
sumption for power generation dominates the market
for coal produced in the U.S. and in the rest of the
world. Coal production in the U.S. reached approxi-
mately 1.1 billion short tons per year at the turn of
the 21st century. At the same time, electric utilities
accounted for 92% of the coal consumed. Overall
worldwide production and consumption of coal has
been steadily increasing since the late 1980s, with the
major producers being China, the U.S., India and Aus-
tralia. Together these countries produced more than
65% of the total amount of coal mined.1-3
U.S. coal production is split between surface min-
ing, which produces 66% of the total and underground
mining, which produces 34% of the total.2 Because of
the geologic locations of coal deposits or seams, and cost
considerations, surface mining dominates coal produc-
tion west of the Mississippi River and underground
mining dominates in the East. In 2003, Wyoming,
Fig. 1 Fuel supply chains for coal-fired power generation. West Virginia and Kentucky led the nation in coal
Steam 41 / Solid Fuel Processing and Handling 12-1

production with a 59% combined total. The emergence

of large, high volume surface mines producing low
sulfur coal in the west has resulted in a continuing
shift of coal production from the eastern U.S. to the
west.1
Surface mining
Coal may be recovered from relatively shallow
seams by removing the overlying earth, or overbur-
den, to expose the coal seam. Typically, topsoil is first
removed and stored for later use in reclamation of the
site. The remaining overburden is drilled and blasted
to loosen the rock for removal with a dragline or ex-
cavating shovel. The overburden is then methodically
stripped away and stored for restoration of the land
to the original contour following removal of the coal. Fig. 3 Continuous mining machine in operation (courtesy of National
A dragline is commonly used to expose the coal seam Coal Association).
(Fig. 2). The coal may then be removed using a bull-
dozer and front-end loader or a shovel. A mobile mining machinery, uncontaminated ventilation air,
crusher and screen may be set up in the mine for ini- and conveying equipment. These headings are typi-
tial sizing of the raw coal. The coal is then loaded into cally 18 to 20 ft (5.5 to 6.1 m) wide and may be sev-
trucks for delivery to a cleaning facility or steam general miles (km) long. Rooms are driven off of the main
erating plant. headings to the property limits of the mine. Typically,
The stripping ratio is defined as the unit amount only about 50% of the coal is removed when the rooms
of overburden that must be removed to access a unit are first mined. The remaining coal is left in place to
amount of coal. In general, surface mines in the west- support the roof. Roof bolts are installed where the
ern U.S. have lower stripping ratios than mines in the coal has been removed for additional roof support. At
east. the completion of the development cycle, the remain-
Strict environmental regulations limit the amount ing coal may be removed by retreat mining, and the
of land surface area that may be exposed at any one unsupported roof is allowed to collapse.
time, control water runoff, and establish land recla- Longwall mining In longwall mining, shearers or
mation procedures. plows are pulled back and forth across a panel of coal
Underground mining to break it loose from the seam. The coal falls onto a
flight conveyor and is transported to the main haul-
Many coal reserves are accessible only by under- age line. Because essentially all of the coal is removed,
ground mining. (See Chapter 9.) Continuous mining, artificial roof supports, known as shields or chocks, are
the most prevalent form of underground mining, used to cover the plow and conveyor. The plow, con-
makes use of machines like those in Fig. 3. It accounts veyor and roof supports are advanced using hydrau-
for approximately 55% of the total underground pro- lic jacks as the coal is removed from the mining face.
duction of coal. The unsupported roof is allowed to cave in behind the
Room and pillar mining Most underground U.S. coal supports.
is produced using a technique known as room and Although more underground mines use the room
pillar mining. A series of headings or parallel entries and pillar method of mining, longwall mines gener-
are cut into the coal seam to provide passages for the ally produce more coal because they are larger opera-
tions overall. Since the early 1980s, there has been a
significant increase in productivity using longwall
mining. Today, more than one-half of the longwall
mines in the U.S. are located in Appalachia, but this
type of mining is being used more widely in western
coal areas as well.
A key reason for the increase in productivity in-
volves increased panel size of longwall mining sec-
tions. The average panel face width is 759 ft (231 m),
and the average panel length is 6853 ft (2089 m).
Some of these operating units reaching 10,000 ft (3048
m).4
Longwall mining can be a very high capacity pro-
duction system provided the geologic conditions are
suitable and the longwall has been carefully inte-
grated with the existing panel development scheme
and coal haulage infrastructure. Production capaci-
Fig. 2 Large coal dragline in operation (courtesy of National Coal ties exceeding 6000 t of raw coal per shift have been
Association). reported. The annual production capacity for a
12-2 Steam 41 / Solid Fuel Processing and Handling

longwall is a function of the seam height, panel width

and length, and the time required to move the equip-
ment between operating panels.
Raw coal size reduction and classification

Sizing requirements
Size reduction operations at steam power plants are
usually confined to crushing and pulverizing, al-
though it is sometimes more economical to purchase Fig. 4 Rotary breaker for use at the mine and power plant.
pre-crushed coal for smaller plants, especially stoker-
fired units. Screening at the plant is generally not mately 20 rpm. The size of the screen openings deter-
required, except to remove large impurities and trash mines the top size of the coal. The coal feed at one end
using simple grids (or grizzlies) and rotary breakers. of the cylinder is picked up by lifting shelves and is
Techniques for determining coal particle size distribu- carried up until the angle of the shelf permits the coal
tion are discussed in Chapter 9. to drop onto the screen plate. The coal shatters and is
Coal particle size degradation occurs in transpor- discharged through the screen openings. The harder
tation and handling and must be considered when rock does not break as readily; it travels along the
establishing supply size specifications. This may be screen and is rejected at the discharge end. Wood,
critical where the maximum quantity of coal fines is large rocks, and other trash that do not pass through
set by firing equipment limitations. the screen are separated from the coal. Rotary break-
For stoker-fired installations, it is customary to ers may be installed at the mine, preparation plant,
specify purchased coal sized to suit the stoker (see or steam generating plant.
Chapter 16), so that no additional sizing is required The elements of a single-roll crusher are illustrated
at the plant [typically 1.5 in. × 0 (38.1 mm × 0)]. in Fig. 5. This crusher consists of a single, toothed roll
For pulverized coal-fired boilers, a maximum deliv- that forces the coal against a plate to produce the
ered top size is usually specified with no limitation on crushing action. The maximum product particle size
the percentage of fines, so that the delivered coal is is determined by the gap between the roll and the
suitable for crushing and pulverizing in the available plate. To prevent jamming by large impurities such
equipment. The coal is crushed to reduce particle size as tramp metal, the roll is permitted to rise or the plate
and then ground to a very fine size in the pulverizer. can swing away, allowing the impurities to pass
(See Chapter 13.) through. This is an old type of crusher commonly used
Crushers alone may be used to provide the rela- for reducing run-of-mine bituminous coal to a maxi-
tively coarser sizes required for Cyclone furnaces. (See mum product of 1.25 to 6 in. (31.8 to 152 mm). The
Chapter 15.) A properly sized crusher efficiently re- abrasive action between the coal and the plate pro-
duces particle size while producing minimal fines. duces some fines; however, they are discharged with
Size reduction equipment selection minimal re-breakage.
In a double-roll crusher, the coal is forced between
Size reduction equipment is generally characterized two counter-rotating toothed rolls (Fig. 6). The mat-
by the maximum acceptable feed size and the desired ing faces of both rolls move in a downward direction,
product top size. The reduction ratio is defined as follows: pulling the coal through the crusher. The size of the
roll teeth and the spacing between rolls determine the
pfeed
pproduct (1)
where
pfeed = feed particle size in which 80% of the par-
ticles pass a given screen size or mesh
pproduct = product particle size in which 80% of the
particles pass a given screen size or mesh
Once-through crushing devices, that discharge the
fines without significant re-crushing, are used to mini-
mize the production of fines. Rotary breakers and roll
crushers are commonly used to reduce the coal top size
without producing a significant amount of fines.
The rotary breaker, illustrated in Fig. 4, reduces the
coal to a predetermined maximum size and rejects
larger refuse, mine timbers, trash, and some tramp
metal. This equipment also breaks apart frozen coal
prior to further coal processing. It consists of a large
cylinder of steel screen plates that rotates at approxi- Fig. 5 Single-roll crusher – diagrammatic section.

parallel bars. The gaps between bars, the slope, and

the length of the bars determine the separating size.
The bars have tapered cross-sections; the gaps be-
tween the bars are smaller on the top side than on the
bottom. This design reduces plugging.
A revolving screen consists of a slowly rotating cyl-
inder with a slight downward slope parallel to the axis
of coal flow. The cylinder is comprised of a perforated
plate or a wire cloth, and the size of the openings de-
termines the separating size. Because of the repeated
tumbling as the coal travels along the cylinder, con-
siderable breakage can occur. For this reason, revolv-
ing screens are not used for sizes larger than about 3
in. (76.2 mm). Because only a small portion of the
screen surface is covered with coal, the capacity per
area of screen surface is low.
A shaker screen consists of a woven wire mesh
mounted in a rectangular frame that is oscillated back
and forth. This screen may be horizontal or sloped
slightly downward from the feed end to the discharge
end. If the screen is horizontal, it is given a differen-
Fig. 6 Double-roll crusher – diagrammatic section.
tial motion to help move the coal along its surface.
Bituminous coal generally fractures into roughly
cubicle shapes, while commonly associated slate and
product top size. One of the rolls may be spring loaded shale impurities fracture to form relatively thin slabs.
to provide a means for passing large, hard impurities. This shape difference enables the impurities to be
Double-roll crushers are used for reducing run-of- separated with a slotted shaker.
mine coal to smaller sizes at preparation and steam Vibrating screens are similar to shaker screens ex-
generating plants. cept that an electric vibrator is used to apply a high
In retention crushers such as hammer mills and ring frequency, low magnitude vibration to the screen. The
crushers, coal is retained in the breakage zone until it screen surface is sloped downward from the feed to the
is sufficiently fine to pass through a screen to the dis- discharge end. The vibration helps to keep the mesh
charge. The re-breakage action produces considerable openings clear of wedged particles and helps to stratify
fines, consequently these mills are not used in applica- the coal so that fine particles come in contact with the
tions where fines are objectionable. They are often used screen surface. For screening fine, wet coal, water
to reduce run-of-mine coal to an acceptable size for feed sprays are used to wash fine particles through the coal
to a stoker or pulverizer, e.g., 0.75 in. × 0 (19 mm × 0). bed and the screen surface. Vibrating screens are the
A hammer mill is depicted in Fig. 7. In this mill, the most widely used types for sizing and preliminary
coal is broken by impact with the hammers mounted dewatering.
on a central shaft and permitted to swing freely as the It is common practice to separate the fines from the
shaft is rotated. The coal is fed at the top of the mill coarse coal to improve the efficiency of subsequent
and is forced down and outward to the grate bars as cleaning and dewatering processes. The fines may be
it is struck by the hammers. The spacing of the bars discarded, cleaned separately, or bypassed around the
determines the maximum size of the finished product. cleaning process and then blended back into the coarse
The coal remains in the mill, and breakage continues clean coal product.
until the particles are fine enough to pass through the
grate. A trap is usually provided for collection and
removal of tramp metal. Coal cleaning and preparation
The demand for coal cleaning has increased in re-
Screen selection sponse to environmental regulations restricting sul-
Screening is usually performed at the mine or fur dioxide (SO2) emissions from coal-fired boilers. The
preparation plant to remove unwanted material and demand is also due to a gradual reduction in run-of-
size coal for various uses prior to shipment to the steam mine coal quality as higher quality seams are depleted
generating plant. The run-of-mine coal is usually and continuous mining machines are used to increase
passed over a grid of steel bars, or grizzly, to remove production. Approximately 70% of coal mined for elec-
mine timbers, rocks and other trash. The raw coal may tric utility use is cleaned in some way.
be separated into various size fractions to meet con- Coal cleaning and preparation cover a broad range
tract specifications or for further processing in a prepa- of intensity, from a combination of initial size reduc-
ration plant by passing the coal through various tion, screening to remove foreign material, and sizing
screens. Common screen types include gravity bar discussed previously, to more extensive processing to
screens, trommels or revolving screens, shaker screens, remove additional ash, sulfur and moisture more in-
and vibrating screens. timately associated with the coal.
A gravity bar screen consists of a number of sloped The potential benefits of coal cleaning must be bal-

through the stack or removed by post-combustion flue

gas treatment, discussed in Chapters 32 and 35. Sul-
fur is generally present in coal in three forms: pyritic,
organic or sulfate.
Pyritic sulfur refers to sulfur combined with iron
in the minerals pyrite (FeS2) or marcasite. Pyrite may
be present as lenses, bands, balls or as finely dissemi-
nated particles. Organic sulfur is chemically combined
with molecules in the coal structure. Sulfate sulfur is
present as calcium or iron sulfates. The sulfate sulfur
content of coal is generally less than 0.1%.
The total sulfur in U.S. coals can vary from a few
tenths of a percent to more than 8% by weight. The
pyritic portion may vary from 10 to 80% of the total
sulfur and is usually less than 2% of the coal by weight
(Table 1).
The larger pyritic sulfur particles can generally be
removed by physical cleaning, but finely disseminated
pyritic sulfur and organic sulfur can not. Advanced
Fig. 7 Ring hammer mill crusher – diagrammatic section (courtesy of
Pennsylvania Crusher Corporation).
physical and chemical cleaning technologies are un-
der development to remove these sulfur forms.
Moisture can also be considered an impurity be-
anced against the associated costs. The major costs to cause it reduces the heating value of raw coal. Inher-
consider, in addition to the cleaning plant capital and ent moisture varies with coal rank, increasing from 1
operating costs, include the value of the coal lost to to 2% in anthracite to 45% or more in lignite. Surface
the refuse product through process-related inefficien- moisture can generally be removed by mechanical or
cies and the cost of disposing of the refuse product. thermal dewatering. This drying requires an energy
Generally, the quantity of coal lost increases with the expense at the cleaning plant or the steam generat-
degree of desired ash and sulfur reduction. An eco- ing plant (in pre-drying or during combustion). Dry-
nomic optimum level of ash and sulfur reduction can ing before shipment reduces transportation costs on
be established by balancing shipping and post-com- a per-Btu basis. When pre-drying is used, atmospheric
bustion cleanup costs against pre-combustion coal oxidation will tend to be increased for low rank coals
cleaning costs. because of the exposure of additional oxidation sites
in the particles.
Coal characterization The distribution of ash and sulfur in a coal sample
Coal is a heterogeneous mixture of organic and in- can be characterized by performing a washability
organic materials as described in detail in Chapter 9. analysis. This analysis consists of separating the raw
Coal properties vary widely between seams and within coal into relatively narrow size fractions and then di-
a given seam at different elevations and locations. The viding each fraction into several specific gravity frac-
impurities associated with coal can generally be clas- tions. The coal in each size/specific gravity fraction is
sified as inherent or extraneous. Inherent impurities
such as organic sulfur can not be separated from the
coal by physical processes. Extraneous impurities can
be partly segregated from the coal and removed by Table 1
physical coal cleaning processes. The extent to which Distribution of Sulfur Forms in Various Coals (%)
these impurities can be economically removed is deter- Mine Location Total Pyritic Organic
mined by the degree of material dissemination through- County, State Coal Seam Sulfur Sulfur Sulfur
out the coal matrix, the degree of liberation possible at
the selected processing particle size distribution, and Henry, MO Bevier 8.20 6.39 1.22
Henry, MO Tebo 5.40 3.61 1.80
physical limitations of the processing equipment.
Muhlenburg, KY Kentucky #11 5.20 3.20 2.00
Mineral matter associated with the raw coal forms Coshocton, OH Ohio #6 4.69 2.63 2.06
ash when the coal is burned. Ash-forming mineral Clay, IN Indiana #3 3.92 2.13 1.79
matter may also be classified as inherent or extrane- Clearfield, PA Upper Freeport 3.56 2.82 0.74
ous. Inherent mineral matter consists of chemical ele- Franklin, IL Illinois #6 2.52 1.50 1.02
ments from plant material organically combined with Meigs, OH Ohio #8A 2.51 1.61 0.86
coal during its formation. This mineral matter gener- Boone, WV Eagle 2.48 1.47 1.01
ally accounts for less than 2% of the total ash. Extra- Walker, AL Pratt 1.62 0.81 0.81
neous mineral matter consists of material introduced Washington, PA Pittsburgh 1.13 0.35 0.78
into the deposit during or after the coalification process, Mercer, ND Lignite 1.00 0.38 0.62
McDowell, WV Pocahontas #3 0.55 0.08 0.46
or is extracted with the coal in the mining process.
Campbell, WY Gillette 0.46 0.14 0.32
Sulfur is always present in coal and forms SO 2 Pike, KY Freeburn 0.46 0.13 0.33
when the coal is burned. If the sulfur is not removed Kittitas, WA Big Dirty 0.40 0.09 0.31
before combustion, the SO2 that forms is exhausted

then analyzed for ash, sulfur and heating value con-

tent. The hardness and distribution of the impurities
relative to the coal determine if the impurities are con-
centrated in the larger or smaller size fractions. Rela-
tively soft impurities are generally found in the finer
size fractions. In general, the lowest specific gravity
fractions have the lowest ash content, as indicated in
Table 2.
The information generated by these float/sink
characterization tests can be used to predict the de-
gree of ash and sulfur reduction possible using vari-
ous specific gravity based cleaning technologies dis-
cussed below. In general, the more material that is
present near the desired specific gravity of separation,
the more difficult it is to make an efficient separation.
Coal cleaning and preparation operations
The initial steps in the coal cleaning process include
removal of trash, crushing the run-of-mine coal, and
screening for size segregation. These preliminary op-
erations and associated hardware were discussed pre-
viously. The following operations are then used to
produce and dewater a reduced ash and sulfur prod-
uct. Fig. 8 provides a general layout of coal cleaning
unit operations.
Gravity concentration Concentration by specific
gravity and the subsequent separation into multiple Fig. 8 General layout of coal cleaning operations.
products is the most common means of mechanical coal
cleaning. Concentration is achieved because heavier specific gravities and sizes. It is quite possible for a
particles settle farther and faster than lighter particles larger, less dense particle to behave similarly to a
of the same size in a fluid medium. Coal and impuri- smaller particle with a higher specific gravity. For
ties may be segregated by their inherent differences example, a relatively smaller pyrite particle may settle
in specific gravity, as indicated in Table 3. at a similar rate as a larger coal particle. The exist-
The fluid separating medium may consist of a sus- ence of equal settling particles can lead to separating
pension of the raw coal in water or air, a mixture of process inefficiency. Fine pyrite in the clean coal prod-
sand and water, a slurry of finely ground magnetite uct and coarse coal in the refuse are commonly re-
(iron oxide, FE3O4), or an organic liquid with an in- ferred to as misplaced material. The amount of mis-
termediate specific gravity. Aqueous slurries of raw placed material is determined by the quantity and dis-
coal and magnetite are currently the most common tribution of the raw coal impurities, the specific grav-
separating media. ity of separation, and the physical separation effi-
If the effective separating specific gravity of the ciency of the segregated material.
media is 1.5, particles with a lower specific gravity are A significant amount of material with a specific
concentrated in the clean coal product and heavier gravity close to the desired specific gravity of separa-
particles are in the reject or refuse product. Several tion results in a more inefficient separation. If the
factors prevent ideal separation in practice. amount of near gravity material exceeds approxi-
Gravity separation processes concentrate particles mately 15 to 20% of the total raw coal, efficient grav-
by mass. The mass of a particle is determined by its ity separation is difficult.
specific gravity and particle size. Raw coal consists of The most common wet gravity concentration tech-
particles representing a continuous distribution of niques include jigging, tabling, and dense media sepa-
ration processes. Each technique offers technical and
economic advantages.
Table 2 Jigging In a coal jig, a pulsating current of water is
Typical Ash Contents of Various pushed upward in a regular, periodic cycle through a
Bituminous Coal Specific Gravity Fractions bed of raw coal supported on a screen plate. This up-
Specific Gravity Ash Content ward or pulsion stroke of the cycle causes the bed to
Fraction % by wt expand into a suspension of individual coal and refuse
particles. The particles are free to move and generally
1.3 to 1.4 1 to 5 separate by specific gravity and size, with the lighter
1.4 to 1.5 5 to 10 and smaller pieces of coal moving to the upper region
1.5 to 1.6 10 to 35 of the expanded bed. In the downward or suction
1.6 to 1.8 35 to 60
stroke of the cycle, the bed collapses, and the separa-
1.8 to 1.9 60 to 75
Above 1.9 75 to 90 tion is enhanced as the larger and heavier pieces of
rock settle faster than the coal. The pulsion/suction

the specific gravity of separation ranges from 1.4 to

Table 3 1.8. The separation efficiency may be enhanced by
Typical Specific Gravities of Coal pre-screening the feed to remove the fines for sepa-
and Related Impurities rate processing.
Material Specific Gravity Tabling A concentrating, pitched table is mounted
so that it may be oscillated at a variable frequency and
Bituminous coal 1.10 to 1.35 amplitude. A slurry of coal and water is continuously
Bone coal 1.35 to 1.70 fed to the top of the table and is washed across it by
Carbonaceous shale 1.60 to 2.20 the oncoming feed. Diagonal bars, or riffles, are spaced
Shale 2.00 to 2.60
Clay 1.80 to 2.20
perpendicular to the flow of particles. The coal-water
Pyrite 4.80 to 5.20 mixture and oscillating motion of the table create a
hindered settling environment where the lower grav-
ity particles rise to the surface. Higher specific grav-
ity particles are caught behind the riffles and trans-
cycle is repeated continuously. The separated layers ported to the edge of the table, away from the clean
are split at the discharge end of the jig to form a clean coal discharge.
coal and a refuse product. The bed depth where the Tables are generally used to treat 0.375 in. × 0 (9.53
cut is made determines the effective specific gravity mm × 0) coal. Three or four tables may be stacked
of separation. vertically to increase throughput while minimizing
The upward water pulsation can be induced by plant floor space requirements.
using a diaphragm or by the controlled release of com- Dense media separation In dense or heavy media
pressed air in an adjacent compartment. Operation of separation processes, the raw coal is immersed in a
a Baum jig is illustrated in Fig. 9. This type of jig may fluid with a specific gravity between that of the coal
be used to process a wide feed size range. Typically, and the refuse. The specific gravity differences cause
Fig. 9 Typical Baum jig for coal preparation.

the coal and refuse to migrate to opposite regions in centrifuge. The filter cake may be mixed with the
the separation vessel. In coal preparation, the heavy coarser size fractions to produce a composite product
media fluid is usually an aqueous suspension of fine satisfying the specifications. Fine coal dewatering also
magnetite in water. serves to clarify the water for reuse in the coal prepa-
Flotation Coal and refuse separation by froth flo- ration plant. Fines must be separated from the re-
tation is accomplished by exploiting differences in coal cycled water to maximize the efficiency of the separa-
and mineral matter surface properties rather than tion processes.
specific gravities. Air bubbles are passed through a Thermal dewatering may be necessary to meet prod-
suspension of coal and mineral matter in water. This uct moisture specifications when the raw coal is
suspension is agitated to prevent particles from set- cleaned at a fine size to maximize ash and sulfur re-
tling out. Air bubbles preferentially attach to the coal jection. The various types of thermal dryers include
surfaces that are generally more hydrophobic, or dif- rotary, cascade, reciprocating screen, suspension and
ficult to wet. The coal then rises to the surface where fluidized-bed dryers. Cyclones or bag filters are used
it is concentrated in a froth on top of the water. The to prevent fine dust emissions from the dryer. The
mineral matter remains dispersed (Fig. 10). Chemi- collected fine coal may be recycled to support dryer
cal reagents, referred to as collectors and frothers, are operation. Thermal drying represents an economic
added to enhance the selective attachment of the air tradeoff of reduced product moisture content versus
bubbles to the coal and to permit a stable froth to form. heat required to fire the dryer.
Flotation is generally used for cleaning coal finer than
48 mesh (300 microns). The efficiency of the process can Impact on steam generator system operations
be enhanced by carefully selecting the type and quan- The principal benefit of coal cleaning is the reduc-
tity of reagents, fine grinding to generate discrete coal tion in ash and sulfur content. Reduced ash content
and refuse particles, and generating fine air bubbles. results in lower shipping costs and reduced storage
Dry processing Dry coal preparation processes ac- and handling requirements at the plant on a cost per
count for a small percentage of the total coal cleaned unit heating value basis. Boiler heat transfer effec-
in the U.S. In general, pneumatic processing is only tiveness may increase as a result of reduced ash depo-
applied to coal less than 0.5 in. (12.7 mm) in size with sition on tube surfaces. A reduction in sulfur content
low surface moisture. leads directly to reduced SO2 emissions. Lower sulfur
Dewatering Dewatering is a key step in the prepa- feed coal may preclude the need for or reduce the per-
ration of coal. Reducing the fuel’s moisture content formance requirements of post-combustion SO2 emis-
increases its heating value per unit weight. Because sion control systems. A reduction in sulfur content may
coal shipping charges are based on tonnage shipped, also reduce spontaneous combustion during storage,
a reduction in moisture content results in lower ship- and corrosion in coal handling and storage equipment.
ping costs per unit heating value. Reduced ash content can result in reduced mainte-
Coarse coal, greater than 0.375 in. (9.53 mm) par- nance through removal of abrasive pyrite and quartz
ticle size, can be sufficiently dewatered using vibrat- from the coal. Reduction of clay in the coal can improve
ing screens. Intermediate size coal, 0.375 in. (9.53 mm) handling and bunker or silo storage characteristics,
by approximately 28 mesh (600 microns), is normally but this may be offset by the effects of higher fines
dewatered on vibrating screens followed by centrifuges. content and higher surface moisture on cleaned coal.
Fine coal dewatering often involves the use of a
thickener to increase the solids content of the feed to
a vacuum drum, vacuum disc filter, or high gravity Coal transportation
The means of transportation and the shipping dis-
tance significantly influence the total fuel cost, reli-
ability of supply, and fuel uniformity at the power
plant. In some cases where western U.S. coal is
shipped over an extended distance, freight costs may
represent 75 to 80% of the total delivered fuel cost. At
the other extreme, transportation costs may be negli-
gible for mine-mouth generating stations. In transit,
the coal’s handling characteristics may be changed by
freezing, increased moisture content, or size degrada-
tion. When open rail car, truck or barge transport is
used, the moisture content of the delivered coal de-
pends on the initial moisture level, the weather con-
ditions in transit, and the particle size distribution.
Size degradation during shipping is dependent on the
coal friability (ease of crumbling) and the techniques
and number of transfers. As previously stated, for
pulverized coal applications, size degradation is gen-
erally not a concern.
Coal is primarily shipped by rail, barge, truck and
Fig. 10 Flotation cell. conveyor, but can also be transported by pipelines and

tramway systems. The volume and distribution of coal by the restricted rail access. Generally only one rail
transported by these various means is summarized in line is available to transport coal from a mine or to a
Table 4.5 Combinations of these methods are often used specific steam generating plant. The installation of
to obtain the lowest delivery cost. Available transpor- dedicated rail lines must be included as part of the cost
tation infrastructure, haulage distance, required flex- of the coal handling and storage system. Rail spurs to
ibility, capital cost and operating cost are important a specific mine location are useful only for the life of
factors in selection of a system for delivering coal to the mining activity. Transit time is typically on the
the power plant. order of 4 to 20 days.7 The rail car unloading system
In general, barge transport represents the lowest and intermediate storage facilities must be designed
unit cost per ton per mile followed by rail, truck and to quickly process the cars to avoid demurrage (delay)
conveyor in terms of increasing cost. Combinations of charges at the plant.
these four transportation systems may be used to move Railroads will continue to play a significant part in
coal to loading docks for overseas shipment. coal transportation as long as coal is used to generate
Transportation systems are generally designed to electricity and remains the greatest and single-most
minimize intermediate storage of coal to control inven- important commodity.
tory costs, reduce insurance costs, and minimize the
effects of changes that can reduce the commercial Barge
value of coal. Potentially harmful changes include a Barge transport of coal is the most cost-effective
reduction of heating value, particle size degradation, alternative to rail or truck. Approximately 11% of all
and loss due to self-ignition or wind and water erosion. coal shipped to electric generating plants in the U.S.
is delivered by barge. According to the U.S. Army
Rail Corps of Engineers (COE), coal is the largest single
Railroads delivered approximately 70% of the coal barge commodity. Coal traffic accounted for 176 mil-
transported to electric generating power plants in the lion tons of the total annual barge tonnage in 1990
U.S. in 2002, and nearly 95% of this total was shipped (623 million tons).8
in unit trains. Unit trains travel from the loading fa- The cargo capacity difference between the three
cility to the customer without stopping and normally major transportation methods for carrying coal is
consist of 50 or more cars with a total of 10,000 t of shown below:
coal or more. Bottom dump and rotary dump rail cars
1 Barge = 15 Rail Cars = 58 Trucks
[100 t (91 tm) capacity] are typically used. These high
capacity rail cars are generally not uncoupled from the A key to barge efficiency is the ability of barges to
time they are loaded at the mine until they arrive at carry cargo many times their own weight. Addition-
the plant. In 1999, coal accounted for 44% of the rail ally, less energy is expended to move cargo by barge
industry’s total freight tonnage and 22% of the rev- than by rail car or truck. There are several styles of
enues for Class I railroads.6 barges used for transporting various types of cargo,
Rail transport provides for the movement of large but standard open-topped jumbo hopper barges are
quantities of coal over distances ranging from 10 to commonly applied to coal transport.9 (See Fig. 11.)
1500 mi (16 to 2414 km).7 Dedicated service between Export coal is shipped on the Great Lakes by large
one mine and the steam generating plant simplifies bulk carrier ships called colliers, but barges transport
management of coal deliveries. Improvements in coal- coal within the U.S. by using inland and intracoastal
carrying capacity in rail cars and more powerful loco- waterways. The major waterways for coal traffic in the
motives have resulted in higher efficiency in rail U.S. are the Ohio, Mississippi and Black Warrior-
transport. In comparison to rail cars in the 1930s, Tombigbee Rivers. The quantity of coal shipped in a
today’s coal car carries double the capacity.
The advantages of rail transport are offset slightly
Table 4
Distribution of Coal Transportation
Methods for Electricity Generation
(Thousand Short Tons) in the U.S. (2002)5
Method 106 t/yr 106 tm/yr % of Total
Rail 615 558 70

Barge 97 88 11
Truck 81 74 9
Conveyor/pipeline/
tramway 79 72 9
Other water
shipping methods 11 10 1
U.S. totals 883 802 100

Fig. 11 Typical barge transport for large quantities of coal.

single tow or string of barges is determined by the lock dling and distribution is needed. Use of the existing
requirements of the river system being navigated. For highway infrastructure provides for flexible delivery
example, on the Ohio River system, a tow of three routes and reduces travel restrictions associated with
barges wide by five barges long is commonly used be- rail and river transport. Trucks are very efficient for
cause of the River’s lock requirements.10 However, on short haulage distances and for smaller generating
the relatively unobstructed lower Mississippi, tows of plants. Trucking is the least capital intensive mode of
30 barges are not uncommon. transporting coal and a high degree of competition
There is a significant degree of competition and trans- exists.
port prices are generally stable. Some cost differences Truck transportation is characterized by a high
between upstream and downstream travel are common. operating cost per ton mile relative to barge or rail
Barge transportation of coal to steam generating transport. Practical haulage distances are usually lim-
plants is constrained by the location and characteris- ited to 50 mi (80 km). State and local transportation
tics of the available river systems. Close proximity to regulations often limit loads to 25 t (23 tm) or less. A
waterways for direct loading and unloading is needed large generating plant would require a significant
for efficient barge transportation. Barge delivery must amount of truck traffic and congestion at the deliv-
be supported by truck, rail, or belt conveyor ery site may be severe. Truck deliveries require the
transloading at the mine location or the steam gener- highest degree of monitoring at the plant. Frequently,
ating plant. The natural river network is not always every truck must be weighed.
the most direct route and may result in increased de-
livery time. The channel width and seasonal variabil- Continuous transport
ity in water level are natural limitations for barge traf- Coal may be transported from the mine to the gen-
fic. River lock sizes and condition of repair may restrict erating plant by continuous belt conveyors, slurry
the maximum permitted tow size. Delays due to deterio- pipelines or tramways. In 2002, continuous transport
rating locks and congestion may be significant on some systems accounted for approximately 9% of the total
river systems. In some areas, lock repair costs are recov- coal deliveries.5 Belt conveyors are normally limited
ered through a surcharge on tonnage shipped through to lengths of 5 to 15 mi (8 to 24 km). The coal delivery
the lock. rate is a function of the belt width, operating speed,
Barges are not self-unloading. Barge unloading can and the number of transfer points. Only one major coal
consist of a simple clam-shell crane discharging onto slurry pipeline is in operation. The 273 mi (439 km)
a take-away conveyor. For large capacities, high-rate long Black Mesa Pipeline runs from a mine in Arizona
automated bucket-elevator unloaders are often used. to a generating plant in Nevada. The coal transport
Capacities of these systems range from several hun- rate is determined by the pipe diameter, slurry veloc-
dred to several thousand tons per hour. System capacity and solids loading.11
ity must be considered to limit demurrage time for Continuous systems can move large amounts of coal
barge delivery and unloading at large power stations. cost-effectively over short distances. Often, continu-
The capital investment required for the unloading ous systems can be used where the terrain limits the
facilities may restrict barge deliveries to plants using use of other modes of transport. Social and environ-
more than 50,000 t/yr.7 mental impacts are minimal.
The application of continuous transportation sys-
Truck tems is limited by the proximity to the generating
For power plants located near mines, trucks loaded plant, a low degree of operating flexibility due to the
at the mine deliver coal directly to the power plant fixed carrying capacity, the inflexibility of the load-
storage site. In 2002, trucking accounted for 9% of the ing and discharge locations, high capital cost, and a
total tonnage of coal delivered to electric generating relatively high energy consumption per ton mile of
plants.5 The truck deliveries may unload directly onto coal delivered. Pipeline builders must overcome sig-
the coal storage pile or into hoppers feeding the auto- nificant opposition in obtaining rights of way and
mated conveying system for distribution to the stor- water resource allocation. The added costs associated
age pile or silos. with dewatering the coal at the generating plant must
Trucking also plays an important role in both rail also be considered.
and barge transport. Many times coal transported by
rail or barge is first trucked to the loading dock or in- Coal handling and storage
volves truck transfer at the mine. Highway trucks
typically carry 15 to 30 t (14 to 27 tm) of coal over dis- at the power plant
tances up to 70 mi (113 km). Off-road vehicles can Bulk storage of coal at the power plant is necessary
handle 100 to 200 t (91 to 181 tm) over a range of 5 to to provide an assured continuous supply of fuel. The
20 mi (8 to 32 km) at mine-mouth generating stations. tonnage of coal stored at the site is generally propor-
Trucking is the most flexible mode of coal transpor- tional to the size of the boiler. A 100 MW plant burns
tation. It is relatively easy to adjust to changes in approximately 950 t/d (862 tm/d), while a 1300 MW
demand to meet the generating plant’s variable sup- plant requires approximately 12,000 t/d (10,887 tm/d).
ply requirements. The short haulage distances, and For most power plants, a 30 to 90 day supply is stored
therefore short delivery times, can be used to minimize at the plant to assure adequate supply through any
storage requirements at the generating plant. Trucks delivery interruptions. Public utilities in the U.S. are
are simple to unload and a minimum of on-site han- required by law to maintain minimum supplies. How-

ever, stored coal represents substantial working capi- mercially available as are large, field-erected concrete
tal and requires land that may be otherwise produc- silos of several thousand tons capacity. In regions with
tive. Economic considerations are a key factor in deter- severe winter weather, even large power stations use
mining when to purchase coal and how much coal to silo storage to facilitate easier reclamation.
store at the plant. Additional considerations, such as The complexity of the coal storage and handling
the changes to coal characteristics due to weathering, operations increases in proportion to the size of the
restrict the maximum amount of coal stored on site. steam generating plant. Efficient techniques have
For smaller, industrial boiler applications, bin or silo been developed for large and small plants. The com-
storage may be preferred over stockpile storage. The ponents of a sophisticated coal storage and handling
advantages of bin storage include shelter from the system for a large, 1000 MW electric generating plant
weather and ease of reclamation. Prefabricated bins are illustrated in Fig. 12. Coal is delivered in self-un-
with capacities holding several hundred tons are com- loading rail cars and is transferred to a large stock-
Fig. 12 Typical coal handling system and subsystems for a 1000 MW coal-fired power generation plant.

pile. An automatic reclaim system recovers coal from to settle the fines and to improve handling in freez-
the stockpile for crushing and distribution to in-plant ing weather. The treatment does not appreciably affect
storage silos. The system is automated and a two per- combustion or cause problems in the pulverizers. There
son crew can handle 7000 t/d (6350 tm/d) of coal. All is also some evidence that the treatment may reduce
the equipment from the reclaim feeders to the in-plant adherence and hangups in bunkers and chutes.
silos to the boiler is controlled by the central control A simple bottom dump rail car unloading system
room operator. that includes a crusher and magnetic separator is il-
The storage and handling operations of a utility lustrated in Fig. 13. A screw conveyor is used to dis-
boiler are depicted in the chapter frontispiece. tribute coal along the length of the bunker. The ca-
pacity of the bucket elevator generally limits this sys-
Raw coal handling tem to relatively small plants.
An extensive array of equipment is available for A rotary dump rail car unloading and handling sys-
unloading coal at the plant site and distributing it to
stockpile and bin storage locations. Equipment selec-
Magnetic Belt
tion is generally based on the method of coal delivery Separator
to the plant, the boiler type, and the required coal
capacity. For small plants, portable conveyors may be
used to unload rail cars, to reclaim coal from yard stor-
age piles, and to fill bunkers. Larger plants require
dedicated handling facilities to meet the demand for a
continuous fuel supply. However, even relatively small
plants may benefit from the improved plant appearance,
cleanliness and reduced coal handling labor require-
ments associated with mechanical handling systems.
The coal handling system components are deter-
mined by the design and requirements of the boiler.
If coal particle size is not specified to the coal supplier, Concrete
Bunker
then a crusher is normally integrated into the system
to generate a uniform top size coal feed to the pulver-
izer or feeder equipment of circulating fluidized bed
(CFB) or stoker-fired boilers. The system normally
includes a magnetic separator to remove misplaced
mining tools, roof support bolts, and other metallic
debris that could damage the pulverizer or feeder
equipment. Crushing and tramp metal removal needs
are generally less critical for stoker-fired boilers than
for pulverized coal and CFB units.
The coal handling system capacity is determined by
the boiler’s rate of coal use, the frequency of coal de- Pressurized
liveries to the plant, and the time allowed for unload- Coal Valve
ing. In most large plants, only four to six hours per

day are dedicated to unloading of coal deliveries.
Continuous
Rail car unloading Bucket Elevator
Rail cars can either be of the bottom discharge or
rotary dump type. In automatic rotary car dumping Gravimetric
Feeder
systems, the rail cars are hydraulically or mechani-
cally clamped in a cradle, and the cradle is rotated
about a rotating track section so the coal falls into a
hopper below the tracks. The rail cars have special
swivel couplings to allow the dumping to be completed
without uncoupling the cars. The rotary dump system Grating
advantages of short cycle time and high capacity are
offset by a relatively high capital cost.
With bottom dump cars, unloading is relatively Track
Hopper
simple when the coal is dry and free flowing. How- Discharge
Valve
ever, high surface moisture can cause the coal to ad-
here within the car and, in cold weather, freeze into a Apron
solid mass. In hot, dry weather, high winds can cre- Feeder
ate severe dust clouds at the unloading station unless To
Pulverizer
special precautions are taken. The coal supplier fre- Crusher
quently sprays the coal with oil or an anti-freezing
chemical such as ethylene glycol as the car is loaded Fig. 13 Rail car dumping system for a small power plant.

Bunker Roof Line avoided. A thorough evaluation and environmental

survey of the proposed site topography should include
analysis of the soil characteristics, bedrock structure,
local drainage patterns, and flood potential. Climatic
Transverse and data, such as precipitation records and prevailing wind
Tripper Belt
Bunker patterns, should also be evaluated. Protection from
tidal action or salt water spray may be needed in
Pressurized
coastal areas. The potential effects of water runoff and
Coal Valve dust emissions from the pile must be considered. Site
preparation includes removing foreign material, grad-
Gravimetric
Car Dumper Feeder ing for drainage, compacting the soil, and providing
for collection of site drainage.
The shape of a stockpile is generally dependent on
Yard Coal
Discharge
Valve the type of equipment used for pile construction and
To
Repair
Shop
Breaker
Pulverizer for reclaiming coal from the pile. Conical piles are
generally associated with a fixed stacker while a ra-
dial stacker generates a kidney shaped pile. A rail
mounted traveling stacker can be used to form a rect-
Conveyor Belt angular pile. Regardless of the shape of the pile, the
Housing sides should have a shallow slope.
Bituminous coal, subbituminous coal and lignite
Fig. 14 Rail car unloading and coal handling system for a large should be stockpiled in multiple horizontal layers. To
power plant.
reduce the potential for spontaneous combustion, coal
piles are frequently compacted to minimize air chan-
tem for a larger plant is shown in Fig. 14. Coal from nels. These channels can function as chimneys that
the car dump hopper is fed to a rotary breaker, where promote increased air flow through the pile as the coal
the coal breaks into smaller pieces as it is tumbled and heats. For bituminous coal, an initial layer, 1 to 2 ft
passes through a screen shell. The broken coal can (0.3 to 0.6 m) thick, is spread and thoroughly packed
then be conveyed directly to the storage bunkers, or to eliminate air spaces. A thinner layer is required for
to the stockpile. subbituminous coal and lignite to assure good compac-
tion. Care should be taken to avoid coal pile size seg-
Barge unloading regation by blending coal during pile preparation.
The simplest barge unloader consists of a clamshell For long-term storage (see Fig. 16), the top of the
bucket mounted on a fixed tower. The barge is posi- pile may be slightly crowned to permit even rain run-
tioned under the bucket and is moved as necessary to off. All exposed sides and the top may be covered with
allow emptying. With this type of unloader, the effec- a 1 ft (0.3 m) thick compacted layer of fines and then
tive grab capacity of the buckets is only 40 to 50% of capped with a 1 ft (0.3 m) layer of screened lump coal.
the nominal bucket capacity. A shore mounted bucket It is not practical to seal subbituminous and lignite
wheel or elevator unloader can increase the efficiency piles with coarse coal because the coarse coal would
and capacity of this unloading operation. Modern
ocean-going vessels are often equipped with a bucket Fuel Unloading Hopper
wheel for self-unloading.
Truck unloading Tramp Metal Crusher Tramp Metal
Detector Detector
Trucks may dump coal through a grid into a stor-
Magnetic
age hopper. This grid separates large pieces of wood Slide Separator
Gate
and other trash from the coal. At some plants, the Isolation
Silo Transfer
Drag Conveyor
trucks are directed to a temporary storage area, where Valves
coal from various mines can be blended prior to crush-
ing or feeding to the boiler. Unloading
An effective truck delivery and coal handling system Belt Feeders
for a small to medium size (30 to 300 t/d) stoker coal-fired Pneumatic
boiler is illustrated in Fig. 15. This system provides site Unloading Plant Operated
preparation of the coal along with tramp metal removal. Conveyor Conveyor Fuel
Silo
Shutoff
Gates
Stockpile storage
Careful consideration should be given to storage pile Gravimetric
Feeders
location. The site must be conveniently accessible by
barge, rail or truck. Frequently, provisions must be Slide Gate
Isolation
made for more than one method of coal delivery. The Valves
site should be free of underground power lines. Other To
underground utilities that would not be accessible Boiler
after the storage pile is constructed must also be Fig. 15 Typical coal handling system for truck delivery.

tem for reclaiming the stored coal from stockpiles de-

pends upon plant size and economic evaluation of
operating and capital costs. For higher capacity sys-
tems of around 200 t/h (181 tm) and greater, auto-
mated under-pile or over-pile reclaim systems are
used. Under-pile reclaim systems can consist of under-
pile hoppers with vibrating or belt feeders discharg-
ing onto a take-away belt conveyor. The belt conveyor
travels at an incline through an underground tunnel
until exiting the ground surface and is routed to the
desired elevation. Over-pile reclaimers can be a vari-
ety of traveling bucket wheels or flight reclaimers that
discharge onto an above ground take-away belt con-
veyor. For lower capacity systems, reclaim can be by
bulldozer or front loader into a hopper feeding a take-
away conveyor.
A variety of mechanical conveyors are used for
transfer conveying. These include belt conveyors, drag
(or flight) conveyors, bucket elevators, and screw con-
veyors. Belt conveyors are generally limited to an in-
cline angle of 15 to 16 deg from horizontal to avoid
roll-back of coal lumps on the traveling belt. Advance-
ments in belt conveyor technology have yielded de-
signs capable of greater incline angles and lateral
routing, however at greater capital cost. Bucket and
drag conveyors provide greater elevation capabilities
over short horizontal distances, but mechanical con-
veyors inherently have greater wear and associated
maintenance costs than belt conveyors. Screw convey-
ors are utilized primarily for horizontal, short-length
Fig. 16 Long-term coal storage – typical example of thorough packing
with minimal size segregation. This pile contains about 200,000 t of coal.
conveying in low capacity applications. Wear and main-
tenance costs are also higher with screw conveyors.
weather and break apart to a smaller size in a short Silo storage

period of time. At smaller industrial plants, where Silos are often used where severe winter conditions
heavy equipment for compaction can not be justified, can justify the added cost. Power plants with limited
a light coating of diesel oil can help to seal off the outer land space for large storage piles can also justify the
surface of the pile. expense. Silos are typically large field-constructed
The quantity of coal stored in a stockpile can be es- concrete structures of the slip-form or jump-form de-
timated using geometry and some assumptions about sign. Large silos at central power stations can store
the characteristics of coal. The volume of the pile can 10,000 to 20,000 t (9710 to 18,144 tm) and can be
be estimated based on its shape. Approximate values grouped together for necessary storage capacity. Mul-
for the material’s bulk density and its angle of repose are tiple silos also provide the ability to empty one and
required to complete tonnage calculations. Both of these perform maintenance while supporting operations.
parameters are particle size dependent. For typical util- The silo hopper design must ensure adequate coal flow
ity storage pile applications, a loose coal bulk density of to avoid hide-out and coal hang-ups in the silo.
50 lb/ft3 (801 kg/m3) and a 40 deg angle of repose may
be used. For well compacted piles, a bulk density of 65 Bunker storage
to 72 lb/ft3 (1041 to 1153 kg/m3) is more appropriate. Coal bunkers provide intermediate, short term stor-
Storage pile inspection and maintenance Visual in- age, ahead of the pulverizers or other boiler coal feed
spections for hot spots should be made daily. In wet equipment. Bunkers (also known as day-bins) are
weather, a hot area can be identified by the lighter normally sized for 8 to 24 hours of fuel supply at maxi-
color of the surface coal dried by escaping heat. On mum boiler operation. Normally, there is one bunker
cold or humid days, streams of water vapor and the for each pulverizer and boiler coal feed point, but it is
odor of burning coal are signs of heating or air flow- not uncommon to see one bunker with two or more
ing through the pile. Hot spots may also be located by outlets, feeding multiple points.
probing the pile with a metal rod. If the portion of the
rod in contact with the coal is too hot to be held as it is Bunker design
withdrawn, the coal temperature is dangerously high. Once constructed, the coal bunkers are an integral
It is also important to rotate areas of the storage pile part of the boiler house structure. Any redesign or modi-
from long to short term storage on a planned schedule. fication to the bunkers can be expensive and difficult,
This minimizes harmful degradation of the coal. if not impossible. The bunkers also must be designed
Bulk storage reclaim and transfer The specific sys- for reliable flow of the stored fuel. (See Fig. 17.)

can reduce this pluggage, but many times have lim-

ited success. Even with continuous flow, some residual
material will remain in an emptied bunker due to the
adherence in the straight wall to sloped hopper zone.
This residual material can result in bunker fires due
to spontaneous combustion. This is especially problem-
atic with higher volatile coals, such as Powder River
Basin coals.
With proper flow testing and design, complete emp-
tying of the bunker or silo is assured each time the
level is drawn down. The bunker or silo will be de-
signed for funnel flow or mass flow. In funnel flow
there is a stagnant zone (where the material does not
flow) where the bunker vertical wall transitions to the
sloped hopper wall. However, when the level in the
vessel is drawn below this region and the pressure is
reduced on this material, it releases from the hopper
wall and collapses on the material level in the hop-
per. In a mass flow design, the material draws down
uniformly throughout the vessel, in a pattern down
the vertical walls, then transcends down the sloped
hopper walls. Mass flow requires much steeper hop-
per slopes. The cohesive nature of the coal and ability
to adhere to the vessel walls determine the design. A
third design, called expanded flow, combines these two.
The hopper is in two sections, the upper section fun-
nel flow and the lower section mass flow.
Fig. 17 Four commonly used shapes in coal bunker design. Downspout design Flow testing data can also be
used to optimize downspout design. Downspouts
The flowability characteristics of coal are important should be circular, short and as steep as possible, pref-
parameters in the design of the hoppers and chutes erably vertical. Reductions in cross-sectional area and
in the coal handling system and boiler feed systems. sudden changes in direction should be avoided.
A shear cell test device measures the resistance of coal In pressurized pulverizer feed applications, or coal
to slide in shear action against itself, and measures feed to the pressurized location of a CFB boiler, spe-
the resistance of the material to slide on a surface such cial consideration must be given to downspout design
are steel, stainless steel or other common materials. because the coal inside the downspout also serves as
This testing can be performed after the coal has con- the seal against the pressurized location and air or gas
solidated for several days, to simulate storage of the backflow to the bunker. A minimum required height
coal in a silo or bunker. From this data, the optimum (seal height) and a sealed downspout/feeder system
combination of hopper slope angle and minimum out- are required. A typical bunker to pulverizer system is
let opening can be determined to assure reliable flow. shown in Fig. 18. Vertical, constant-diameter down-
This data can also be used to determine critical chute spouts connect the bunker to the feeder and the feeder
angles to assure continuous sliding flow through the to the pulverizer. Appropriate couplings and valves
chute, regardless of the cohesive nature of the coal and complete the system.
tendency to adhere to chute walls. Other factors that
are utilized in optimizing the hoppers or chutes are Feeder design
the flowability of the coal on varying surfaces. This Feeders are used to control coal flow from the stor-
information is used in determining the most economic age bunker at a uniform rate. Feeder selection should
material to use for fabrication of the hoppers or chutes, be based on an analysis of the material properties
or the liners applied. Materials such as carbon steel, (maximum particle size, particle size distribution, bulk
polished and unpolished stainless steel, abrasion re- density, moisture content and abrasiveness), the de-
sistant steels, abrasion resistant plastic liner materi- sired flow rate, and the degree of flow control required.
als, and ceramic are just some of the materials rou- A variety of feeder designs have been used for coal-
tinely tested. fired applications with increasing sophistication as
In bunkers or silos without proper design, reduced more accurate control of coal flow has become neces-
flow or even pluggage can occur. This is the result of sary. Feeders for modern pulverized coal and CFB
the coal adhering to the hopper walls, especially at the boiler applications can generally be classified as volu-
transition from the straight walls to the angled hop- metric or gravimetric.
per. This build-up can form a channel of limited cross- Volumetric feeders, as the name implies, are de-
section through which the material flows. As the ma- signed to provide a controlled volume rate of coal to
terial continues to build-up, this flow channel of small the pulverizer. Typical examples include drag, table,
cross section can bridge over and total pluggage oc- pocket, apron and belt feeders. Belt feeders, perhaps
curs. Flow aids such as air blasters and bin vibrators the most accurate type, have a level bar to maintain

or 2) fine tuning the belt speed while the cross-sec-

tional area remains constant. The overall set point flow
rate is adjusted by varying the base belt speed.
Coal blending
When coals from two or more sources fuel a single
boiler, effective coal blending or mixing is required to
provide a uniform feed to the boiler. The use of mul-
tiple coals can be driven by economics, coal sulfur con-
tent to meet emission requirements, and/or the effects
of different coals on boiler operation. The goal of ef-
fective blending is to provide a coal supply with rea-
sonably uniform properties that meet the blend speci-
fication typically including sulfur content, heating
value, moisture content, and grindability.
Coal blending may occur at a remote location, such
as the mine or coal washing/preparation facility, or at
the steam generating plant. Off-site blending elimi-
nates the need for separate coal storage and additional
fuel blending facilities. Steam plant on-site blending
may be accomplished through a variety of techniques.
It may be sufficient to provide separate stockpiles for
each coal source and use front-end loaders to trans-
fer the appropriate quantities to a common pile or hop-
per for blending prior to crushing. Coal may also be re-
claimed from the various stockpiles using under-pile or
over-pile reclaim systems transferring to a common con-
veyor belt. Coal from the various sources may be stored
in separate bins with a feeder from each bin used to
meter the desired quantities onto a common transfer belt.
On-site blending provides more flexibility in coal sourc-
ing and in adjusting to actual on-site coal variations.
Fig. 18 Arrangement of bunker discharge to pulverizer showing
typical feed system.
the flow of coal at a constant height and width while

the belt speed sets the velocity of the coal through the
opening. As with all volumetric designs, however, the
belt feeder does not compensate for changes in coal
bulk density. This results in variations in the energy
input to the pulverizer and ultimately to the burners,
for a pulverized coal unit, or to the bed of a CFB unit.
Gravimetric feeders (see Fig. 19) compensate for
variations in bulk density due to moisture, coal size
and other factors. They provide a more precise weight
flow rate of coal to the pulverizer or CFB boiler bed
feed point and, therefore, more accurate heat input
to the burners and boiler. Even variations in coal mois-
ture have a larger relative impact on coal bulk den-
sity than on heating value. Therefore, modern gravi-
metric feeders offer an accurate, commercially accepted
technology to control fuel and heat input to the burners
and boiler. This can be a very significant issue where
more accurate control of fuel/air ratios is needed to: 1)
minimize the formation of nitrogen oxides (NOx), 2) con-
trol furnace slagging, and 3) maximize boiler thermal
efficiency by reducing excess air levels. (See Chapter 14.)
In the most common gravimetric feeder system, coal
is carried on a belt over a load cell that monitors the
coal weight on the belt. The feedback signal is used
to maintain the weight flow by either: 1) adjusting the
height of a leveling bar to control the cross-sectional Fig. 19 Typical gravimetric feeder (courtesy of Stock Equipment
coal flow area while the belt speed remains constant, Company, Inc.).

Particular care must be maintained to ensure proper creases with time. Once a safe storage pile has been
and complete blending. Significant variations in the established through compaction to minimize entrapped
blended coal can have a major impact on operation of air, the rate of oxidation has been slowed considerably.
the pulverizers, burners and sootblowers of a pulver- Coal should be kept in dead storage undisturbed un-
ized coal unit, and on bed temperature control of a CFB til it is to be used.
boiler. If uniform blending does not occur, pulverizer The rate of oxidation also increases with moisture
performance can deteriorate (see Chapter 13), the content. High-moisture western coals are particularly
boiler may experience excessive slagging and fouling, susceptible to self-heating.
and electrostatic precipitator particulate collection effi-
ciency may decline, among other potential problems. Frozen coal
The difficulties associated with handling frozen coal
may be avoided by thermally or mechanically drying
Resolution of common coal the fines following coal preparation. Spraying the coal
handling problems with an oil or anti-freezing solution mist is one
method, but this can have a negative effect on com-
Dust suppression bustion and emissions performance.
Water, oil and calcium chloride (CaCl2) are common Permanent installations for thawing frozen coal in
agents used to suppress fugitive dust emissions on rail cars include steam-heated thawing sheds, oil-fired
open coal stock piles and during loading into open thawing pits, and radiant electric thawing systems.
ground hoppers. A water or oil mist may be sprayed Steam-heated systems are reliable and efficient, but
into the discharge area of rail cars as well as open dis- are relatively expensive. Oil-fired systems that pre-
charges of conveyors onto storage piles. The water or vent direct flame impingement on the cars provide
oil spray reduces dust emissions by causing the dust to reliable operation and rapid thawing. Electric thaw-
adhere to larger pieces of coal and by forming agglom- ing systems are used at many plants that handle unit
erates that are less likely to become airborne. Use of train coal shipments.
CaCl2 should be limited because of its potentially harm- The coal handling system must also be protected. The
ful side effects on boiler operation. (See Chapter 21.) chutes and bunker/silo hoppers can be fitted with heat-
Dust collection at the transfer points from conveyor ing coils to avoid hang-up due to coal freezing on the
to conveyor in the coal transport system is performed metal surfaces. Heating of the buildings enclosing these
by a vacuum collection system. These systems consist transfer chutes or hoppers should also be considered.
of a blower that draws the airborne dust from the dis- Frost and ice can form on belt conveyor surfaces.
charge chutes, transfer chutes, and loading chutes of As coal is loaded onto the conveyor, it can skid on the
a transfer point. The enclosed chute arrangement is ice and not convey. Systems using ethylene glycol or
essentially maintained at a negative pressure. The salt applications can help alleviate this problem.
dust laden air flow is routed through a bag filter to Coal pile fires
collect the dust, with the air discharging to the atmo-
sphere. The collected dust is discharged from the bag A primary concern in coal storage is the potential
filter hopper through a rotary seal to the continuing for spontaneous combustion in the pile as a result of
coal conveyer, silo or bunker. For coals with high vola- self-heating properties.
tility, the dust is collected with water and sluiced to A coal pile fire may be handled in several ways de-
waste or reclaim to avoid fire or explosion. These dust pending on its size or severity. The hot region should
collection systems can also evacuate the methane that be isolated from the remainder of the pile. This may
is generated in bunkers and silos. be accomplished by trenching and sealing the sides
and top of the hot area with an air tight coating of
Oxidation road tar or asphalt. Caution should be used in work-
Coal constituents begin to oxidize when exposed to ing the hot area with heavy equipment as subsurface
air. This oxidation may be considered as a very slow, coal combustion can affect the stability and load bear-
low temperature combustion process, because the end ing characteristics of the pile. Water should not be used
products, carbon dioxide (CO2 ), carbon monoxide, unless it is necessary to control flames. Pouring water
water and heat, are the same as those from furnace on a smoldering pile induces more pronounced chan-
coal combustion. Furnace combustion of coal may be neling and promotes greater air flow through the pile.
viewed as a very rapid oxidation process. Although
there is evidence that bacterial action causes coal Bunker flow problems
heating, the heating primarily occurs through a Bunkers may be equipped with ports located near
chemical reaction process. If spontaneous combustion the outlet. These ports permit the use of air lances for
is to be avoided, heat from the oxidation should be restoring flow. Air lances may also be effectively used
minimized by retarding oxidation or removing the from the top of the bunker. Small boring machines can
generated heat. be mounted above the bunker to loosen coal jams at
Coal oxidation is primarily a surface action. Finer the outlet. Service companies can be contracted to
coal particles have more surface area for a given vol- remove flow obstructions using boring tools. Air blast-
ume and, therefore, oxidize more rapidly. Freshly ers or air cannons have been successfully used to pro-
crushed coal also has a high oxidation rate. Coal’s mote flow of coal in bunker hoppers. If there is any
oxygen absorption rate at constant temperature de- possibility of fire, these devices must be charged with

nitrogen or carbon dioxide to prevent triggering a dust Alternate solid fuel handling
explosion. Bin vibrators can be used to promote flow
similar to air blasters and cannons. Air blasters and Economic and environmental concerns have led to
cannons along with bin vibrators must be carefully increasing steam generation from solid fuels derived
evaluated prior to installation as these devices can from residential, commercial and industrial by-prod-
further consolidate coal accumulated in the vessel. ucts and wastes. Key among these are municipal solid
Flow testing can be performed to determine if the waste (MSW), wood and biomass as discussed in
current hopper design can be economically modified Chapters 29 and 30. The properties of these solid fu-
for reliable flow of a poorer quality coal. The applica- els require storage, handling and separation consid-
tion of different hopper liner materials can provide a erations different from those applied to coal.
simple solution to coal flow problems. MSW can either be burned with little pre-combus-
tion processing (mass burn) or as a refuse-derived fuel
Bunker fires (RDF). As-received refuse for mass-burn units is de-
A fire in a coal bunker is a serious danger to per- livered to the tipping area and stored in an open con-
sonnel and equipment and must be dealt with crete storage pit. The refuse pit is usually enclosed and
promptly. The coal feed to the bunker should be kept under a slightly negative pressure to control
stopped. An attempt should be made to smother the odors and dust emissions. The tipping bay is designed
fire while quickly discharging the coal. Continuity and to facilitate traffic flow based upon the frequency of
uniformity of the hot or burning coal discharge from deliveries and the size of the delivery trucks or trail-
the bunker is especially important; interruption of coal ers. The pit is usually equipped with a water spray
flow aggravates the danger. The bunker should be emp- system to suppress fires that may arise in part due to
tied completely; no fresh coal should be added until the heat generated from decomposition of the refuse. An
bunker has cooled and the cause of the fire determined. overhead crane is used to mix the raw MSW in the
The fire may be smothered using steam or carbon storage pit, to remove bulky items and to transfer
dioxide. CO2 settles through the coal and displaces material to the boiler feed charging hoppers. Large
oxygen from the fire zone because it is heavier than objects and potentially explosive containers are located
air. Permanent piping connections to the bottom of the and removed prior to combustion. (See Chapter 29.)
bunker may be made to supply CO2 on demand. The A full capacity spare crane is recommended. Storage
CO 2 should fill the bunker, displace the air and capacity is typically three to five days to accommodate
smother the fire. weekends, holidays and other periods when refuse
It is highly desirable to completely extinguish the fire delivery may not be available. Longer term storage
before emptying the bunker. This is rarely possible be- of refuse is not normally recommended.
cause of boiler load demands and the difficulty of elimi- MSW may be processed to yield a higher and more
nating air flow to the fire. However, the use of steam or uniform Btu, lower ash RDF. The degree of process-
CO2 to smother the fire can minimize the danger. ing required is determined by economics and by the
Bunker flow problems that result in dead zones may fuel properties necessary for efficient boiler operation.
contribute to fires. Thermocouples installed in the MSW is usually delivered to an enclosed receiving
bunker can monitor the temperature of the stored coal. floor. Front-end loaders can be used to spread the
The coal feed to the bunkers may also be monitored refuse, remove oversized and potentially dangerous
to prevent loading the bunker with hot coal. items and feed the MSW to the RDF processing sys-
Additional remarks on dealing with bunker fires in tem as needed. RDF processing includes an integrated
pulverized coal plants are provided in Chapter 13. system of conveying, size reduction, separation, fer-
rous and non-ferrous metal recovery, sizing and other
Environmental concerns equipment discussed in depth in Chapter 29. MSW
may be processed into RDF at the power plant site or at
Water percolating through the coal storage pile can a remote location. The selection is based upon a number
become a source of acidic drainage that may contami- of economic factors, but operation of the RDF process-
nate local streams. Runoff water must be isolated by ing system at the boiler site typically will enhance avail-
directing the drainage to a holding pond where the ability to support uninterrupted steam generation.
pH may be adjusted. (See also Chapter 32.) Wood, forestry and agricultural wastes generally
Airborne fugitive dust from stockpiles and adjacent consist of bark, sawdust, saw mill shavings, lumber
haul roads creates a public nuisance, has potentially rejects, raw tree trunks and prunings, and straw.
harmful effects on surrounding vegetation, and may Material is generally shipped by truck to the steam
violate regulated dust emission standards. To satisfy generator site near the source. Material can be
environmental regulations, plant haul roads are nor- dumped directly on the storage pile or an unloading
mally watered frequently during hot, dry, dust seasons. facility can be used. The unloading and handling

equipment must be designed to handle very abrasive content of up to 65% as-received (see Chapter 30), pre-
material under extremely dusty conditions. Wood drying may be required. Mechanical hydraulic presses
products can be stored in large outdoor piles or inside or hot gas drying, or both, are used.
bins or silos. This fuel is not typically stored in piles
for more than six months or in silos or bins for more
than three to five days. Wood is typically screened to Economics
remove oversized material for further size reduction. The selection of the fuel source, degree of cleaning,
Oversized material is reduced by a shredding machine, and transportation system are closely tied to provid-
or hog, and either returned to storage or sent directly ing the lowest plant fuel cost. The selections must not
to the combustor. Mechanical belt conveyors are the be made in isolation, but in concert with evaluating
most popular method of transporting the fuel on site, the impact of the specific fuel on the boiler and by-
although pneumatic systems can be effective with a pass system operation, and the environment. For ex-
finely ground, clean fuel such as sawdust. Tramp iron ample, use of a new less expensive fuel may result in
is usually removed by a magnetic separator. This significant deterioration in boiler performance and
material is fibrous and very stringy, so careful evalu- availability due to more severe slagging and fouling
ation must go into the design and selection of the fuel tendencies of the flyash. (See Chapter 21.) The rela-
handling and storage system. While most modern tive contributions of coal cleaning, transportation and
wood-fired boilers can burn materials with a moisture base fuel price vary widely.
References
1. Freme, F., “U.S. Coal Supply and Demand: 2003 Re- 7. Wilbur, L.C., Ed., Handbook of Energy Systems En-
view,” United States Energy Information Agency, Depart- gineering: Production and Utilization, See chapter en-
ment of Energy, Washington, D.C., 2004. titled, “Coal Transportation,” by R.D. Bessett, John Wiley
2. Bonskowski, R., “The U.S. Coal Industry in the 1990s: & Sons, New York, New York, October, 1985.
Low Prices and Record Production,” United States Depart- 8. “Domestic Shipping Inland Waterways,” United States
ment of Energy, Washington, D.C., September, 1999. Maritime Administration (MARAD), Washington, D.C.,
3. International Energy Annual 2001, United States De- 2003.
partment of Energy, Energy Information Agency, Wash- 9. “Advantages of Inland Barge Transportation,” Coosa-
ington D.C., March, 2003. Alabama River Improvement Association, Inc. (CARIA) and
4. “Report on Longwall Mining,” United States Depart- the U.S. Department of Transportation Maritime Admin-
ment of Energy, Energy Information Agency, Washington, istration, www.caria.org/waterway-facts.
D.C., 1994. 10. Mahr, D., “Coal Transportation and Handling,” Power
5. “Coal Distribution Report,” Form E1A-6A, United Engineering, pp. 38-43, November, 1985.
States Department of Energy, Energy Information Agency, 11. Edgar, T.F., Coal Processing and Pollution Control,
Washington, D.C., 2002. Gulf Publishing, Houston, Texas, 1983.
6. “The Rail Transportation of Coal,” Vol. No. 3, Policy and
Economics Department of the Association of the American
Railroads, January, 2001.
Bibliography
Elliott, T.C., Chen, K., Swanekamp, R.C., Standard Hand- Leonard, J.W., Ed., Coal Preparation, The American In-
book of Power Plant Engineering, Second Ed., pp. 1.20- stitute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers,
1.44, McGraw-Hill Company, New York, New York, 1998. New York, New York, 1979.
Energy Information Administration (EIA), United States Lotz, C.W., Notes on the Cleaning of Bituminous Coal,
(U.S.) Department of Energy (DOE), www.eia.doe.gov, West Virginia University, Charleston, West Virginia, 1960.
2004. Pfleider, E.P., Ed., Surface Mining, The American Insti-
Given, I.A., Ed., Society of Mining Engineers Mining En- tute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers,
gineering Handbook, The American Institute of Mining, New York, New York, 1968.
Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers, New York, New
York, 1973.
Heidrich, K., “Mine-Mouth Power Plants: Convenient Coal
Not Always a Simple Solution,” Coal Age, June 1, 2003.

Coal storage and handling facilities at a utility power plant.

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The Babcock & Wilcox Company

Steam 41 / Solid Fuel Processing and Handling 12-1

production with a 59% combined total. The emergence

12-2 Steam 41 / Solid Fuel Processing and Handling

longwall is a function of the seam height, panel width

Raw coal size reduction and classification

Steam 41 / Solid Fuel Processing and Handling 12-3

parallel bars. The gaps between bars, the slope, and

12-4 Steam 41 / Solid Fuel Processing and Handling

through the stack or removed by post-combustion flue

Steam 41 / Solid Fuel Processing and Handling 12-5

then analyzed for ash, sulfur and heating value con-

12-6 Steam 41 / Solid Fuel Processing and Handling

the specific gravity of separation ranges from 1.4 to

Fig. 9 Typical Baum jig for coal preparation.

Steam 41 / Solid Fuel Processing and Handling 12-7

12-8 Steam 41 / Solid Fuel Processing and Handling

Method 106 t/yr 106 tm/yr % of Total

Rail 615 558 70

U.S. totals 883 802 100

Steam 41 / Solid Fuel Processing and Handling 12-9

12-10 Steam 41 / Solid Fuel Processing and Handling

Steam 41 / Solid Fuel Processing and Handling 12-11

ing. In most large plants, only four to six hours per

12-12 Steam 41 / Solid Fuel Processing and Handling

Bunker Roof Line avoided. A thorough evaluation and environmental

Steam 41 / Solid Fuel Processing and Handling 12-13

tem for reclaiming the stored coal from stockpiles de-

weather and break apart to a smaller size in a short Silo storage

12-14 Steam 41 / Solid Fuel Processing and Handling

can reduce this pluggage, but many times have lim-

Steam 41 / Solid Fuel Processing and Handling 12-15

or 2) fine tuning the belt speed while the cross-sec-

the flow of coal at a constant height and width while

12-16 Steam 41 / Solid Fuel Processing and Handling

Steam 41 / Solid Fuel Processing and Handling 12-17

12-18 Steam 41 / Solid Fuel Processing and Handling

Steam 41 / Solid Fuel Processing and Handling 12-19

Coal storage and handling facilities at a utility power plant.

12-20 Steam 41 / Solid Fuel Processing and Handling

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