Civil & Environmental Preliminary Design Guide: For Undeveloped Sites
Civil & Environmental Preliminary Design Guide: For Undeveloped Sites
Civil & Environmental Preliminary Design Guide: For Undeveloped Sites
Developed and Compiled by
Sarah Young, P.E.
Technical Advisor for Water & Sanitation
Living Water International
And
John Agee, P.E.
Staff Civil Engineer
Engineering Ministries International
Revised November 2013
Table of Contents
1. Water Usage ........................................................................................................................................... 1
Exercise 1.1 ...................................................................................................................................... 2
Exercise 1.2 ...................................................................................................................................... 2
2. Water Sources ........................................................................................................................................ 7
Exercise 2.1 .................................................................................................................................... 10
3. Water Storage ...................................................................................................................................... 11
Exercise 3.1 .................................................................................................................................... 12
4. Water Pumps ........................................................................................................................................ 13
Exercise 4.1 .................................................................................................................................... 14
5. Water Quality & Treatment ................................................................................................................. 15
6. Onsite Soil Evaluation ........................................................................................................................... 16
7. Wastewater Primary Treatment .......................................................................................................... 21
Exercise 7.1 .................................................................................................................................... 24
8. Onsite Wastewater Disposal ................................................................................................................ 25
Exercise 8.1 .................................................................................................................................... 29
Exercise 8.2 .................................................................................................................................... 29
Exercise 8.3 .................................................................................................................................... 31
9. Onsite Solid Waste Disposal ................................................................................................................. 33
10. Site Drainage ........................................................................................................................................ 34
11. System Layout ...................................................................................................................................... 35
12. General Comments .............................................................................................................................. 36
EMI Civil & Environmental Preliminary Design Guide
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1. Water Usage
A. RESEARCH the domestic water use rates for the country of interest. EMI has documented average
domestic use of 135 liters per day per person for projects in South Asia and Africa (family unit housing
with indoor plumbing). Use projected site population times the use rate to give a conservative estimate of
proposed daily water usage while on the project trip. You may need to provide estimates for phased
growth. This will help in the initial estimation of footprint areas needed for water storage facilities and the
wastewater disposal area needed while the team is developing the master plan.
B. OBSERVE water use by locals. Try to estimate what the total daily usage actually is for a person living on
site. This habit of using engineering judgment will pay off with a more efficient or more economical design
if the conditions and practices of the client are not average.
C. DEVELOP a detailed water use estimate. Use the included charts as appropriate (Tables 1.1 through 1.7)
for estimating water usage depending on the site. Some architectural revision will likely occur on or after
the project trip, so keep in mind that this will probably affect the water use estimate.
D. COMPARE the projected water use rates that you developed from both the empirical data you measured
or estimated on site and the projections you developed in the previous step. Use your judgment and
make final projections to accompany the master plan.
E. DETERMINE where wastewater will go after it is used. Consider separating wastewater from sink and
shower drains (greywater) and toilets (blackwater). Blackwater should pass through a septic tank to a
soakage area, but greywater may flow directly into a soakage area (reducing the necessary size of the
septic tank).
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Exercise 1.1
You have a client in the outskirts of Kigale, Rwanda who plans to develop a rural site for a 50 bed hospital. It is
expected that the daily out‐patient care will accommodate 500 patients. Included on the site will be staff duplex
housing for 12 staff families and 15 single staff. The client also has plans to provide an elderly care hostel for 10
individuals. Live‐in care for the elderly will be provided by 4 staff.
a. Develop a detailed water use estimate for this scenario.
b. Determine how much of the total daily water use is greywater and how much is blackwater.
Exercise 1.2
You are working for an Indian client who is doing community development work in two villages which are located
near each other. The client wants to serve the two villages with a single potable water system by piping water
that will flow by gravity from a spring to strategically placed collection tanks in each village. Jori village has 18
families and Toneta village has 35 families. The average family owns one water buffalo. The client is also planning
on installing VIP latrines (which use no water for flushing) to meet sanitation needs.
How much water will be needed daily in each of these villages?
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Table 1.1: Water Requirements for Domestic Purposes in India
From B.C. Punmia, Askok Jain, and Arun Jain.
Environmental Engineering‐I: Water Supply Engineering.
New Delhi: Laxmi Publications, 1995
Amount of water in
Description
liters per head per day
Bathing 55
Washing of clothes 20
Flushing of Water Closet 30
Washing the house 10
Washing of utensils 10
Cooking 5
Drinking 5
Total 135 liters
Table 1.2: West Africa Water Demand Assumptions (Indoor Plumbing)
Amount of water in
Description
liters per head per day
Water Requirements For Domestic Purposes
Bathing/ Personal Hygiene 55
Laundry 15
Flushing of Toilet 30
Janitorial 5
Utensil Washing 5
Cooking 5
Drinking 5
Total 120 liters
Water Requirements For Day‐Use Institutional Purposes
Personal Hygiene (handwashing) 5
Flushing of Toilet 20
Janitorial 4
Utensil Washing (Cafeteria) 4
Cooking (Cafeteria) 4
Drinking 3
Total 40 liters
Note: The table above addresses assumptions made in a suburb of Accra, Ghana in West Africa.
Always research and interview locals to better gauge their water usage
considering use and demand can vary between regions.
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Table 1.3: Consumption of Water for Domestic Animals and Livestock in India
From B.C. Punmia, Askok Jain, and Arun Jain.
Environmental Engineering‐I: Water Supply Engineering.
New Delhi: Laxmi Publications, 1995
Water consumption in
Animals
liters per animal per day
Cow and buffalo 40 to 60
Horse 40 to 50
Dog 8 to 12
Sheep or goat 5 to 10
Table 1.4: Water for Domestic and Non‐Domestic Needs in India
From B.C. Punmia, Askok Jain, and Arun Jain.
Environmental Engineering‐I: Water Supply Engineering.
New Delhi: Laxmi Publications, 1995
Amount of water
Community Description
(liters per capita per day)
Population up to 20,000:
40 (minimum)
Supply through stand post
Population up to 20,000:
70 to 100
Supply through house service connection
Population 20,000 to 100,000 100 to 150
Population above 100,000 150 to 200
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Table 1.5: Water for Institutional Needs in India
From B.C. Punmia, Askok Jain, and Arun Jain.
Environmental Engineering‐I: Water Supply Engineering.
New Delhi: Laxmi Publications, 1995
Water Requirement
Institution
(liters per head per day)
Hospitals (including laundry): 450 (per bed)
No. of beds exceeding 100
Hospitals (including laundry): 340 (per bed)
No. of beds not exceeding 100
Hotels 180 (per bed)
Hostels 135
Nurse’s homes and medical quarters 135
Boarding schools/colleges 135
Restaurants 70 (per seat)
Airports and sea ports 70
Junction stations and intermediate stations 70
Where mail and express stoppage (both
railways and bus stations) is provided
Terminal stations 45
Intermediate stations 45
(excluding mail and express stops) (could be reduced to 25
where bathing facilities are
not provided)
Day schools/colleges 45
Offices 45
Factories 45
(could be reduced to 30
where no bathing rooms are
required to be provided)
Cinema, concert halls, and theatres 15
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Table 1.6: Village Use Only – Water from Standpipe
From Water for the World: Estimating Sewage or Washwater Flows,Technical Notes No. SAN. 2.P.2;
U.S. Agency for International Development by National Demonstration Water Project,
Institute for Rural Water, and National Environmental Health Association
Water Use per Person per Day
Region
(in Liters)
Africa 15 to 35
Southeast Asia 30 to 70
Western Pacific 30 to 95
Eastern Mediterranean 40 to 85
Algeria, Morocco, Turkey 20 to 65
Latin America/Caribbean 70 to 190
Note: Averages are for areas where water is hand‐carried from standpipes no more
than 200m distant.
Table 1.7: Sewage or Washwater per Fixture
From Water for the World: Estimating Sewage or Washwater Flows,Technical Notes No. SAN. 2.P.2;
U.S. Agency for International Development by National Demonstration Water Project,
Institute for Rural Water, and National Environmental Health Association
Fixture Amount per Use (in Liters)
Pour‐flush Latrine 1 to 3
Tank‐type Flush Toilet 13 to 23
Wash Basin 5
Shower 95 to 120
Kitchen Sink 15 to 18
Laundry Sink (wash/rinse) 150 to 190
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2. Water Sources
A. CONSIDER all possible water sources regardless of your initial opinions of the feasibility of actual use. Do
everything you can to identify a single sustainable, year‐round water supply with enough quantity to meet
the normal daily needs of the client. In many cases more than one water source will be needed.
B. POTENTIAL WATER SOURCES
a. GROUNDWATER
i. SHALLOW WELL
Is there currently a shallow dug well on site or near the site? Is this the locally preferred
water source? Investigate the construction method and make design notes. What is the
expected depth? Can you take a water sample and have it analyzed? What type of water
treatment methods are feasible? Will the well dry up in the dry season? Investigate the
costs of construction.
ii. DEEPER WELL
Is it feasible to have a well drilled or bored? Find a drilled well on site or very near the
site and find out it’s depth, capacity (liters per hour pumped), and construction method.
Do everything you can to find a written well log for this well or interview the actual driller
about the depth, quality, and quantity of water available. Investigate the costs of
construction.
iii. SPRING WATER
How far away is the spring? Is it feasible to construct a spring box, protecting the source,
and pipe water to the site? Test the quality of spring water, and interview those familiar
with the area to determine its consistency and potential production of water.
b. SURFACE WATER (stream, spring, lake, etc.)
How far away is the surface water source? Can you do a water analysis? What treatment
methods are feasible? Consider intake design. What is the cost of constructing the intake and
treatment system?
c. PUBLIC WATER SYSTEM (pipe in the road)
Is there a reliable public water distribution system nearby? What amount/pressure of water is
available? How far away? Will the water need treatment to make it drinkable? Consider
construction costs for tying into the system. Interview the local utility manager.
d. RAINFALL COLLECTION
Many places have significant but seasonal rainfall, yet it is expensive to construct and maintain
long‐term water storage facilities. Therefore, expect that rainfall collection will be a
supplementary solution (i.e. for watering gardens, temporary water supply during the rainy
season). Find accurate regional data for precipitation or use the internet to do more detailed
research. Estimate (using roof areas) how much water can be collected from the proposed roof
areas during a typical day, week, and month during the rainy season.
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C. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ABOUT WATER QUALITY AND QUANTITY
a. Surface water sources and groundwater sources under DISW (direct influence of surface water)
DISW sources can include springs and wells which are developed in alluvial formations (a shallow
unconfined aquifer). What quality and quantity can you expect?
i. Seasonal variations in water quality and quantity (depending on rainfall)
ii. Bacterial contamination quite possible
iii. Can be affected by septic tanks or fertilizers (presence of nitrates)
iv. Can be affected by many contaminants which enter at the ground surface (not able to test for)
v. Can contain high iron levels (can affect design of a treatment system)
vi. Often in an unconfined aquifer plenty of water will be available during most of the year
vii. Quality of water may be directly affected by community action to eliminate improper disposal
of wastes and rainwater recharge practice
b. Groundwater source not under DISW. This includes groundwater sources in a confined aquifer. What
quality and quantity can you expect?
i. Bacterial contamination or other contaminants will not be present
ii. Minerals and total dissolved solids may be high (affects treatment, may cause deposits in pipes)
iii. Sometimes these sources have drinking water quality without treatment
i. Quantity of water may be limited
Figure 2.1: Confined and Unconfined Aquifers
from B.C. Pummin, Askok Jain, and Arun Jain. Environmental Engineering‐1: Water Supply Engineering.
New Delhi: Laxmi Publication, 1995. p. 67.
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Figure 2.2: Perched Aquifer
from B.C. Pummin, Askok Jain, and Arun Jain. Environmental Engineering‐1: Water Supply Engineering.
New Delhi: Laxmi Publication, 1995. p. 68.
Figure 2.3: Types of Wells
from B.C. Pummin, Askok Jain, and Arun Jain.
Environmental Engineering‐1: Water Supply Engineering.
New Delhi: Laxmi Publication, 1995. pp. 85, 90, 99.
Strainer Type Tube Well Slotted Type Tube Well
Open Wells
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Exercise 2.1
You’ve learned that at the Kigale hospital site it is possible to construct both a shallow open well, deep tube wells,
and a city water service connection. After talking to a neighbor who has a shallow open well, you’ve learned that
he is able to get 14,400 liters/hr consistently except during the dry months of Jan, Feb and July when the water
table sometimes drops and the well dries up. An open well costs 5,000 USD to construct. Pumping from this well
will cost about 100 USD per month. You only have enough space on your site to construct one of these. You’ve
also learned that deep tube wells only yield 7,200 liters/hr. One tube well costs 8000 USD to construct. Pumping
from each tube well will cost about 150 USD per month.
The community water supply is usually consistent with occasionally a couple of weeks of water shortage during
the dry season. The average flow is expected to be 3,600 liters/hr through the 50mm connection that the
government allows. It will cost 1000 USD to install the connection and a flat fee of 100 USD per month regardless
of the reliability of service.
Note that during the dry season, the average daily water usage goes up by 25%.
Knowing these facts, which water sources would you recommend for the client to develop and how many of
each?
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3. Water Storage
A. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM LAYOUT
a. COMMON APPROACH: It is typical in many countries to install multiple rooftop tanks, one over
each bathroom or kitchen with 200 to 500 liters of storage each. This provides individuals a sense
of control over the area they are using. If others run out of water, then they can conserve their
own if they have their own tank. It is also common to install dead end lines. The problem with
this is that if a site is going to be developed to include multiple buildings, there is a higher
maintenance burden and lack of ability to transfer water to where it is needed most.
b. EMI APPROACH: Since many EMI projects do involve long‐term planning for multiple buildings,
we recommend having dialogue with the client about accepting the idea of a battery of central
water storage tanks (tough plastic tanks up to 10,000 L each) coupled with a looped water
distribution system (where appropriate) to allow for economical and efficient water delivery to all
of the buildings. Central water storage and a looped water distribution system are sometimes a
new idea to many of our clients, so it is important to spend the needed time sharing the idea,
getting feedback, and making this approach as easy to adopt as possible. The battery of water
storage tanks may be placed on a structurally designed platform (preferred to us) or on top of the
tallest building, providing that adequate water pressure can be achieved in the other buildings
from that location.
B. STORAGE TANKS
a. CAPACITY: Provide a MINIMUM of one day’s supply of water storage. Dialogue with the client to
hear their views on needed water storage. They may want more storage and up to two day’s
supply is better for critical facilities such as a hospital.
b. WATER STORAGE SOLUTIONS: Prefabricated black plastic tanks are easily available in sizes of
200L, 500L, 1000L, 2000L, 5000L, or even 10,000L. These tanks are generally filled from top and
have a pipe exiting the bottom for distribution. Solenoid or float valves can be used to cut off the
flow of water when the tank is full. For the most part, plan to store one day’s worth of water
supply. Facilities which need more supply in case of emergency (i.e. hospital) plan for up to 2
days water storage. Certain circumstances could call for less than one day’s water supply. For
example if the electricity is available all the time and/or if the facility has no residents and/or no
meals provided, it would be acceptable to consider a smaller water storage capacity.
C. WATER PRESSURE
In general, other countries do not use as much water pressure as we do in the United States. Anywhere
from 14 kPa to 35 KPa (2 to 5 psi) may be perfectly acceptable. Observe the pressure levels in the local
water systems.
D. CENTRAL WATER SUMP
It is common practice in many countries to install a central water sump at ground level which receives
water from more than one source (i.e. water from the multiple wells and from the public water line. EMI
does recommend this option for many of our client’s sites as it provides added storage and is efficient
when using more than one source.
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Exercise 3.1
For the Kigale hospital, determine the total water storage needed.
a. Assuming plastic tanks are used, recommend the number and size of tanks needed. Figure out how big the
footprint needs to be for the entire battery of tanks, assuming 600mm spacing and an average tank height
of 2 meters. Assume that the tanks can be placed on the roof of the main multi‐story hospital building and
that the friction losses can be neglected.
b. Assuming a reinforced concrete box style tank is constructed and assuming 0.3 meter of freeboard (space
above the liquid level), what dimensions are needed for the tank?
c. If the highest water fixture is 4 meters below the roof slab, how high does the floor of each tank need to be
in order to provide a minimum of 35 kPa of water pressure (1 m of elevation = 9.8 kPa)?
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4. Water Pumps
A. ELECTRICITY
Find out the typical number of hours electricity is available each day, perceived frequency of electricity
interruptions (i.e. are there ever interruptions for many days and how many times a year does this
happen?), whether it is single phase or three phase power, and how far away the community connection
will be.
B. PUMPS
Pumps commonly used for shallow or open wells may be either centrifugal pumps with suction lines or
submersible pumps. Pumps for deep or bored wells are usually submersible pumps or a surface air
compressor system (used on low capacity wells). Another option for a low capacity deeper well (although
not commonly used) is a solar powered pump.
RECOMMEND for each scenario the acceptable pump types, pumping rate, and total dynamic head range
needed for the well pump. Remember to consider the hours of electricity availability and anticipated well
capacity when recommending the pumping rate for filling the water storage tanks and sump.
a. PUMP SYSTEMS
i. Centrifugal
ii. Submersible
iii. Air Compressor
iv. Solar
b. PIPE MATERIAL
i. PVC
ii. HDPE
iii. Galvanized Iron
C. PUMPING CISTERNS
If multiple sources of similar quality are being used or could potentially be used in the future or if there is
not enough water pressure in a city main to fill the ministry’s rooftop tanks, plan for a cistern which can
hold one day of water supply. The sump should have a centrifugal pump sized which is capable of filling
the elevated storage tanks in a reasonable amount of time (i.e. a maximum of 12 hours running time per
day would be good).
D. PUMPING WELLS
An open well can use either a submersible pump or a centrifugal pump (if the suction head is 10 meters or
less). This pump should be sized so that a continual pumping rate can be maintained without drawing
down the well to shut off the pump. Pumps are often rated in liters per hour. Determining the elevation
head range + the friction head will be needed to determine the total dynamic head range for the pump.
A deep tube well can use a submersible pump or if the available pumping rate is less than 1,000 liters per
hour, consider an air compressor or solar pumping system.
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Exercise 4.1
For the Kigale Hospital, assume the water sources you recommended previously have all been developed and
have the capacities originally estimated. Assume that a cistern with 1‐day storage is constructed.
a. With the sump pump turned off and assuming you are filling the sump for the first time, how long on
average would it take to fill the sump if all of the water sources were functioning and supplying water
simultaneously?
b. Recommend some dimensions for the cistern.
c. With the information you already know about the open well, what general recommendations would you
make about selecting the pump for that well?
d. What recommendations would you give for selecting the pump for the deep well(s)?
e. And the pump for the cistern?
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5. Water Quality & Treatment
A. TEST water to determine necessary treatment. In the developing world, if bacteria are commonly present
in the water source, it is not expected that all taps should yield drinking‐quality water. EMI recommends
the installation of filtration/UV disinfection units or ceramic filters at key locations on the site where
drinking water will be needed (i.e. kitchens). Use the EMI water test kit to evaluate water sources.
Contaminants such as high minerals and nitrates may indicate the need for other treatment steps. If
possible, request that the client have a testing lab complete analysis of the water quality for each
established water source. This is most helpful if completed before the project team arrives.
Table 5.1: Drinking Water Standards Comparison
World
European Undesirable Effect
Parameter Health INDIA US EPA CANADA JAPAN
Union Outside Limit
Org.
Causes infant
methemoglobinemia (blue
Nitrate (mg/l) 50 45 ‐ 100 10 10 50 10 babies). May cause gastric
cancer; affects central nervous &
cardiovascular systems.
pH 6.5 ‐ 8.5 6.5 ‐ 9.2 6.5 ‐ 8.5 6.5 ‐ 8.5 6.5 ‐ 9.5 5.8 ‐ 8.6 Affects taste.
Affects taste and palatability;
causes indigestion and may be
Chloride (mg/l) 250 250 ‐ 1000 250 250 250 200
injurious to people suffering
from heart and kidney diseases.
May cause urinary concretion,
Hardness (as
n/a 300 ‐ 600 n/a 75 50 300 disease of kidney, bladder and
CaCO3 mg/l)
stomach disorder
Iron 0.3 0.3 – 1.0 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 Bittersweet astringent taste.
Total Dissolved
1000 500 ‐ 1500 500 500 n/a 500 Causes gastrointestinal irritation.
Solids (mg/l)
Not a health threat in itself; used
to indicate whether other
Not Not
Total Coliforms potentially harmful bacteria may
detected detected
(including fecal be present. Coliforms are
in any in any
coliform and E. naturally present in the
100ml 100ml
coli) environment; fecal coliforms and
sample sample
E. coli come from human and
animal fecal waste.
Parameters Typically Not Tested by EMI Water Test Kits
Aesthetically undesirable and
Turbidity (NTU) 1 ‐ 5 2.5 ‐ 10 0.3 ‐ 1.0 n/a n/a n/a interferes with chlorination.
Indicates other contamination.
Reduces dental cavities in range
of 0.8 to 1.0 mg/l; at high levels
Fluoride (mg/l) 1.5 0.3 ‐ 1.0 4.0 n/a 1.5 1.0
causes teeth mottling, skeletal
and crippling fluorosis.
Skin diseases, circulatory system
Arsenic (mg/l) 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.05
problems, risk of cancer.
Lead (mg/l) 0.01 0.05 0.015 0.01 0.01 0.01 Serious cumulative body poison.
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6. Onsite Soil Evaluation
A. EVALUATE SOIL TYPE at 300mm to 1000mm depth immediately. Use the subjective soil type flow chart.
If the soil has high clay content, warn the master planner that wastewater disposal may require significant
land area. Note that the soil evaluation is mainly useful for planning a leach bed or leach field wastewater
disposal system. Performing the soil type test is the minimum information requirement for determining
the land area needed (Figure 6.1).
B. INTERVIEW knowledgeable locals or consult a drilling log (if an on‐site well has been completed already)
to determine the changes in soil strata as the depth increases. Take a good digital photo of the drilling log
if it is available and download the photo onto the project leader’s computer project file. This information
will be used to size seepage pits.
C. GROUNDWATER DEPTH: Important! Find out how deep the water table is during the peak of the rainy
season. We want to avoid designing a system which contaminates the groundwater. Good design
requires that at least 1000mm of soil thickness (not coarse sand or gravel) should separate the bottom of
the seepage pit, leach bed, or leach field from the water table.
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Figure 6.1: Guide to Texture by Feel
[online] http://soils.usda.gov/education/resources/lessons/texture/.
Modified from S.J. Thien. 1979. A flow diagram for teaching texture by feel analysis.
Journal of Agronomic Education. 8:54‐55.
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Figure 6.2: Texture Triangle and Particle‐Size
Limits of AASHTO, USDA, and Unified Classification Systems
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D. DETERMINE SOIL PERMEABILITY. Soil permeability Figure 6.3: Test Hole with Apparatus
Water for the World: Determining Soil Suitability,
refers to the rate at which liquid percolates into the Technical Notes No. SAN. 2.P.5
soil. Percolation of water into soil can be measured by
digging a hole, pouring in water, and timing the rate
at which the water drains out of the hole. This
percolation test is fairly simple to conduct, but it must
be done carefully to yield accurate results.
a. Gather Materials
i. Shovel
ii. Watch or other timepiece
iii. Measuring tape or ruler
iv. Board or piece of lumber about 0.6m long
v. Pencil and notepad
vi. Optional: Auger with extension handles
(extremely useful tool for digging test holes)
b. Conduct Percolation Test
Based on Water for the World: Determining Soil Suitability, Technical Notes SAN 2.P.3‐5; U.S. Agency for International
Development by National Demonstration Water Project, Institute for Rural Water, & National Environmental Health Assoc.
i. Two Percolation tests should be conducted at the proposed site. If the system is an absorption
field or soakage trench, the tests should be conducted about one‐third of the distance in from
each end of the system, as shown in Figure 6.4. Dig the test holes for a field or trench to the
depth of the proposed system (i.e., if the proposed trench is 1m deep, the test hole is 1m deep).
If the proposed system is a cesspool or soakage pit, the tests are conducted in the center of the
system at the proposed site of the cesspool or pit. The first test is performed at one‐half the
depth of the cesspool or pit, and the second test at full depth (i.e., if the proposed pit is 2.4m
deep, first test is 1.2m depth and second is 2.4m). Results of the two tests generally will be
about the same. If they differ, use the slower of the two percolation rates to design the system.
ii. Dig or bore a new hole in undisturbed soil about 300mm in diameter, or 300mm square, to the
proper depth. Make the walls of the hole vertical. Scrape the walls to remove any patches of
compacted soil. Place about 50mm of clean gravel in the bottom of the hole.
iii. If you detect any clay content, fill the hole with water and let it soak for 12 hours. This allows
ample time for soil swelling/saturation. If no clay content, proceed with the test immediately.
iv. Place a board or piece of lumber across the center of the hole and anchor it firmly in place,
perhaps by placing a rock on each end. The board must not be moved until the test is complete.
Mark a point near the center of the board to be used as a guide for the remainder of the test.
v. If the hole was saturated, most or all of the water poured in will have drained away within 12
hours. Pour in enough water so that the depth of water is 200mm.
vi. Place the measuring tape or ruler next to the reference mark on the board and slide it down
until it barely touches the water surface. Ripples on the water can be observed when the end
touches. Record the exact time and measurement to the water surface.
vii. Repeat the previous step at 10‐minute intervals. If the water level drops rapidly, repeat at one‐
minute intervals. Do not allow the water to drop lower than 100mm. If it does, pour in more
water to the 200mm depth and continue the test.
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viii. Note the difference between measurements to the water surface (subtracting each reading
from previous). When at least three differences in subsequent measurements become closely
equal, the test is completed. This may take as little as one‐half hour or as long as several hours.
ix. Using the equal difference, calculate how long it took the water level to drop 25mm. This step is
necessary because percolation rates are described in terms of “minutes per 25mm.” To find out
how long it takes for the water level to drop 25mm, divide 25mm by the equal difference and
multiply by the time interval for those measurements. If the percolation rate for 25mm is
between 10 and 60 minutes, the soil is acceptable.
E. COMPARE results from the percolation test with the soil type results and determine onsite wastewater
disposal method (Section 8).
Figure 6.4: Location and Depth of Percolation Tests
Water for the World: Determining Soil Suitability, Technical Notes No. SAN. 2.P.5;
U.S. Agency for International Development by National Demonstration Water Project,
Institute for Rural Water, and National Environmental Health Association
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7. Wastewater Primary Treatment
A. INTERVIEW locals to determine if community sewer system connection is available to the site. Most
times this is not the case, but occasionally this is available.
B. STUDY HOW THE LOCALS DISPOSE OF WASTEWATER. Small on‐site wastewater disposal systems in
many areas where EMI has worked have consisted of a septic tank and soak pit system handling only the
blackwater. Greywater is plumbed separately and allowed to runoff untreated in some way. This practice
may be accepted and used, but check around. Another disposal system often used is pit latrines. A table
for “Excreta Accumulation Rates” is included in Table 8.2 for use in pit latrine design. Depending on depth
to the water table, plans for site use, and the soil conditions, these two systems may or may not be
recommended by EMI. Try to use similar technology to local practice while improving the treatment and
disposal one or two steps from current practice. Where large populations are using a site, take care to
deal with the grey water so that human contact is avoided (i.e. use for irrigation away from public areas or
include in subsurface disposal if conditions allow).
C. DECIDE whether or not to split blackwater and greywater disposal. This may vary in different zones of the
site if the site is larger than an acre or two. Dialogue with the client about their feelings of the importance
of greywater reuse.
D. MINIMIZE LONG PIPELINES and AVOID PUMPS.
E. SEPTIC TANKS
a. Description
i. Primary sedimentation to remove suspended solids
ii. Digestion through anaerobic decomposition – septicity (foul gases produced H2S, CH4, CO2).
Digestion can remove more than 1/3 of the original sludge volume. Results – removal and
digestion of solids, poor effluent quality. Thus the need to dispose of it subsurface or to provide
BOD removal and disinfection before surface disposal.
iii. Storage of sludge and scum accumulating in between successive cleanings.
b. Design
From Septic Tank Design method from World Health Organization
“Guide to the Development of On‐Site Sanitation”, 1992
i. To determine the capacity of the septic tank, volumes must be calculated to include room for
liquid retention and for sludge & scum storage:
1. Tank Volume Required for Liquid Retention in liters is calculated based on the retention of
the average daily wastewater flow for 24 hours. If the tank is to receive the total
wastewater flow, then the volume needed may be taken as 90% of the water supply per
day. If the tank is to receive only blackwater then the volume needed may be taken as
100% of the blackwater flow per day. For larger flows such as those serving institutions or
small communities, a reduced retention time is allowed. Table 7.1 presents retention times
based on flow rates.
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Table 7.1: Retention Times for Various Flows
If Q (flow) is less than 6,000 L/day T = 24 hours
If Q (flow) is between 6,000 L/day and 14,000 L/day T = 33 – 0.0015Q hours
If Q (flow) is greater than 14,000 L/day
T = 12 hours
2. Tank Volume Required for Sludge & Scum Storage in liters, calculated using the formula:
Volume = P x N x F x S
P = number of people
N = the number of years between desludging
F = a factor which relates the sludge digestion rate to
temperature and the desludging interval as shown in Table 7.2 below
S = the rate of sludge and scum accumulation may be taken as 25 liters per person per year
for tanks receiving black water only and 40 liters per person per year for tanks receiving all
types of wastewater. These numbers are based on residential rates and must be adjusted if
the tank serves an institution.
Table 7.2: Sludge Digestion Factor (F)
Number of F F F
years (if ambient temp (if ambient temp (if ambient temp
between >20 oC throughout >10 oC throughout <10 oC during
desludging the year) the year) winter)
1 1.3 1.5 2.5
2 1.0 1.15 1.5
3 1.0 1.0 1.27
4 1.0 1.0 1.15
5 1.0 1.0 1.06
6 or more 1.0 1.0 1.0
3. Total Capacity of the Tank in Liters is the sum of the volumes required for Liquid Retention
and Sludge & Scum Storage.
ii. To determine the dimensions of the septic tank, follow these guidelines:
1. The depth of the liquid from the tank floor to the outlet pipe invert should not be less than
1.2 m; a depth of at least 1.5 m is preferable. In addition a clear space of at least 300 mm
should be left between the water level and the under‐surface of the cover slab.
2. The width should be at least 600 mm as this is the minimum space in which a person can
work when building or cleaning the tank.
3. For a tank of width W, the length of the first compartment should be 2W and the length of
the second compartment should be W. In general, depth should be less than total length.
iii. Tank should be put downhill from contributing facilities with inlet pipe at a minimum 2% slope.
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iv. Septic tanks should be placed close to the contributing buildings (5 to 10 meters away). The
distance should be minimized especially if the contributing flow is black water only.
v. Dividing into 2 compartments helps prevent solids from being transferred to the outlet. The
partition wall should be placed at a distance of about 2/3 the length from the inlet.
vi. Inlet, middle, and outlet tees, extend below the scum line to prevent clogs and transfer of scum.
vii. The outlet flowline is placed 50 to 75 mm below the inlet flowline.
viii. Tank is designed to be watertight to avoid seepage into the ground at the location of the tank.
ix. Access hatches are placed above each compartment for pipe maintenance and sludge removal.
x. Inlet/outlet pipes may be 75mm or 100mm PVC if coming from an individual home or two.
Large contributors will need to be 150 to 200mm. The outlet pipe is installed at a 1% slope to
move the effluent to the subsurface absorption area.
c. Maintenance
i. Do not allow chemicals or detergents to go into the septic tank.
ii. Prevent the flushing of large objects into the tank.
iii. Once per year, use a cloth‐wrapped rod lowered to the tank bottom to inspect the liquid and
sludge depths. When the sludge depth reaches 1/3 of liquid depth, sludge should be removed.
iv. Special additives or enzymes are not needed to improve the treatment.
v. Take special care when removing the hatches to avoid gas poisoning.
Figure 7.1: Basic Two‐Chamber Septic Tank
CDC Healthy Housing Reference Manual [online] http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/publications/books/housing/figure_cha10.htm.
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Exercise 7.1
The staff duplex quarters at the Kigale hospital are situated in clusters of three. Each duplex houses two families.
The client desires to separate greywater and blackwater, allowing the greywater to run into the flower gardens on
the sides of the duplexes.
Size a septic tank which will be capable of serving one cluster of duplexes. Provide the Length, Width, and
Depth dimensions in meters.
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8. Onsite Wastewater Disposal
A. PLAN for a soak pit, soak bed, or trench subsurface disposal system after primary blackwater treatment with a
septic tank if soil percolates relatively well.
a. The bottom of any pit, bed, or trench should be a minimum of 1 meter above the highest seasonal
water table.
b. If soil does not percolate within an acceptable rate or groundwater is high, begin considering
alternative treatment and disposal methods.
B. ESTIMATE NEEDED LAND AREA for subsurface soil absorption. Inform master planners of required land area.
a. Determine the allowable application rate using results from the onsite soil evaluation (Section 6) with
Table 8.1. This rate will be used to determine necessary area for subsurface soil absorption based on
type of system chosen.
Table 8.1: Wastewater Application Rate Table
Recommended Rates of Wastewater Applications for Trench and Bed Bottom Areai:
Percolation Rate Application Rateii
Soil Texture
(Min/25mm) (Lpd/m2)
Gravel, coarse sand <1 Not Suitableiii
i. May be suitable estimates for sidewall infiltration rates.
ii. Rates based on septic tank effluent from a domestic waste source. A factor of safety may be
desirable for waste of significantly different character
iii. Soils with percolation rates <1 min/ 25mm can be used if the soil is replaced with a suitably
thick (> 600mm) layer of loamy sand or sand
iv. Soils without expandable clays
b. Use the allowable application rate with the following design instructions based on the type of
subsurface system (soak pit, soak bed, or soak trench).
c. Consider reserving a suitable area for construction of a second reserve system if the first were to fail.
If a reserve system is constructed, the first can be naturally rejuvenated or used alternately with the
second system.
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C. SOAK PITS: Recommended for percolation rates which are greater than 30 min/25mm
a. Description: A deep excavation used for subsurface disposal of septic tank effluent. Wastewater
enters the chamber where it is stored until it soaks out through the chamber wall and infiltrates the
sidewall of the excavation.
b. Design
i. Calculate area required.
1. Divide the allowable wastewater application rate into the average daily flow to determine
the needed infiltrative area.
2. Select an initial depth of 3 to 6 meters (since these are often hand dug).
3. Set up an algebra equation with the needed infiltrative area = Perimeter Length x infiltrative
depth + bottom area.
4. Determine needed surface area for one pit. If the surface area is larger than 3 meters by 3
meters, determine how many 3m by 3m pits (or smaller if appropriate) are needed.
ii. Siting: Can be located almost anywhere on site. If more than one pit is recommended, be
careful to space them far enough apart to be structurally sound and to prevent interference in
sidewall infiltration (3 times the pit width).
iii. Note: Construction may be porous masonry walls set on a gravel bed with a reinforced concrete
cover or an excavated hole filled with large stones (see Figure 8.1).
c. Maintenance: There is no maintenance for a seepage pit. If back up occurs, then the only measure is
to pump it out (if it is an open chamber) and allow resting.
Figure 8.1: Soak Pit Designs
Type 1: Brick‐Lined Pit with Reinforced Concrete Cover Type 2: Pit Filled with Rock
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D. SOAK BEDS: Recommended for percolation rates between 1 min/25mm and 60 min/25mm
a. Description: A shallow level excavation, usually 600 to 1500mm deep and wider than 1 m. Typically
300mm of crushed rock (20mm to 65mm diameter) is placed in the bottom. Perforated distribution
lines are laid at the top of the crushed rock layer and then more crushed rock is placed to just cover
the top of the pipe network. A semi‐permeable layer is placed over the top of the rock (geo‐textile
fabric or several inches of straw) to prevent soil from penetrating into the crushed rock layer. The
needed infiltrative area is determined and the bed sized accordingly.
b. Design
i. Calculate area required. (Bottom of bed is principal infiltrative area.)
1. Divide the allowable wastewater application rate into the average daily flow to determine
the needed infiltrative area.
2. Set up an algebra equation with needed infiltrative area = bottom area + sidewall areas.
3. Typical dimensions:
a. Minimum width: >1 m,
b. Length: typically 10 to 30 m (may be greater or less under some circumstances)
c. Depth to bottom of bed: 600 to 1500 mm
d. Cover thickness: 150mm to 300mm and mounded on top
ii. Siting: Relatively level (less than 5% slope), well‐drained areas, crests of slopes are most
desirable. Avoid low areas, base of slope. Construct with the longer side following the contour
of the land (field needs to be level).
iii. Note: If soil percolation rate is very slow or high water table exists, the soak bed could be as
little as 150 to 300mm deep and backfill can be provided.
c. Maintenance: A subsurface soil absorption system requires little or no maintenance.
Figure 8.2: Soak Bed Design
EPA Manual 625/1‐80‐012, p.210
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E. TRENCHES: Recommended for percolation rates between 1 min/25mm and 60 min/25mm
a. Description: A shallow level excavation, trenches are usually 600 to 1500 mm deep and 300 to
1000mm in width. Typically 300mm of crushed rock (20mm to 65mm diameter) is placed in the
bottom. Perforated distribution lines are laid at the top of the crushed rock layer and then more
crushed rock is placed to just cover the top of the pipe network. A semi‐permeable layer is placed
over the top of the rock (geo‐textile fabric or several inches of straw) to prevent soil from penetrating
into the crushed rock layer. The needed infiltrative area is determined and the bed sized accordingly.
b. Design
i. Calculate area required. (Bottom and sidewalls both provide infiltrative area.)
1. Divide the allowable wastewater application rate into the average daily flow to determine
the needed infiltrative area.
2. Set up an algebra equation with the needed Infiltrative Area = bottom area + sidewall areas
3. Typical dimensions:
a. Width: 600 to 1000mm
b. Length: typically 10 to 30 meters (may be greater or less under some circumstances)
c. Depth to bottom of trench: 600 to 1000mm
d. Cover thickness: 150mm to 300mm and mounded on top
e. Spacing of trenches: 2 to 3 meters apart
ii. Siting: Somewhat level (less than 25% slope recommended), well‐drained areas, crests of slopes
are most desirable. Avoid low areas, base of slope. Construct with the trench following the
contour of the land. The bottom of each trench needs to be level, but trenches may be stepped
in elevation. Constructability of the system is the only limitation where slope is concerned.
iii. Note: If soil percolation rate is very slow or high water table exists, the trenches could be
installed as little as 150 to 300mm deep and backfill can be provided, as shown in Figure 8.4.
c. Maintenance: A subsurface soil absorption system requires little or no maintenance.
Figure 8.3: Trench Design
EPA Manual 625/1‐80‐012, p.209, 220.
Typical Trench Cross Section Alternating Trenches
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Figure 8.4: Cross Section of Raised Trenches
EPA Manual 625/1‐80‐012, p.209, 220.
Exercise 8.1
From a percolation test, the average percolation of the soil at Kigale Hospital is 20 minutes per 25mm.
a. Calculate the size required of one soak pit for the septic tank effluent.
b. Calculate the size required of one soak bed for the septic tank effluent.
c. Calculate the size required of one set of trenches for the septic tank effluent. How much land should be
reserved for the trench system?
Exercise 8.2
Using the results from Exercise 8.1, compare the space requirements for the three types of subsurface
absorption systems and discuss advantages and disadvantages.
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F. PIT LATRINES
a. Description.
i. A VIP latrine reduces smell and flies by incorporating a vent pipe with a fly screen at the top.
Wind passing over the vent pipe causes air flow from the pit through the vent pipe to the
atmosphere and a downdraft through the seat hole. This air flow removes smells and vents
gases. Air flow is improved if the doorway faces the prevailing wind. A gap should exist above
the door for air entry. If necessary, VIP latrines may be built above‐ground with fill material
brought in for the upper portion of the pit.
ii. A pour‐flush latrine uses a pan with a water seal to overcome smell and flies. Water used is 1 to
4 liters, depending on pan/trap geometry. These latrines work well for cultures that use water
for cleaning themselves. No vent pipe is required since gases are trapped by the water seal.
iii. A double pit may be used with either type of latrine to alternate and allow for removal of waste
after it dries (2 years or so) and most of the pathogenic organisms have died.
b. Design
i. Three conditions need to be satisfied when calculating the dimensions of a hole for a pit latrine:
1. Sufficient storage capacity for sludge accumulation during the life of the pit
2. 0.5 meters of space should be left at the top to seal the pit with earth when its life is over
3. Sufficient wall area for any liquid to infiltrate into the surrounding soil
ii. Use V=N x P x R
V = effective volume of the pit (m3)
N = effective life of the pit (years)
P =average number of people who use the pit each day
R =estimated sludge accumulation rate for a single person (m3 per year) shown in Table 8.2
iii. Planned area of the pit should be based on local structural materials and preferences.
A typical diameter used in India is 1.3 m.
iv. Calculate the sludge depth = V / your planned area of the bottom of the pit
v. Infiltration Area = sidewall area above the sludge area and below the soil seal area.
vi. Pit depth = sludge depth + infiltration depth + soil seal depth
Figure 8.5: Latrines
World Health Organization, “A Guide to the Development of On‐Site Sanitation, 1992, Chapter 6
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Table 8.2: Excreta Accumulation Rates
World Health Organization, “A Guide to the Development of On‐Site Sanitation, 1992, Table 5.3
Sludge Accumulation Rate
Waste Retention
(m3 per person per year)
In water; degradable anal cleaning materials used 40
In water; non‐degradable anal cleaning materials used 60
In dry conditions; degradable anal cleaning materials used 60
In dry conditions; non‐degradable anal cleaning materials used 90
Exercise 8.3
A family of six in India intends to dig a pit latrine with an operational life of 20 years. The family uses water for
cleaning themselves. Assume a percolation rate of 20 min/25 mm and that each person flushes 5 times a day.
Calculate the size recommendations of a pit latrine using the design guidelines.
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G. COMPOSTING TOILETS Figure 8.6: Composting Toilet Use
a. Description: The composting toilet is a dry
ecologically friendly toilet and is particularly indicated
when the groundwater table is high or the soil does
not percolate. In a composting toilet excreta falls into
a watertight tank to which ash or vegetable matter is
added. If the moisture content and chemical balance
is controlled, the mixture will decompose to form a
good soil conditioner in about 4 months. Pathogens
are killed in the dry alkaline compost, which can be
removed for application to the land as a fertilizer.
There are two types of composting toilet: in one,
compost is produced continuously, and in the other,
two containers are used to produce it in batches.
b. Design
i. See http://www.clean‐water‐for‐laymen.com/compost‐toilet.html
ii. Refer to The Humanure Handbook: A Guide to Composting Human Manure, Third Edition (2005),
by Joseph Jenkins.
Figure 8.7: Completed Composting Toilet
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9. Onsite Solid Waste Disposal
A. METHODS
When no contracted solid waste collection service is available, it may be necessary to handle the disposal
on‐site. In this case, significant space may need to be allocated on the master plan for an institution or
campus to handle solid waste disposal safely. Below are recommended methods for dealing with major
types of solid waste:
a. Paper Products
i. BURN or BURY.
ii. http://www.lifewater.org/resources/tech_library/San3%20Solid%20Waste.pdf
b. Plastics, Glass, Metals
i. RECYCLE is best, BURYING properly is next
ii. http://yosemite.epa.gov/r10/HOMEPAGE.NSF/Topics/ccrs/$FILE/12.+Informational+Slideshow.pdf
c. Medical Waste
i. BURYING properly is best, PROPER INCINERATION is next
ii. Design resources can be found at
http://www.healthcarewaste.org/hc‐facilities/technologies/
d. Organic Waste (food, plant material)
i. COMPOST if client has maintenance abilities or BURY if not.
ii. For household composting, see: http://cwmi.css.cornell.edu/compostbrochure.pdf
iii. For institutional or municipal composting, see:
http://yosemite1.epa.gov/EE/EPA/ria.nsf/vwT/8F33445A9EF08A6485256B810055028D
B. CONSIDERATIONS
a. When designing a solid waste collection or disposal area, consider:
i. Location on master plan in proximity to people (consider how far waste must be carried for
disposal)
ii. Wind direction (if paper waste is to be burned or smells may carry from composting or
collection areas)
iii. Space availability (this may dictate the type of disposal needed)
iv. Maintenance capabilities of client (this may limit the types of disposal selected)
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10. Site Drainage
A. LOOK for signs of flooding or other drainage problems and RECORD THIS INFORMATION.
B. ASK several locals about drainage issues they have noticed at the site. Realize that interviews will not
normally provide accurate information, but can reveal general issues.
C. MARK recommended drainage routes on a copy of the proposed master plan while on site.
D. ASSIST in topographic land survey. Make sure all topographic characteristics relevant to drainage are
included in the survey.
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11. System Layout
A. REMEMBER the following BASIC LAYOUT RULES and work with master planner to incorporate water and
wastewater systems into the master plan:
a. Distance between well and septic tank: minimum of 15 meters
b. Distance between well and soil absorption area: minimum of 20 meters if well is in a deeper confined
aquifer, minimum of 30 meters if well is in a more shallow unconfined aquifer.
c. Distance between soil absorption area and stream or embankment: 15 to 30 meters or more
d. Put water well on upper end of site if possible and protect from runoff drainage to the well
e. Put soil absorption areas in lower parts of the site and lay out trenches to follow the contours of the
land
B. CHOOSE WELL SITES with consideration to water yield, water quality, proximity to points of use, community
preferences, and avoidance of contamination.
a. Utilization of Data
i. Existing data should be gathered and analyzed to be sure that drilling occurs where there is a
high probability of successfully penetrating into water‐bearing formations. Ideal sources of
water are found in confined aquifers—water‐bearing formations that have protective layers of
impermeable formation (clay or non‐porous rock) above the aquifer. Data sources may include
government or NGO surveys, aerial photographs, geological reports, well logs, topographic
maps, etc.
ii. When drilling costs are significant and the risk of unsuccessful boreholes is high, a new
customized hydrogeological and geophysical study should be performed.
b. Siting New Boreholes
i. Boreholes should be sited in an elevated place, so that during the rainy season the water will
run away from it, rather than into it (see Figure 11. 1). Special care should be taken to avoid
locating boreholes immediately downhill from any contamination sources (e.g. latrines,
industrial waste, trash dumps, livestock pens, agricultural areas that are treated with
pesticides/fertilizers, and storage locations for pesticides/fertilizers).
ii. Siting of boreholes should also meet or exceed recommended distances from contamination
sources as detailed in the system layout section.
Figure 11.1: Borehole Siting
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12. General Comments
A. DOCUMENTATION
All recommendations and observations should be collected, documented and turned over to the project
leader before leaving the project site.
B. MINIMIZE MAINTENANCE
Design systems which keep maintenance to a minimum. Exception would occur when the following factors
exist:
a. There is significant public health risk without more complex systems
b. There is specific request from the client to have more environmentally friendly systems
c. The client is capable of maintaining the system or procuring the needed help
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