Properties of Particulate Solids

Chapter 1
Properties of Particulate Solids
Instructor: Dr. Mohammad Al-Harahsheh

Department of Chemical Engineering
Jordan University of Science and Technology
Introduction
 A surprisingly large number of products manufactured by the

chemical and allied industries are in the form of particulate
solids.
 Most chemical engineers will find themselves working with
particles at some point in their professional life and certainly in
their domestic setting
 Knowledge of particle behavior is therefore necessary and
arguably a key attribute for those working in or at the
boundaries of the discipline, where many of the materials
encountered involve particulate phases
JUST Department of Chemical Engineering ChE 362 Unit Operations Chapter 1-2
Solid processing operations
 This topic covers a very wide range of processes.
 Examples
Particle sizing & shaping Crushing/grinding Catalyst reactors
Flocculation pastes Classification Settling &
(separation by size) agglomeration
Packing and Compaction Caking Drying
Adsorption/ desorption Crystallization Digestion
Mining Separation Floatation
Brownian motion Fluidization Surface phenomena
Leaching Filtration Ion exchange
Rheological applications Slurry flow Packed beds
Properties of Individual particles
1. Composition:
 Determine Density (ρ), Conductivity and porosity
2. Size
 Dimensions: length, diameter
 Affects: settling rate and surface per Unit volume
3. Shape:
 Regular shape (Spherical, cubic): Can be defined by math.
equation
 Irregular (broken piece of glass): expressed in terms of some particular
characteristics of regular shaped particle
4. Other properties like
 crystalline or amorphous,
 porosity,
 roughness,
 presence of adsorbed films
Particle Characterization
 Single particle- simplest shape is sphere

 For non-spherical
A. particles-equivalent size
1. The sphere of the same volume as particle
2. The sphere of the same surface area as particle
3. The sphere of the same surface area per unit volume as the particle
4. The sphere of the same area as the particle when projected on to a plane
perpendicular to its direction of motion
5. The sphere of the same projected area as the particle, as viewed from above
when lying in its position of maximum stability such as on microscope slide
for example
6. The sphere which will just pass through the same size of square aperture as
the particle, such as on a screen for example
7. The sphere with the same settling velocity as the particle in a specified fluid
Particle Characterization
B. Feret’s diameter: mean distance apart of two parallel lines
which are tangential to the particle in an arbitrary fixed
direction irrespective of the orientation of each particle
coming up for inspection
C. Sphericity:
Feret’s
As we get closer to 1 the shape becomes diameter
more spherical
Particle Size and Shape
Regular Particle
Irregular Particle
Easy to measure
What do we measure?
Particle Shape
Acicular: needle shaped
Angular: sharp edged or roughly polyhedral
Crystaline: freely developed in a fluid
medium of geometric shape
Dendritic: branched crystaline shape
Fibrous: thread like
Flaky: plate like
Granular: having approximately an equi-
dimensional irregular shape
Irregular: Lacking any symmetry

Modular: rounded irregular shape
Particle Shape
Problem is more difficult
because particles can be
different forms
Solutions:
equivalent diameter
• Stokes diameter: measured by
sedimentation and
elutriation
• projected area : by microscope
• sieve aperture: measured by
sieving
Particle Shape
 The shape of the particle affect the following

properties:
1. Flowability of powder: poor flowability for irregular
particles
2. Packing:
3. Interaction with fluid

Particle Shape
 The shape of an individual particle is expressed in terms of the sphericity
s, which is independent of particle size.
 For a nonspherical particle, the sphericity is defined as

surface-volume ratio for a sphere of diameter Dp
s 
surface-volume ratio for the particle whose nominal size is Dp
D2p / 16 D3p 6 / Dp
s   (1)
sp / v p sp / v p
Dp = nominal or equivalent diameter of the particle
sp = surface area of one particle
vp = volume of one particle
(surface of a particle) sp 6
Specific surface: a v   Eq. (1)
  av  (2)
(volume of a particle) vp s Dp
Particle Shape
 For fine granular materials, however, it is difficult to determine the exact
volume and surface area of a particle, and Dp is usually taken to be the nominal
size based on screen analyses or microscopic examinations.
 The surface area can be found from adsorption measurements or from the
pressure drop in a bed of particles.
 For a spherical particle of diameter Dp, s = 1; for crushed material s = 0.6-

0.8 .
 What is s for a cube of side length =1?
 Take Dp as Dv
 s=0.806
Particle Size
 Regular-shaped particles can be accurately described by giving the
shape and a number of dimensions:
Shape Sphere Cube Cylinder Cone
Dimension (s) Radius Side length Radius and height Radius and height
 No single physical dimension can adequately describe the size of an

irregularly shaped particle, just as a single dimension cannot describe
the shape of a cylinder.
 The equivalent volume sphere diameter: is the diameter of a sphere
having the same volume as the particle.
Dv
 VP
V p  D3p
6
Particle Size
 Equivalent-surface sphere diameter ( Ds )

S P  Ds2 Ds
SP SP
Ds  ( )1/ 2

 Equivalent-projected area diameter (D p ): this is the diameter of
a circle with the same area A, as projected area of the particle
D 2 Dp
AP  p
AP
4
4 AP
Dp  ( )1/ 2

Particle Size
 Surface-volume diameter( Dsv): diameter of sphere
having the same external surface to volume ratio of the particle
Dv3
Dsv  ( 2 )
Ds
 Sieve diameter (D ): the width of the minimum square
A
aperture through which the particle will pass DA
 Free-falling diameter ( D ): diameter of sphere having the

f
same density and the same free falling speed as the particle in a fluid of
the same density and viscosity
Qualitative Terms Used to Describe the Size of Bulk Solids
Descriptive Term Typical Size Range
Coarse solid 5-100 mm
Granular solid 0.3-5 mm
Particulate solid:
coarse powder 100-300 m
fine powder 10-100 m
superfine powder 1-10 m
ultrafine powder < 1 m
Some Familiar Methods of Size Analysis
Method Approximate Useful Range

Sieving (screen analysis):
dry 50 m - 100 mm
wet 10 m - 100 mm
Electrical sensing zone 1m - 800 m
Laser diffraction spectrometry 1m - 2000 m
Sedimentation and elutriation 2m - 75 m
Optical microscopy 1m - 150 m
Electron microscopy 0.01m - 1 m
1. Test Sieving
Typical Test Sieve Sieves used as a nest

LARGEST FIRST!!
1. Test Sieving
 Sieving is a two stage process

1. Elimination of particles considerably smaller than the
apertures (rapid)
2. The removal of near size particles
(gradual process - often does not reach completion)
The effectiveness of sieving depends on the amount of material put on
the sieve and the type of motion imparted to the sieve. Do not add to
much material!!
 Too much material does not allow particles a chance to meet aperture in
favourable position
 To little may not be representative of the bulk
1. Test Sieving
Sieves are designated by the nominal aperture size

- Round aperture - punched plate - diameter
- Square aperture - woven cloth or wire- separation of opposite sides
Sieves are very expensive

and must be used with
care!
Choice of Sieves
 A useful sieve scale is one in which the ratio of

aperture widths of adjacent sieves is the square
root of 2 ( 2  1.414 )
 Most modern sieves series:
4
2  1.189 53. 63, 75, 90, 107µm
10
10  1.259
Testing
 Standard: BS 1796
 Where to put sample?
 How much sample?
 How long to shake?
 Wet or dry
 BS standard :
screens are made
from 300-mesh
upward. fragile for
some work
 IMM screens are
more robust with
thickness of wire
equal to that of
aperture
 Tyler series:
intermediate
between the
above two series
 ASTM
Screening efficiency
 Screening efficiency is the ratio of mass of

material which passes the screen to what is
capable of passing.
 If we have w as the mass of a particular size on
screen at any time t, then
dw
 kw k constant depending on size and shape of particle

dt for a given screen at given operating conditions
 In time t the mass of particles passing (w1-w2)is

given by ln
w2
 kt
w1
w2  w1e  kt
2. Microscopy
 The only method in which the
particles are observed and
measured
 Enable measurement of
projected area and two
dimensional assessment
 The apparent size is
compared with the circles
engraved in the eyepiece
3. Sedimentation Techniques
Stokes Diameter
These methods are based on settling rate of particles in a
fluid and utilize Stocke’s Law
gD 2 (  s   f )
v  h/t
18
Where; g is acceleration due to gravity (9.81 ms-2)
D is the particle diameter (m)
µ is the fluid viscosity (for water: 0.001 Nsm-2)
ρs is the density of the solid (kgm-3)
ρf is the density of the fluid (kgm-3)
v is the terminal velocity (ms-1)
Stokes Diameter
Equipment:
1. Anderson Pipette
2. Sedimentation balance
Assumes continuous fluid and laminar

flow (edge effects and turbulence)
Stoke’s Diameter
 Limitations to Stoke’s Equation

 Particles > 50 µm settle out too rapidly
 Brownian motion may affect particles below approximately 1 µm
 Solid concentration should be low to avoid hindered settling (should be
< 0.2%)
 All particles must have the same density
 May have to take particle shape into account ( a particle will always present
its maximum cross-sectional area to the direction of flow) (Like mica biotite)
 Particles must be well dispersed (some particles tend to agglomerate
 use dispersion reagent)
 Avoid trapped air
 The medium must be homogeneous from density and viscosity point of
view
Elutriation
 Reverse sedimentation process where

particles are dispersed in an upward
flowing stream of fluid
 Particles with terminal velocity less than
upward velocity of fluid will be carried
away
 Velocity of upward fluid can be changed
to obtain complete analysis
 Sources of error in the air elutriator
include:
 poor initial sampling
 aggregation of small particles
 small particles trapped within the bed
4. Permeability methods
 These methods depend on the fact
that at low flowrates the flow through
a packed bed is directly proportional
to the pressure difference, the
proportionality constant being
proportional to the square of specific
surface (surface: volume ratio) of  p (1   )2 V0
the powder  180
L  3 D2
 From this method it is possible to
obtain the diameter of the sphere Δp- pressure drop across the bed
with the same specific surface as L depth of the bed
the powder. ε- packed bed void fraction
μ – viscosity
 The reliability of the method is
dependent upon the care with which V0 - superficial velocity of fluid
the sample of powder is packed
5. Electronic particle counter
 In this type of machine the powder is suspended

in an electrolyte solution .
 This suspension is then made to flow through a
short insulated capillary section between two
electrodes and the resistance of the system is
measured.
 When a particle passes through the capillary
there is a momentary peak in the resistance, the
amplitude of the peak is proportional to the
particle size (displaced volume)
 Counting is done by a computer
 Requirements
 Highly conductive medium
 Non-conductive particles
 Using orifices of various diameters different particle
size range can be measured the data are combined
6. Laser Sizing
 Principle
- When particles passes through a laser beam it
causes light to be scattered at an angle which is
inversely proportional to its size
- The scattered light is collected by a detector

and analysis of the diffraction pattern enables
calculation of the size distribution.
Size range: 0.02-2000 µm
Care should be taken to account for optical properties when particle size is less
than 1 µm?????????
6. Laser Sizing
Lens collects the scattered light

Comparison of Different Methods
 The method used to determine size distribution will

depend on many factors;
 the coarseness of the material,
 the precision required,
 time available,
 equipment available.
 One thing which is important to remember is that in most
cases size distributions are not reproducible using
different techniques. Thus sieve analysis will not produce
the same mean particle diameter as a Coulter counter.
This is partly due to the different methods measuring
different types of diameter (see above). Some devices will
calculate distributions based on area, volume etc which
can aid comparisons.
 In general only measurements using the same equipment
should be compared directly
Screen Analysis
Mesh Screen opening (mm)
4 4.699
6 3.327
8 2.362
10 1.651
12 1.397
14 1.168
20 0.833
28 0.589
35 0.417
48 0.295
65 0.208
100 0.147 See Appendix A5
Coarse
14
14/20 or -14 + 20 14/20
20
through mesh 14 on mesh 20
- : under
+ : over
100
200
Fine Pan
Table 28.1
Mesh i Mesh Dpi (mm) xi Cumulative mass fraction
D pi smaller than Dpi
range
+4 14 4 4.699 0.0000 - 1.0000
-4+6 13 6 3.327 0.0251 4.013 0.9749
-6+8 12 8 2.362 0.1251 2.845 0.8499
-8+10 11 10 1.651 0.3207 2.007 0.5292
-10+14 10 14 1.168 0.2570 1.409 0.2722
-14+20 9 20 0.833 0.1590 1.001 0.1132
-20+28 8 28 0.589 0.0538 0.711 0.0594
-28+35 7 35 0.417 0.0210 0.503 0.0384
-35+48 6 48 0.295 0.0102 0.356 0.0282
-48+65 5 65 0.208 0.0077 0.252 0.0205
-65+100 4 100 0.147 0.0058 0.178 0.0147
-100+150 3 150 0.104 0.0041 0.126 0.0106
-150+200 2 200 0.074 0.0031 0.089 0.0075
-200 1 Pan - 0.0075 0.037 0.0000
 Information from such a particle size analysis is tabulated to show the mass
fraction in each size increment as a function of the average particle size (or
size range) in the increment. An analysis tabulated in this way is called a
differential analysis (Fig. (a)).
 A second way to present the information is through a cumulative analysis

(Fig. (b)) obtained by adding the individual increments starting with that
containing the smallest particles, and tabulating or plotting the cumulative
sums against the maximum particle diameter in the increment.
Average particle size, D pi Particle size, Dpi
X-axis is normally log scale
Number of Particles and Surface Area of Uniform Particles (same Dp)
 Consider a sample of uniform particles of diameter Dp:
m: total mass of the sample, kg
p: density of the particles, kg/m3.
total volume of the particles = m / p

If vp = volume of one particle  mass of a single particle = p vp
 The number of particles in the sample is:
total mass of the particles m

N   (3)
mass of a sin gle particle  pv p
 Total surface area of the particles is (using equations (1) and (3)):
6/ Dp
s  Eq. 1
6m sp / v p
A  N sp  (4a)
s p D p
Mixed Particle Sizes and Size Analysis
 To apply equations (3) and (4a) to mixtures of particles having various
sizes, the mixture is sorted into fractions , each of approximately constant
size. Each fraction can then be weighed and equations (3) and (4a) can
then be applied to each fraction and the results added.
i=n mn, xn D pn
 The surface area of particles in each fraction:
6mi
(4a)  Ai 
s p D pi
i=2 m2, x2 Dp 2
fraction i = 1 m1, x1 D p1
Pan
 The total surface area of the mixture is:
6m1 6m2 6mn

A   .... 
s  p D p s  p D p
1 2
s  p D p n
total surface area

The specific surface area of the mixture =
total mass of particles
A
Aw 
mT
6 n x
 Aw   i
s p i 1 D p i
(4b)
xi = mass fraction in a given increment (xi  mi )

mT
n = number of increments
D pi = average particle diameter, taken as arithmetic average of smallest and
largest particle diameters in increment.
Average Particle Size
1. The volume-surface mean diameter (Sauter diameter), Ds
6
Ds  (5)
s Aw p
Substituting Eq. (4b) into Eq. (5):
1
Ds  (6)
 Dp 
n
 xi
i 1 i
If the number of particles in each fraction Ni is known instead of the mass

fraction, Ds is given by
n 3
 Ni D p
Ds  i 1 i
n
 Ni D p2 (7)
i 1 i
2. The arithmetic mean diameter DN :
n n
 Ni D p  Ni D p
DN  i 1
 i 1
i i
(8)
n
 Ni NT
i 1
NT = the total number of particles in the entire sample
3. The mass mean diameter D :

w In terms of particles No
n  s a*  N i Di4  N i Di4
Dw   xi D p Dw  
 s a  N i Di  N i Di3
* 3 (9)
i 1 i
4. The volume mean diameter Dv :

1
 3
Dv   n 
1
 
 x 
 i 1 i p D 3
i
  (10)
The Number of particles in a mixture
For a given particle shape, the volume of any particle is proportional to its
“diameter” cubed: v  D3
p p
What is the value of a* for the sphere?
 v p  a* D3p (11)
where a* is the volumetric shape factor
m mi
Recall Eq. (3): N   Ni  (12)
 pv p  pv p i
xi xi
 mT  N wi  
Eqn.( 11)
 Nw  (13)
 pv p i
 p a* D3p i
Nwi = number of particles in fraction i per unit mass
The total number of particles per unit mass is:

1 n xi
Nw   3
 p a i 1 D p
*
i
(14)
Example
Using the screen analysis shown in Table 1 (Table 28.1), calculate
1. Aw , N w , D v , Ds , D w ,
2. The number of particles, N i ,in the 150/200 mesh increment
3. What fraction of the total number of particles is in the 150/200 mesh increment?
 p  2650 kg / m3  0.00265 g / mm3
a*  2, s  0.571
i Mesh Dpi (mm) xi D pi xi / D pi xi / D3pi xi D pi
14 4 4.699 0.0000 - - - -
13 6 3.327 0.0251 4.013 0.00625 0.00039 0.10073
12 8 2.362 0.1251 2.845 0.04397 0.00543 0.35591
11 10 1.651 0.3207 2.007 0.15979 0.03967 0.64364
10 14 1.168 0.2570 1.409 0.18240 0.09188 0.36211
9 20 0.833 0.1590 1.001 0.15884 0.15852 0.15916
8 28 0.589 0.0538 0.711 0.07567 0.14968 0.03825
7 35 0.417 0.0210 0.503 0.04175 0.16501 0.01056
6 48 0.295 0.0102 0.356 0.02865 0.22607 0.00363
5 65 0.208 0.0077 0.252 0.03056 0.48116 0.00194
4 100 0.147 0.0058 0.178 0.03258 1.02841 0.00103
3 150 0.104 0.0041 0.126 0.03254 2.04961 0.00052
2 200 0.074 0.0031 0.089 0.03483 4.39736 0.00028
1 Pan - 0.0075 0.037 0.2027 148.066 0.00028
1.0257 156.86 1.678
Solution:
6 n xi
1. Aw  
s p i 1 D p i
6
 1.0257
0.571 0.00265
= 4067.147 mm 2 /g
1 n xi
Nw   3
 p a i 1 D p
*
i
1
 156.86
0.00265  2
 29 596 particles/g
1
 3 1
 1  Ds 
Dv  n
 Dp 
n
   xi
 x
 i 1 i p 
D 3
i
  i 1 i
1
  0.97494mm
1
 1 3
  = 0.1854 mm 1.0257
156.86 
n
Dw   xi D p  1.678 mm
i 1 i
2. The number of particles, Ni ,in the 150/200 mesh increment
xi
Eq. (13): N w i 
 p a *D p3i
4
x2 0.0031
 Nw 2   6
 p a *D p3 2 0.00265  2  0.0893
 830 particles/g
3. What fraction of the total number of particles is in the

150/200 mesh increment?
N 830 100
= w2   0.028 or 2.8% 150
N w 29596
200
Pan
Voidage
 Voidage: the fraction of the total volume which is made up of the free
space between the particles which is filled with fluid.
volume of voids Vvoids (15)
voidage   
total volume of particles and voids Vsolids  Vvoids
Depends on:
• particle size and size distribution

• particle shape and surface roughness
• the method of packing
• the size of the container relative to the
particle diameter
•Low voidage  high density of packing
•Important in determining
•bulk density
•Volume taken up by a given mass
•Tendency for agglomeration
•Resistance to fluid percolation (Ex. Filtration)
Density
1. Bulk Density (b)
The mass of the material divided by its total volume (particles and voids).
msolids  mvoids
b  (16)
Vsolids  Vvoids
Depends on: particle size, mean particle density,

moisture content and interparticle separation
(i.e., degree of solids packing) .
2. Particle Density (p) Tap Bulk Density Tester
The density of a particle including the pores or voids within the individual solid
msolids
p  (17) b  f  p (1  ) (18)
Vsolids
3. Skeletal (True) Density (s)
The density of a single particle excluding the pores.
1  f 
p  (19)
1 / s  
 s  ...
: pore volume per unit mass of solids
Particle Hardness
 Mohr Scale of Hardness
Mohr Material Chemical formula Explanation
scale
1 Talc Mg3(OH)2.(Si2O5)2 very soft, can be powdered with the finger
2 Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O Moderately soft, can scratch lead

3 Calcite CaCO3 Can scratch fingernail
4 Fluorite CaF2 Can scratch a copper coin
5 Apatite Ca5(PO4)3(Cl,F) Can scratch a knife blade with difficulty
6 Feldspar KAlSi3O8 Can scratch a knife blade
7 Quartz SiO2
8 Topaz Al2F2SiO4 All products harder than 6
9 Corundum Al2O3 will scratch window glass
10 Diamond C
Moisture Content
 Moisture content (dry basis):
mass of water
m.c.db 
mass of dry solids
 Moisture content (wet basis):
mass of water
m.c.wb 
mass of solids and water
 Moisture content determination:

Drying

initial mass of sample  final mass of sample
m.c.db 
final mass of sample
initial mass of sample  final mass of sample Moisture Balance

m.c.wb 
initial mass of sample
 Effect of moisture content on density: wet  dry 1  m.c.db  (20)
Angle of Repose
The angle of repose, r, is defined as the angle between a line of repose of
loose material and a horizontal plane.
Angle of repose Explanation
25-30o very free-flowing
30-38o free-flowing
38-45o fair flowing
45-55o cohesive
> 55o very cohesive
•when solid is poured from nozzle on to a plane
surface (dynamic angle of repose)
•If to a plane sheet stuck a layer of particles and loose
powder then is poured to the sheet and the sheet is
tilted until powder slides- static angle of repose
•Angle of slide measured as for static angle of repose
except on smooth sheet
Small angle of repose high packing density
Large angle of repose loose structure needs
vibration for consolidation or packing
Angle of Internal Friction
 The angle of internal friction, m, is defined as the equilibrium angle
between flowing particles and bulk or stationary solids in a bin.
 It is a measure of frictional forces within the particulate mass.
 How to measure?
1. The powder is contained in bed as shown with
transparent walls and is allowed to flow
through a slot in the centre of the base. It is
found that a triangular wedge material in the
centre flows out leaving stationary material the
outside
2. Vertical tube open at the top with a loosely
fitting piston in the base. With small quantity of
solid in the tube , the piston will freely move
upward but when certain critical amount is
exceeded no force, however large, will force
the solids upwards the tube
Lc / dt  tan 
Angle of Internal Friction
 The angle of friction is important in its effect on the design of bins and
hoppers.
 If pressure at the base of a column of solids is measured as a function of
depth it is found to increase linearly with height up to certain critical point
beyond which it remains constant
Lc / dt  tan 
For height above Lc the

additional mass is supported
by frictional forces at the
walls of the hopper
Agglomeration:
 arises from the interaction between particles, as a result of which they
adhere to one another to form clusters
 Causes poor flowability
 Mechanisms of agglomeration
 Mechanical interlocking occur if particles are long and thin in shape
 Surface attraction caused by surface forces like van der Waal’s forces. More
apparent in systems of fine particles (<10µm) were surface per unit volume is
high
 Plastic welding: when irregular particles are in contact, the force between
particles will be borne on extremely small surfaces and the very high pressure
developed may give rise to plastic welding
 Electrostatic attraction: if particles become charged when fed into equipment
 Effect of moisture: it tends to collect the near points of contact between the
particles causing surface tension effect and/or dissolve some of the solids which
then acts as a bonding agent on subsequent evaporation
 Temperature fluctuation: give rise to changes in particle structure and to
greater cohesiveness
Flow of solids in hoppers
 Solids are usually stored in hoppers which are
usually circular or rectangular in cross section
with conical or tapering section at the bottom
 Segregation occur if there is wide size
distribution
 Discharge- through the aperture at the bottom
 Difficult to obtain regular stable flow
 Problems:
 Bridging of particles (b) use vibrators at the
walls
 Piping or “rat-holing”(c) which lead to long
residence time of some material
 How to obtain better flow?
 Use tall thin hoppers rather than short wide ones
 Use long small-angle conical section at the base
 Use smooth surface of hopper
Flow of solids through orifices
 Discharge rate is controlled by the size of orifice at the base of

hopper
 It depends on the ability of particles to dilate in the region of aperture
 It is independent of the depth of solids in the hopper if depth >4dhopper
 Proportional to the diameter of orifice
0.5
  1  cos  
G- mass flow rate
G   s d g  
2.5 0.5 ρs- density of solid particles
 2 sin  
eff 3 deff- effective diameter of orifice (deff=dor-(1-1.5)dp)
4 g- acceleration due to gravity
β- acute angle between cone wall and horizontal
 How to increase the flow rate?

 Attachment of a discharge pipe of the same diameter as the orifice
immediately beneath it ( l/d=50flow rate for fine particles increases by 50%
and for coarse once by 15%)
 Fluidise the particle in the neighborhood of orifice by injection of air
Measurements and control of solids
flowrates
1. As they leave by supporting the hopper on load cell so that
continuous record of the mass may be obtained as a function of
time
2. by monitoring the level of solids continuously using transducers
covered by flexible diaphragm where it responds to the presence
of solids
 Problems associated with the measurements of flow rate of solids
 Flow rate depends on
 particle size, size range and shape
 Packing density of particles
 Difficult to predict in advance
 Surface and electrical properties of particles
 Moisture content
Measurements and control of solids
flowrates
 Methods include:
1. Fitting an orifice plate at the
discharge point from the hopper
2. Using a belt-type feeder in which
the mass of material on the belt
is continuously measured by
load cell or nuclear densitometer
3. Impulse method in which solid
stream impacts vertically on
sensing plate
 Feed rate can be controlled
using:
 Screw feeders
 Rotating tables
 Vibrating tables
Conveying of solids
1. Gravity chutes: materials fall under the action of gravity

2. Air slides
3. Belt conveyors: materials move horizontally or at a small
angle continuously
4. Screw conveyors
5. Bucket elevators
6. Vibrating conveyors
7. Pneumatic/hydraulic conveying installations
Pressures in Masses of Particles
 Masses of solid particles, especially when the particles are dry and not sticky, has
many of the properties of a fluid: they exert pressure on the side walls and the base
of a container; they flow through openings.
 They differ from fluids in several ways:
 There usually is friction between the wall and the solid grains, and because of
the interlocking of the particles, the effect of this friction is felt throughout
the mass. The friction force at the wall tends to offset the weight of the solids
and reduces the pressure exerted by the mass on the floor of the container.
 The pressure is not the same in all directions. In general, a pressure applied
in one direction creates some pressure in other directions, but it is always
smaller than the applied pressure. It is a minimum in the direction at right
angles to the applied pressure.
 The density of the mass of solid particles (the bulk density) may vary,
depending on the degree of packing of the particles.
 In a homogeneous mass of solids the ratio of the normal pressure (PL) to
the applied pressure (Pv) is a constant K  , which is a characteristics of the
material:
PL normal or lateral pressure
K   (21)
PV applied or vertical pressure
 The minimum pressure (PL) is in the direction normal to that of the applied
pressure.
 The relationship between K  and the angle of

internal friction, m is given by: PV
1 K
sin   m   (22) PL
1 K
or
1  sin   m 
K  (23)
1  sin   m 
Force Balance
z Fv = PV  r2
dz FL = PL dA = PL (2  r dz)
zT
Fv = Fv +d Fv
FB = PB  r2
At the level z, assume the differential layer is a piston pressing against the solid beneath
and that this piston is acting upon by a concentrated vertical force Fv from above.
 The vertical force at level z is:
Fv  r 2 Pv (24)
and
dFv  r 2 dPv (25)
 The net increase in downward force caused by the differential layer is the
force of gravity (dFg) minus the frictional force (dFf) between the wall and
the solids.
dFv  dFg  dFf (26)

dFg  mg  r 2dz b g  (27)
dFf  dFL  dFf  dFL    PL 2rdz  (28)
: coefficient of friction (0.35-0.55)
Eq. (27) and (28) into (26):
𝑑𝐹𝑣 = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑑𝑃𝑣 = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝜌𝑏 𝑔𝑑𝑧 − 𝜇 ′ (2𝜋𝑟𝑃𝐿 𝑑𝑧) (29)
 r 
( 29 )
 rdPv   r b g  2PL dz (30)
PL
Noting that: K  or PL  K PV
PV
(30)  rdPv   rb g  2K Pv  dz (31)
z P rdPv
 dz  
v

0 0 rb g  2K Pv
rb g   2K z   (32)

Pv  1  exp  
 
2 K   r 
r b g   2K z T  (33)
At z = zT: Pv = PB  PB 
(32)
 1  exp  
2K    r 
Example
A packed tower (D = 1.82 m, ZT = 15.24 m) is filled with coke ( b = 481 kg/m3, m = 32o,
µ' = 0.5). Calculate the vertical and lateral pressures at the base caused by the coke.
Solution:
r b g   2K z T  
(32): PB   1  exp  
2K    r 
1  sin   m 
(23): K  
1  sin   m 
zT
sin   m   sin 32  0.5299
o
 K   0.307
Vertical pressure at the base:
PB
(32)  PB =13 930 N/m 2
PL
PL r
K  at the base PV  PB  PL  K PB  4276.5 N/m 2
PV

Properties of Particulate Solids

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Properties of Particulate Solids

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Chapter 1

Properties of Particulate Solids

Instructor: Dr. Mohammad Al-Harahsheh

 A surprisingly large number of products manufactured by the

Rheological applications Slurry flow Packed beds

 Single particle- simplest shape is sphere

Irregular: Lacking any symmetry

 The shape of the particle affect the following

3. Interaction with fluid

 For a nonspherical particle, the sphericity is defined as

 For a spherical particle of diameter Dp, s = 1; for crushed material s = 0.6-

 No single physical dimension can adequately describe the size of an

 Equivalent-surface sphere diameter ( Ds )

 Free-falling diameter ( D ): diameter of sphere having the

Descriptive Term Typical Size Range

Coarse solid 5-100 mm

Granular solid 0.3-5 mm

Method Approximate Useful Range

Typical Test Sieve Sieves used as a nest

 Sieving is a two stage process

Sieves are designated by the nominal aperture size

Sieves are very expensive

 A useful sieve scale is one in which the ratio of

 Screening efficiency is the ratio of mass of

 In time t the mass of particles passing (w1-w2)is

Assumes continuous fluid and laminar

 Limitations to Stoke’s Equation

 Reverse sedimentation process where

 In this type of machine the powder is suspended

- The scattered light is collected by a detector

Lens collects the scattered light

 The method used to determine size distribution will

 A second way to present the information is through a cumulative analysis

Average particle size, D pi Particle size, Dpi

X-axis is normally log scale

total volume of the particles = m / p

 The number of particles in the sample is:

total mass of the particles m

 The surface area of particles in each fraction:

6m1 6m2 6mn

total surface area

xi = mass fraction in a given increment (xi  mi )

If the number of particles in each fraction Ni is known instead of the mass

3. The mass mean diameter D :

4. The volume mean diameter Dv :

Nwi = number of particles in fraction i per unit mass

The total number of particles per unit mass is:

2. The number of particles, N i ,in the 150/200 mesh increment

 p  2650 kg / m3  0.00265 g / mm3

3. What fraction of the total number of particles is in the

• particle size and size distribution

Depends on: particle size, mean particle density,

2. Particle Density (p) Tap Bulk Density Tester

The density of a single particle excluding the pores.

: pore volume per unit mass of solids

2 Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O Moderately soft, can scratch lead

 Moisture content determination:

initial mass of sample  final mass of sample Moisture Balance