IMP POINTS:

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1. The main function of the command interpreter is = to get and execute the next user-specified command.
2. Operating system, the resource management can be done via = both time and space division multiplexing
3. Dtrace: Facility which dynamically adds probes to a running system, both in user processes and in the kernel.
4. The OS X has hybrid kernel.
Processes
5. Uni-processing systems: The systems which allows only one process execution at a time.
6. In operating system, each process has its own address space and global variables + open files + pending alarms, signals and
signal handlers.
7. FORK: system call creates to the new process in UNIX.
8. Ready state of a process: when process is scheduled to run after some execution.
9. A process stack does not contain: PID of child process.
10. Which system call returns the process identifier of a terminated child : wait.
11. The address of the next instruction to be executed by the current process is provided by the: Program counter
12. A Process Control Block(PCB) does contains: Code + Stack + data.
13. The Process Control Block is: Data Structure.
14. The entry of all the PCBs of the current processes is in: Process Table.
15. The degree of multiprogramming is: the number of processes in memory.
Process Scheduling Queues
16. When the process issues an I/O request : It is placed in an I/O queue.
17. What is a long-term scheduler= It selects which process has to be brought into the ready queue.
18. If all processes I/O bound, the ready queue will almost always be EMPTY and the Short term Scheduler will have a LITTLE to
do.
19. What is a medium-term scheduler = It selects which process to remove from memory by swapping.
20. What is a short-term scheduler : It selects which process has to be executed next and allocates CPU.
21. The primary distinction between the short term scheduler and the long term scheduler is : The frequency of their execution.
22. The only state transition that is initiated by the user process itself is : block.
23. In a time-sharing operating system, when the time slot given to a process is completed, the process goes from the running state to
the : Ready state.
24. In a multiprogramming environment : more than one process resides in the memory.
25. Suppose that a process is in “Blocked” state waiting for some I/O service. When the service is completed, it goes to the : Ready
state.
26. The context of a process in the PCB of a process does not contain : context switch time.
27. Which of the following does not interrupt a running process ? Scheduler process.
Process Synchronization:
28. Which process can be affected by other processes executing in the system? cooperating process.
29. When several processes access the same data concurrently and the outcome of the execution depends on the particular order in
which the access takes place, is called race condition.
30. If a process is executing in its critical section, then no other processes can be executing in their critical section. This condition is
called mutual exclusion.
31. A semaphore is a shared integer variable that can not drop below zero.
32. Mutual exclusion can be provided by the both mutex locks and binary semaphores.
33. Priority inversion = When high priority task is indirectly preempted by medium priority task effectively inverting the relative
priority of the two tasks.
34. Process synchronization can be done on both hardware and software level.
35. A monitor is a module that encapsulates = shared data structures + procedures that operate on shared data structure +
synchronization between concurrent procedure invocation.
36. To enable a process to wait within the monitor, a condition variable must be declared as condition.
37. In UNIX, the return value for the fork system call is ZERO for the child process and NON ZERO INTEGER for the parent
process.
38. The child process completes execution, but the parent keeps executing, then the child process is known as : Zombie.
39. Inter process communication : allows processes to communicate and synchronize their actions without using the same address
space.
40. Message passing system allows processes to : communicate with one another without resorting to shared data.
41. An IPC facility provides at least two operations :receive & send message.
42. Messages sent by a process : can be fixed or variable sized.
43. The link between two processes P and Q to send and receive messages is called : communication link.
44. In indirect communication between processes P and Q : there is a mailbox to help communication between P and Q.
45. In the non-blocking send : the sending process sends the message and resumes operation.
46. In the Zero capacity queue : the sender blocks until the receiver receives the message.
47. The Zero Capacity queue : is referred to as a message system with no buffering.
48. Bounded capacity and Unbounded capacity queues are referred to as : Automatic buffering.
49. remote method invocation : allows a thread to invoke a method on a remote object.

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49. remote method invocation : allows a thread to invoke a method on a remote object.
50. The initial program that is run when the computer is powered up is called :bootstrap program.
51. How does the software trigger an interrupt ? Executing a special operation called system call.
52. What is a trap/exception ?software generated interrupt caused by an error.
53. An interrupt vector = is an address that is indexed to an interrupt handler.
54. In a memory mapped input/output : the CPU writes one data byte to the data register and sets a bit in control register to show that a byte
is available.
55. In a programmed input/output(PIO) : the CPU uses polling to watch the control bit constantly, looping to see if device is ready.
56. In an interrupt driven input/output : the CPU receives an interrupt when the device is ready for the next byte.
57. How does the Hardware trigger an interrupt ? Sending signals to CPU through system bus.
58. Operation is performed by an interrupt handler ? Saving the current state of the system + Loading the interrupt handling code and
executing it + Once done handling, bringing back the system to the original state it was before the interrupt occurred.
SCHDULING:
59. Which module gives control of the CPU to the process selected by the short-term scheduler? Dispatcher.
60. The interval from the time of submission of a process to the time of completion is termed as turnaround time.
61. In priority scheduling algorithm, when a process arrives at the ready queue, its priority is compared with the priority of currently running
process.
62. Time quantum is defined in round robin scheduling algorithm.
63. Process are classified into different groups in multilevel queue scheduling algorithm.
64. User level threads are managed by thread library and the kernel in unaware of them.
65. The two steps of a process execution are : CPU & I/O Burst.
66. non – preemptive scheduling occurs : When a process goes from the running state to the waiting state.
67. The switching of the CPU from one process or thread to another is called : process switch + task switch + context switch.
68. Dispatch latency is : the time to stop one process and start running another one.
69. Waiting time is : the total time spent in the ready queue.
70. Round robin scheduling falls under the category of : Preemptive scheduling.
71. With round robin scheduling algorithm in a time shared system= using very large time slices converts it into First come First served
scheduling algorithm.
72. The portion of the process scheduler in an operating system that dispatches processes is concerned with : assigning ready processes to
CPU.
73. Which of the following algorithms tends to minimize the process flow time ? Shortest Job First.
74. Under multiprogramming, turnaround time for short jobs is usually ________ and that for long jobs is slightly ___________ = Shortened;
Lengthened.
75. Which of the following statements are true ? (GATE 2010) = ALL
I. Shortest remaining time first scheduling may cause starvation
II. Preemptive scheduling may cause starvation
III. Round robin is better than FCFS in terms of response time
76. The most optimal scheduling algorithm is : SJF – Shortest Job First.
77. The real difficulty with SJF in short term scheduling is : knowing the length of the next CPU request.
78. The FCFS algorithm is particularly troublesome for multiprogramming systems.
79. Preemptive Shortest Job First scheduling is sometimes called : SRTN scheduling – Shortest Remaining Time Next.
80. ‘Aging’ is : increasing the priority of jobs to ensure termination in a finite time.
81. Which of the following scheduling algorithms gives minimum average waiting time ? SJF.
82. The segment of code in which the process may change common variables, update tables, write into files is known as : critical section.
83. The following three conditions must be satisfied to solve the critical section problem : Mutual Exclusion + Progress + Bounded Waiting.
84. Mutual exclusion implies that : if a process is executing in its critical section, then no other process must be executing in their critical
sections.
85. Bounded waiting implies that there exists a bound on the number of times a process is allowed to enter its critical section : after a process
has made a request to enter its critical section and before the request is granted.
86. A minimum of _2_ variable(s) is/are required to be shared between processes to solve the critical section problem.
87. In the bakery algorithm to solve the critical section problem : each process receives a number (may or may not be unique) and the one
with the lowest number is served next
88. An un-interruptible unit is known as : atomic
89. The TestAndSet instruction is executed : atomically.
90. The two atomic operations permissible on semaphores are : wait and signal.
91. Spinlocks are : CPU cycles wasting locks over critical sections of programs + Locks that avoid time wastage in context switches + Locks that
work better on multiprocessor systems.
92. The main disadvantage of spinlocks is that : they require busy waiting.
93. The wait operation of the semaphore basically works on the basic block () system call.
94. The signal operation of the semaphore basically works on the basic wakeup () system call.
95. The code that changes the value of the semaphore is : critical section code.
96. What will happen if a non-recursive mutex is locked more than once ? Deadlock.
97. A semaphore : can be accessed from multiple processes.
98. The two kinds of semaphores are : binary & counting.
99. A mutex : must be accessed from only one process.
100. Semaphores are mostly used to implement : IPC mechanisms.

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100. Semaphores are mostly used to implement : IPC mechanisms.
101. Spinlocks are intended to provide only =Bounded Waiting

102.

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0. OS INTRO + FUNCTIONS
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I/O Devices:
1. Each device controller has a local buffer.
2. CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers.
3. I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller.
4. Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation by causing an interrupt.

Common Functions of Interrupts:

1. Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine generally, through the interrupt vector, which
contains the addresses of all the service routines.
2. Interrupt architecture must save the address of the interrupted instruction.
3. Incoming interrupts are disabled while another interrupt is being processed to prevent a lost interrupt.
4. A trap is a software-generated interrupt caused either by an error or a user request.
5. An operating system is interrupt driven

Interrupt Handling:
1. The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by storing registers and the program counter.
2. Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
a. Polling.
b. Vectored interrupt system
3. Separate segments of code determine what action should be taken for each type of interrupt.

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1. SYSTEM CALLS
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2. Threads
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2.0. PROCESS STATES
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2.1 SCHEDULING
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Pre-emptive Processor Non Pre emptive

1. SRTF: time burst( it is SJF with pre-emptive) No need to find RT BCOZ RT = WT. Avg TAT; Avg WT
2. LRTF 1. FCFS: arrival time
3. ROUND ROBIN: ready que, time quantum, 2. SJF: time burst; if arrival time is also same then
context switching saved in PCB process id
4. PRIORITY: priotiry criteria; in case of conflit use 3. LJF
FCFS 4. HRRN
5. Multilevel que: problem of starvation can happen.
6. Multilevel feedback que:

PARAM PREEMPTIVE NON-PREEMPTIVE

ENTER SCHEDULING SCHEDULING
Basic In this Once resources(CPU
resources(CPU Cycle) are allocated to
Interrupt: has the highest priority among all Cycle) are allocated a process, the process
processes to a process for a holds it till it completes
limited time. its burst time or
switches to waiting
state.
Whenever we want to design Scheduling algorithms , we Interrupt Process can be Process can not be
have to take care of 5 things: interrupted in interrupted untill it
between. terminates itself or its
time is up.
1. Maximum CPU Utilization
2. Minimum TAT(Turn Around Time) Starvatio If a process having If a process with long
3. Minimum WT(Waiting Time) n high priority burst time is running
frequently arrives in CPU, then later coming
4. Minimum RT(Response Time) the ready queue, process with less CPU
5. Maximum Throughput low priority process burst time may starve.
may starve.
Overhea It has overheads of It does not have
d scheduling the overheads.
processes.
Flexibilit flexible rigid
y
Cost cost associated no cost associated

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2A. PROCESS SCHEDULING
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Process scheduling: Removal of the running process from the CPU + the selection of another process on the basis of a particular
strategy.
Multiplexing: A multiprogramming technique used- by OS to allow more than one process to be loaded into the executable
memory at a time and the loaded process to shares the CPU.
Process Scheduling Queues
The OS maintains all PCBs in Process Scheduling Queues. The OS maintains a separate queue for each of the process states
and PCBs of all processes in the same execution state are placed in the same queue. When the state of a process is changed, its
PCB is unlinked from its current queue and moved to its new state queue.

Imp Process Scheduling queue of OS:

• Job queue − This queue keeps all the processes in the system.
• Ready queue − This queue keeps a set of all processes residing in main memory, ready and waiting to execute. A new process
is always put in this queue.
• Device queues − The processes which are blocked due to unavailability of an I/O device constitute this queue.

Process States :
1. Running:
2. Not Running: Not running process are kept in queue, waiting for their turn. Dispatcher is used to select a process and get it
executed by CPU. Context Switches uses dispatcher.

Schedulers: Special system software + to select jobs to be submitted into system ( Job Queue) and which process will run. 3 types
are:
1. Long-Term Scheduler (LTS): Job scheduler. Admits programs to system ( From Job que to Ready que i.e Memory) for CPU
Scheduling. Primary Objective : Balanced mix jobs - I/O bound + Processor Bounds. Time- Sharing OS do not have LTS.
When it is needed: When a process changes the state from new to ready.
2. Short-Term Scheduler: Or Dispatchers: CPU Scheduler. Objective: Increase system performance. It changes state from
ready to running. It allocates CPU to process which is ready. Dispatchers= make the decision of which process to execute
next. Short-term schedulers are faster than long-term schedulers.
3. Medium-Term Scheduler: Swapping. Removes process from memory. Reduces degree of multiprogramming. MTS handles
swapped out process. Part of time sharing system.
Swapping : A running process may become suspended if it makes an I/O request. So, Suspended process moved into secondary
storage

S.N. Long-Term Scheduler Short-Term Scheduler Medium-Term Scheduler

1 It is a job scheduler It is a CPU scheduler Process swapping scheduler.
2 Speed < STS Speed = fastest Speed = b/w LTS & STS
3 It controls the ( DoM) It provides lesser control over DoM Reduces DoM Deg of Multiprogrm.
4 Absent or minimal in time Minimal in time sharing system Present in Time sharing systems.
sharing system
5 Selects process from Job Select process to execute from ready It can re-introduce the process into memory and execution can be
queue to put in Ready queue. Dispatcher. continued.
queue.

Context Switch:
A mechanism to store and restore the state or context of a CPU in Process Control block PCB , so that a process execution
can be resumed from the same point at a later time. It enables multiple processes to share a single CPU. Its an essential part of a
multitasking operating system features.
When the scheduler switches the CPU from executing one process to execute another, the state from the current running process
is stored into the process control block. After this, the state for the process to run next is loaded from its own PCB and used to
set the PC, registers, etc. At that point, the second process can start executing.

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2B SJF
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2C. SRTF
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2D. FCFS
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2E. RR
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2F. PRIORITY SCHEDULING
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2G. MULTILEVEL QUE
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2H. MULTILEVEL FEEDBACK
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3. Process Synchronization
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4. CRITICAL SECTION PROBLEM
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Dispatcher
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5. SEMAPHORES
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What is it?
Integer Variable which is used in mutual exclusive manner for various concurrent cooperative
process to achieve synchronization.

Why it is used?
To Prevent the Race condition. Race condition occurs when = we sync different process OR Run
multiple process simultaneously, specially cooperative process ( processes which have something in
common).

Type of Semaphores: P1,P1..Pn

1. Counting: integer value - infinity to + infinity
2. Binary: integer value - 0 to 1 Entry S = S -1; Run = Entry
If S < 0 , then P will be in code: P() ;
Operations used in Entry/Exit: suspended list or Block down; wait
CS
1. Entry code: P() ; down; wait:
Entry: When s value reaches 0, it ll be last value to be Exit S=S+1; Run = Exit
Put into CS. IF S =< 0, then select a Code: V(): UP ;
If S=-4 means already 4 Process are in Block List process from Block list Signal + Post +
and wake up ( means Release
2. Exit Code: V(): UP ; Signal + Post Release ready list) based on FIFO
S=S+1; ( First in First out).
IF S<0, then select a process from Block list and
wake up ( means ready list) based on FIFO Terminate
( First in First out). Means it can now again
Try to go into CS - its in ready que.
.
If S = 0; means there is no process in block list. Means there is no need to wakeup any processes.
If S = -4, means there are 4 process in block list.
If S = 10, means 10 processes can be brought into Critical Section (CS) = means 10 successful operation = means
process is in CS.

Advantages of Semaphores:
1. Semaphores allow only one process into the critical section. They follow the mutual exclusion principle
strictly and are much more efficient than some other methods of synchronization.
2. There is no resource wastage because of busy waiting in semaphores as processor time is not wasted
unnecessarily to check if a condition is fulfilled to allow a process to access the critical section.
3. Semaphores are implemented in the machine independent code of the microkernel. So they are machine
independent
Disadvantages of Semaphores:
1. Semaphores are complicated so the wait and signal operations must be implemented in the correct order
to prevent deadlocks.
2. Semaphores are impractical for last scale use as their use leads to loss of modularity. This happens because
the wait and signal operations prevent the creation of a structured layout for the system.
3. Semaphores may lead to a priority inversion where low priority processes may access the critical section
first and high priority processes later.

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BINARY SEMAPHORES
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6. DEADLOCK
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BANKERS ALGORITHM
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7. MEMORY MANAGEMENT
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9. PAGING
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PAGE TABLE
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PAGE REPLACEMENT FIFO
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OPTIMAL PAGE EPLACEMENT
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LEAST RECENTLY USED PAGE
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INVERTED PAGING
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8. THRASHING
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10. SEGMENTATION
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11. PAGE FAULTS | VIRTUAL MEMORY
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14. Fragmentation
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Fragmentation:
As processes are loaded and removed from memory, the free memory space is broken into little pieces. It
happens after sometimes that processes cannot be allocated to memory blocks considering their small size and
memory blocks remains unused. This problem is known as Fragmentation.

Fragmentation is of two types −

S.N. Fragmentation & Description
1 External fragmentation
Total memory space is enough to satisfy a request or to reside a process in it, but it is not
contiguous, so it cannot be used.

External fragmentation can be reduced by compaction or shuffle memory contents to place all
free memory together in one large block. To make compaction feasible, relocation should be
dynamic.

2 Internal fragmentation
Memory block assigned to process is bigger. Some portion of memory is left unused, as it
cannot be used by another process.

The internal fragmentation can be reduced by effectively assigning the smallest partition but
large enough for the process.

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15. Unix /Linux/(Based General Ques)
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DISK SCHEDULING ALGO
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FIFO DISK
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SSTF
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SCAN AND C-SCAN
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LOOK AND C-LOOK
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