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UNIT V

General State of stress at a point :

Stress at a point in a material body has been defined as a force per unit area. But this definition is
some what ambiguous since it depends upon what area we consider at that point. Let us, consider
a point �q' in the interior of the body

Let us pass a cutting plane through a pont 'q' perpendicular to the x - axis as shown below

The corresponding force components can be shown like this

dFx = xx. dax

dFy = xy. dax

dFz = xz. dax

where dax is the area surrounding the point 'q' when the cutting plane  r is to x - axis.
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In a similar way it can be assummed that the cutting plane is passed through the point 'q'
perpendicular to the y - axis. The corresponding force components are shown below

The corresponding force components may be written as

dFx = yx. day

dFy = yy. day

dFz = yz. day

where day is the area surrounding the point 'q' when the cutting plane  r is to y - axis.

In the last it can be considered that the cutting plane is passed through the point 'q' perpendicular
to the z - axis.

The corresponding force components may be written as

dFx = zx. daz

dFy = zy. daz

dFz = zz. daz

where daz is the area surrounding the point 'q' when the cutting plane  r is to z - axis.
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Thus, from the foregoing discussion it is amply clear that there is nothing like stress at a point
'q' rather we have a situation where it is a combination of state of stress at a point q. Thus, it
becomes imperative to understand the term state of stress at a point 'q'. Therefore, it becomes
easy to express astate of stress by the scheme as discussed earlier, where the stresses on the three
mutually perpendiclar planes are labelled in the manner as shown earlier. the state of stress as
depicted earlier is called the general or a triaxial state of stress that can exist at any interior point
of a loaded body.

Before defining the general state of stress at a point. Let us make overselves conversant with the
notations for the stresses.

We have already chosen to distinguish between normal and shear stress with the help of
symbols and  .

Cartesian - co-ordinate system

In the Cartesian co-ordinates system, we make use of the axes, X, Y and Z

Let us consider the small element of the material and show the various normal stresses acting the
faces

Thus, in the Cartesian co-ordinates system the normal stresses have been represented
by x, yand z.

Cylindrical - co-ordinate system

In the Cylindrical - co-ordinate system we make use of co-ordinates r,  and Z.

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Thus, in the Cylindrical co-ordinates system, the normal stresses i.e components acting over a
element is being denoted by r, and z.

Sign convention : The tensile forces are termed as ( +ve ) while the compressive forces are
termed as negative ( -ve ).

First sub � script : it indicates the direction of the normal to the surface.

Second subscript : it indicates the direction of the stress.

It may be noted that in the case of normal stresses the double script notation may be dispensed
with as the direction of the normal stress and the direction of normal to the surface of the element
on which it acts is the same. Therefore, a single subscript notation as used is sufficient to define
the normal stresses.

Shear Stresses : With shear stress components, the single subscript notation is not practical,
because such stresses are in direction parallel to the surfaces on which they act. We therefore
have two directions to specify, that of normal to the surface and the stress itself. To do this, we
stress itself. To do this, we attach two subscripts to the symbol ' ' , for shear stresses.

In cartesian and polar co-ordinates, we have the stress components as shown in the figures.

xy , yx , yz , zy , zx , xz

r , r , z , z ,zr , rz

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So as shown above, the normal stresses and shear stress components indicated on a small
element of material seperately has been combined and depicted on a single element. Similarly for
a cylindrical co-ordinate system let us shown the normal and shear stresses components
separately.
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Now let us combine the normal and shear stress components as shown below :

Now let us define the state of stress at a point formally.

State of stress at a point :

By state of stress at a point, we mean an information which is required at that point such that it
remains under equilibrium. or simply a general state of stress at a point involves all the normal
stress components, together with all the shear stress components as shown in earlier figures.

Therefore, we need nine components, to define the state of stress at a point

x xy xz

y yx yz

z zx zy

If we apply the conditions of equilibrium which are as follows:

Fx = 0 ;  M x = 0

 Fy = 0 ;  M y = 0

Fz = 0 ; M z = 0

Then we get

xy = yx
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yz = zy

zx = xy

Then we will need only six components to specify the state of stress at a point i.e

x , y, z , xy , yz , zx

Now let us define the concept of complementary shear stresses.

Complementary shear stresses:

The existence of shear stresses on any two sides of the element induces complementary shear
stresses on the other two sides of the element to maintain equilibrium.

on planes AB and CD, the shear stress  acts. To maintain the static equilibrium of this element,
on planes AD and BC, ' should act, we shall see that ' which is known as the complementary
shear stress would come out to equal and opposite to the. Let us prove this thing for a
general case as discussed below:
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The figure shows a small rectangular element with sides of length x,y parallel to x and y
directions. Its thickness normal to the plane of paper is z in z � direction. All nine normal and
shear stress components may act on the element, only those in x and y directions are shown.

Sign convections for shear stresses:

Direct stresses or normal stresses

- tensile +ve

- compressive �ve

Shear stresses:

- tending to turn the element C.W +ve.

- tending to turn the element C.C.W � ve.

The resulting forces applied to the element are in equilibrium in x and y direction. ( Although
other normal and shear stress components are not shown, their presence does not affect the final
conclusion ).

Assumption : The weight of the element is neglected.

Since the element is a static piece of solid body, the moments applied to it must also be in
equilibrium. Let �O' be the centre of the element. Let us consider the axis through the point

�O'. the resultant force associated with normal stresses x and y acting on the sides of the
element each pass through this axis, and therefore, have no moment.

Now forces on top and bottom surfaces produce a couple which must be balanced by the forces
on left and right hand faces

Thus,

yx . x .  z .  y = xy .  x .  z .  y
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In other word, the complementary shear stresses are equal in magnitude. The same form of
relationship can be obtained for the other two pair of shear stress components to arrive at the
relations

GRAPHICAL SOLUTION � MOHR'S STRESS CIRCLE

The transformation equations for plane stress can be represented in a graphical form known as
Mohr's circle. This grapical representation is very useful in depending the relationships between
normal and shear stresses acting on any inclined plane at a point in a stresses body.

To draw a Mohr's stress circle consider a complex stress system as shown in the figure

The above system represents a complete stress system for any condition of applied load in two
dimensions

The Mohr's stress circle is used to find out graphically the direct stress and sheer stresson
any plane inclined at  to the plane on which x acts.The direction of here is taken in
anticlockwise direction from the BC.

STEPS:

In order to do achieve the desired objective we proceed in the following manner

(i) Label the Block ABCD.

(ii) Set up axes for the direct stress (as abscissa) and shear stress (as ordinate)

(iii) Plot the stresses on two adjacent faces e.g. AB and BC, using the following sign
convention.
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Direct stresses tensile positive; compressive, negative

Shear stresses � tending to turn block clockwise, positive

� tending to turn block counter clockwise, negative

[ i.e shearing stresses are +ve when its movement about the centre of the element is clockwise ]

This gives two points on the graph which may than be labeled as respectively to
denote stresses on these planes.

(iv) Join .

(v) The point P where this line cuts the s axis is than the centre of Mohr's stress circle and the
line joining is diameter. Therefore the circle can now be drawn.

Now every point on the circle then represents a state of stress on some plane through C.

Proof:
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Consider any point Q on the circumference of the circle, such that PQ makes an angle 2with
BC, and drop a perpendicular from Q to meet the s axis at N.Then OQ represents the resultant
stress on the plane an angle  to BC. Here we have assumed that x y

Now let us find out the coordinates of point Q. These are ON and QN.

From the figure drawn earlier

ON = OP + PN

OP = OK + KP

OP = y + 1/2 ( xy)

= y / 2 + y / 2 + x / 2 + y / 2

= ( x + y ) / 2

PN = Rcos( 2)

hence ON = OP + PN

= ( x + y ) / 2 + Rcos( 2)

= (x + y ) / 2 + Rcos2 cos+ Rsin2sin

now make the substitutions for Rcos and Rsin.

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Thus,

ON = 1/2 (x + y ) + 1/2 (x  y )cos2 + xysin2 (1)

Similarly QM = Rsin( 2)

= Rsin2cos- Rcos2sin

Thus, substituting the values of R cos and Rsin, we get

QM = 1/2 ( x  y)sin2 xycos2 (2)

If we examine the equation (1) and (2), we see that this is the same equation which we have
already derived analytically

Thus the co-ordinates of Q are the normal and shear stresses on the plane inclined at  to BC in
the original stress system.

N.B: Since angle PQ is 2 on Mohr's circle and not it becomes obvious that angles are
doubled on Mohr's circle. This is the only difference, however, as They are measured in the same
direction and from the same plane in both figures.

Further points to be noted are :

(1) The direct stress is maximum when Q is at M and at this point obviously the sheer stress is
zero, hence by definition OM is the length representing the maximum principal stresses 1 and
21 gives the angle of the plane 1 from BC. Similar OL is the other principal stress and is
represented by 2

(2) The maximum shear stress is given by the highest point on the circle and is represented by
the radius of the circle.

This follows that since shear stresses and complimentary sheer stresses have the same value;
therefore the centre of the circle will always lie on the s axis midway between x and y . [ since
+xy & xy are shear stress & complimentary shear stress so they are same in magnitude but
different in sign. ]

(3) From the above point the maximum sheer stress i.e. the Radius of the Mohr's stress circle
would be
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While the direct stress on the plane of maximum shear must be mid � may
between x and y i.e

(4) As already defined the principal planes are the planes on which the shear components are
zero.

Therefore are conclude that on principal plane the sheer stress is zero.

(5) Since the resultant of two stress at 900 can be found from the parallogram of vectors as shown
in the diagram.Thus, the resultant stress on the plane at q to BC is given by OQ on Mohr's Circle.

(6) The graphical method of solution for a complex stress problems using Mohr's circle is a very
powerful technique, since all the information relating to any plane within the stressed element is
contained in the single construction. It thus, provides a convenient and rapid means of solution.
Which is less prone to arithmetical errors and is highly recommended.

Pressurized thin walled cylinder:

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Preamble : Pressure vessels are exceedingly important in industry. Normally two types of
pressure vessel are used in common practice such as cylindrical pressure vessel and spherical
pressure vessel.

In the analysis of this walled cylinders subjected to internal pressures it is assumed that the radial
plans remains radial and the wall thickness dose not change due to internal pressure. Although
the internal pressure acting on the wall causes a local compressive stresses (equal to pressure)
but its value is neglibly small as compared to other stresses & hence the sate of stress of an
element of a thin walled pressure is considered a biaxial one.

Further in the analysis of them walled cylinders, the weight of the fluid is considered neglible.

Let us consider a long cylinder of circular cross - section with an internal radius of R 2 and a
constant wall thickness�t' as showing fig.

This cylinder is subjected to a difference of hydrostatic pressure of �p' between its inner and
outer surfaces. In many cases, �p' between gage pressure within the cylinder, taking outside
pressure to be ambient.

By thin walled cylinder we mean that the thickness�t' is very much smaller than the radius
Ri and we may quantify this by stating than the ratio t / Ri of thickness of radius should be less
than 0.1.

An appropriate co-ordinate system to be used to describe such a system is the cylindrical polar
one r, , z shown, where z axis lies along the axis of the cylinder, r is radial to it and is the
angular co-ordinate about the axis.

The small piece of the cylinder wall is shown in isolation, and stresses in respective direction
have also been shown.
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Type of failure:

Such a component fails in since when subjected to an excessively high internal pressure. While it
might fail by bursting along a path following the circumference of the cylinder. Under normal
circumstance it fails by circumstances it fails by bursting along a path parallel to the axis. This
suggests that the hoop stress is significantly higher than the axial stress.

In order to derive the expressions for various stresses we make following

Applications :

Liquid storage tanks and containers, water pipes, boilers, submarine hulls, and certain air plane
components are common examples of thin walled cylinders and spheres, roof domes.

ANALYSIS : In order to analyse the thin walled cylinders, let us make the following
assumptions :

• There are no shear stresses acting in the wall.

• The longitudinal and hoop stresses do not vary through the wall.

• Radial stresses r which acts normal to the curved plane of the isolated element are neglibly

small as compared to other two stresses especially when

The state of tress for an element of a thin walled pressure vessel is considered to be biaxial,
although the internal pressure acting normal to the wall causes a local compressive stress equal
to the internal pressure, Actually a state of tri-axial stress exists on the inside of the vessel.
However, for then walled pressure vessel the third stress is much smaller than the other two
stresses and for this reason in can be neglected.

Thin Cylinders Subjected to Internal Pressure:

When a thin � walled cylinder is subjected to internal pressure, three mutually perpendicular
principal stresses will be set up in the cylinder materials, namely

• Circumferential or hoop stress

• The radial stress

• Longitudinal stress
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now let us define these stresses and determine the expressions for them

Hoop or circumferential stress:

This is the stress which is set up in resisting the bursting effect of the applied pressure and can be
most conveniently treated by considering the equilibrium of the cylinder.

In the figure we have shown a one half of the cylinder. This cylinder is subjected to an internal
pressure p.

i.e. p = internal pressure

d = inside diametre

L = Length of the cylinder

t = thickness of the wall

Total force on one half of the cylinder owing to the internal pressure 'p'

= p x Projected Area

=pxdxL

= p .d. L ------- (1)

The total resisting force owing to hoop stresses H set up in the cylinder walls

= 2 .H .L.t ---------(2)

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Because H.L.t. is the force in the one wall of the half cylinder.

the equations (1) & (2) we get

2 . H . L . t = p . d . L

H = (p . d) / 2t

Circumferential or hoop
Stress (H) = (p .d)/ 2t

Longitudinal Stress:

Consider now again the same figure and the vessel could be considered to have closed ends and
contains a fluid under a gage pressure p.Then the walls of the cylinder will have a longitudinal
stress as well as a ciccumferential stress.

Total force on the end of the cylinder owing to internal pressure

= pressure x area

= p x d2 /4

Area of metal resisting this force = d.t. (approximately)

because d is the circumference and this is multiplied by the wall thickness

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Energy Methods

Strain Energy

Strain Energy of the member is defined as the internal work done in defoming the body by the
action of externally applied forces. This energy in elastic bodies is known as elastic strain
energy :

Strain Energy in uniaxial Loading

Fig .1

Let as consider an infinitesimal element of dimensions as shown in Fig .1. Let the element be
subjected to normal stress x.

The forces acting on the face of this element is x. dy. dz

where

dydz = Area of the element due to the application of forces, the element deforms to an amount
= x dx
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x = strain in the material in x � direction

Assuming the element material to be as linearly elastic the stress is directly proportional to strain
as shown in Fig . 2.

Fig .2

From Fig .2 the force that acts on the element increases linearly from zero until it attains its
full value.

Hence average force on the element is equal to ½ x . dy. dz.

Therefore the workdone by the above force

Force = average force x deformed length

= ½ x. dydz . x . dx

For a perfectly elastic body the above work done is the internal strain energy �du�.
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where dv = dxdydz

= Volume of the element

By rearranging the above equation we can write

The equation (4) represents the strain energy in elastic body per unit volume of the material its
strain energy � density �uo' .

From Hook's Law for elastic bodies, it may be recalled that

In the case of a rod of uniform cross � section subjected at its ends an equal and opposite forces
of magnitude P as shown in the Fig .3.

Fig .3
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Modulus of resilience :

Fig .4

Suppose � x� in strain energy equation is put equal to y i.e. the stress at proportional limit
or yield point. The resulting strain energy gives an index of the materials ability to store or
absorb energy without permanent deformation

So

The quantity resulting from the above equation is called the Modulus of resilience

The modulus of resilience is equal to the area under the straight line portion �OY' of the stress

� strain diagram as shown in Fig .4 and represents the energy per unit volume that the material
can absorb without yielding. Hence this is used to differentiate materials for applications where
energy must be absorbed by members.
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Modulus of Toughness :

Fig .5

Suppose �' [strain] in strain energy expression is replaced byR strain at rupture, the
resulting strain energy density is called modulus of toughness

From the stress � strain diagram, the area under the complete curve gives the measure of
modules of toughness. It is the materials.

Ability to absorb energy upto fracture. It is clear that the toughness of a material is related to its
ductility as well as to its ultimate strength and that the capacity of a structure to withstand an
impact Load depends upon the toughness of the material used.

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

1. Three round bars having the same length �L' but different shapes are shown in fig
below. The first bar has a diameter �d' over its entire length, the second had this
diameter over one � fourth of its length, and the third has this diameter over one eighth
of its length. All three bars are subjected to the same load P. Compare the amounts of
strain energy stored in the bars, assuming the linear elastic behavior.
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Solution :

From the above results it may be observed that the strain energy decreases as the volume of the
bar increases.

2. Suppose a rod AB must acquire an elastic strain energy of 13.6 N.m using E = 200 GPa.
Determine the required yield strength of steel. If the factor of safety w.r.t. permanent
deformation is equal to 5.
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Solution :

Factor of safety = 5

Therefore, the strain energy of the rod should be u = 5 [13.6] = 68 N.m

Strain Energy density

The volume of the rod is

Yield Strength :

As we know that the modulus of resilience is equal to the strain energy density when maximum
stress is equal to x .

It is important to note that, since energy loads are not linearly related to the stress they produce,
factor of safety associated with energy loads should be applied to the energy loads and not to the
stresses.

Strain Energy in Bending :

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Fig .6

Consider a beam AB subjected to a given loading as shown in figure.

Let

M = The value of bending Moment at a distance x from end A.

From the simple bending theory, the normal stress due to bending alone is expressed as.

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

1. Determine the strain energy of a prismatic cantilever beam as shown in the figure by
taking into account only the effect of the normal stresses.
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Solution : The bending moment at a distance x from end

A is defined as

Substituting the above value of M in the expression of strain energy we may write

Problem 2 :

a. Determine the expression for strain energy of the prismatic beam AB for the loading as
shown in figure below. Take into account only the effect of normal stresses due to
bending.
b. Evaluate the strain energy for the following values of the beam

P = 208 KN ; L = 3.6 m = 3600 mm

A = 0.9 m = 90mm ; b = 2.7m = 2700 mm

E = 200 GPa ; I = 104 x 108 mm4

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Solution:

a.

Bending Moment : Using the free � body diagram of the entire beam, we may determine the
values of reactions as follows:

RA = Pb / L R B = P a / L

For Portion AD of the beam, the bending moment is

For Portion DB, the bending moment at a distance v from end B is

Strain Energy :

Since strain energy is a scalar quantity, we may add the strain energy of portion AD to that of
DB to obtain the total strain energy of the beam.
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b. Substituting the values of P, a, b, E, I, and L in the expression above.

Problem

3) Determine the modulus of resilience for each of the following materials.

a. Stainless steel . E = 190 GPa 

y = 260MPa

b. Malleable constantan E = 165GPa 

y = 230MPa

c. Titanium E = 115GPa 

y = 830MPa

d. Magnesium E = 45GPa 

y = 200MPa

4) For the given Loading arrangement on the rod ABC determine

(a). The strain energy of the steel rod ABC when

P = 40 KN.

(b). The corresponding strain energy density in portions AB and BC of the rod.
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UNIT V

ANALYSIS OF STRESSES IN TWO DIMENSIONS

PART-A (2 Marks)

1. Distinguish between thick and thin cylinders.

2. Define Principal planes and principal stress.
3. Define: Thin cylinders. Name the stresses set up in a thin cylinder subjected to internal
fluid pressure.
4. What is Mohr‟s circle & name any the situations where it is used?
5. Define principal planes and principal stresses.
6. Draw Mohr‟s Circle for given shear stress q.
7. What is the necessary condition for maximum shear stress?
8. Define Obliquity.
9. Define Strain energy and resilience.
10. Define proof resilience and modulus of resilience.

PART- B (16 Marks)

1. A Thin cylindrical shell 3 m long has 1m internal diameter and 15 mm metal thickness.
Calculate the circumferential and longitudinal stresses induced and also the change in the
dimensions of the shell, if it is subjected to an internal pressure of1.5 N/mm2 Take E = 2x105
N/mm2 and poison‟s ratio =0.3. Also calculate change in volume.

2. A closed cylindrical vessel made of steel plates 4 mm thick with plane ends, carries fluid
under pressure of 3 N/mm2 The diameter of the cylinder is 25cm and length is 75 cm.
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Calculate the longitudinal and hoop stresses in the cylinder wall and determine the change
in diameter, length and Volume of the cylinder. Take E =2.1x105 N/mm2 and 1/m = 0.286.

3. A rectangular block of material is subjected to a tensile stress of 110 N/mm2 on one plane
and a tensile stress of 47 N/mm2 on the plane at right angle to the former plane and a tensile
stress of 47 N/mm2 on the plane at right angle to the former. Each of the above stress is
accompanied by a shear stress of 63 N/mm2 Find (i) The direction and magnitude of each of
the principal stress (ii) Magnitude of greatest shear stress

4. At a point in a strained material, the principal stresses are100 N/mm2 (T) and 40 N/mm2
(C). Determine the resultant stress in magnitude and direction in a plane inclined at 600 to
the axis of major principal stress. What is the maximum intensity of shear stress in the
material at the point?

5. A rectangular block of material is subjected to a tensile stress of 210 N/mm2 on one plane
and a tensile stress of 28 N/mm2 on the plane at right angle to the former plane and a tensile
stress of 28 N/mm2 on the plane at right angle to the former. Each of the above stress is
accompanied by a shear stress of 53 N/mm2 Find (i) The direction and magnitude of each of
the principal stress (ii) Magnitude of greatest shear stress

6 A closed cylindrical vessel made of steel plates 5 mm thick with plane ends, carries fluid
under pressure of 6 N/mm2 The diameter of the cylinder is 35cm and length is 85 cm.
Calculate the longitudinal and hoop stresses in the cylinder wall and determine the change
in diameter, length and Volume of the cylinder. Take E =2.1x105 N/mm2 and 1/m = 0.286.

7. At a point in a strained material, the principal stresses are 200 N/mm2 (T) and 60 N/mm2
(C) Determine the direction and magnitude in a plane inclined at 600 to the axis of major
principal stress. What is the maximum intensity of shear stress in the material at the point

8. At a point in a strained material, the principal stresses are 100 N/mm2 (T) and 40 N/mm2
(C) Determine the direction and magnitude in a plane inclined at 600 to the axis of major
principal stress. What is the maximum intensity of shear stress in the material at the point