Chapter 1

Communication
and Culture
The Basic Concepts

“W hy do I have to take a public speaking class if I’m not a

communication major?” is a common lament of college
freshmen. Well, there are at least three good reasons to do so. First,
communication is necessary to function in society. Second, the U.S.
democratic process relies on an oral tradition. Third, globalization
and expanding information technologies are making our world
much smaller, putting you in contact, both domestically and inter-
nationally, with people who communicate differently than mem-
bers of the dominant U.S. culture. These events have increased the
need for everyone to become a better communicator.
The chances for your success as a speaker are greatly improved
by acquiring some specialized communication skills. These skills
are so essential in today’s society that most universities and organi-
zations offer students and employees courses in effective communi-
cation. They do so because learning about communication instills
an ability to think critically, solve problems, manifest high levels of
personal credibility, adapt to social changes, develop self-confi-
dence and poise, present creative and important ideas, and commu-
nicate interculturally. The main point should be clear: Without com-
munication skills we are unable to share thoughts and feelings with others.
Because of this ever-increasing importance of communication
and because communication can be improved, we have written this
book to show you how to become a better communicator. This text is
primarily concerned with how to effectively share opinions and ideas

1
2 Public Speaking in a Multicultural Society

with people from other cultural backgrounds. First, however, you

must understand the processes involved. Therefore, this initial chap-
ter examines what communication is and how it works, discusses the
ways communication and public speaking are both alike and differ-
ent, looks at the interface of culture and communication, and explains
how to overcome the fear of speaking before an audience.

The Importance of Communication

Communication is an integral part of daily life. Indeed, an argu-

ment can be made that every waking moment involves communica-
tion. Even when not communicating with another person, you are
engaged in a variety of intrapersonal communication activities,
such as watching TV, listening to music, reading ads, determining
when to change lanes on the freeway, deciding whether to go to class,
and so on. A communication act can be something as seemingly in-
consequential as complimenting someone on his or her appearance
or as important as explaining symptoms to medical workers during
an emergency. Regardless of the level or type, a communication act
always has a consequence. Another important consideration is that
because communication is a social activity, it can be changed—peo-
ple can increase and improve their communication skills. This book
is designed to help you achieve those two objectives in a way that
benefits both you and the people you interact with.
The ability to communicate effectively is indispensable in profes-
sional life and a commonly specified employment prerequisite. This
requirement has become even more salient as the United States moves
from a manufacturing to a knowledge-based economy. Workforce di-
versity and globalization have introduced an additional factor—you
must be able to communicate competently with people from many dif-
ferent cultures.
Communication is also important in social relationships. People
engage in interpersonal communication for a variety of reasons—in-
cluding entertainment (telling a funny story), therapy (complaining
about a difficult exam), emotional expression (telling someone you
love them), and explanation (revealing the reasons behind our ac-
tions). Your relationships will be more rewarding if you have the
ability to communicate effectively. Knowing how to listen and to
talk in a sincere, skillful manner to a family member, a close friend, a
 Chapter 1 ✦ Communication and Culture 3

work associate, or someone from another culture can be beneficial

to both parties.

The Communication Process

To understand the nature and function of speech, we must first
examine the process of communication, of which speech is but one
aspect. This text uses the terms “communication,” “speech commu-
nication,” “public speaking,” “oral communication,” and “speech”
interchangeably, because a speaker is primarily engaged in commu-
nication whenever he or she, consciously or unconsciously, affects
the behavior of others.
People ask and answer questions, take part in conversations, ex-
change ideas in meetings, participate in class discussions, and deliver
formal and informal presentations. In every case, factors such as cul-
ture, credibility, interest, motivation, organization, listening skills,
clarity, feedback, and delivery come into play. For example, although
usually only one person talks during a public speaking event, the
“other person” (i.e., audience members) is still sending messages.
Nonverbal communication is present in all public speaking situa-
tions, and the way the audience responds is a type of message.
Defining communication is an assignment analogous to having
to explain to someone why you love him or her. In both instances, it
is often easier to remain silent and hope that you and your partner
share similar meanings. The difficulty in both instances is that defi-
nitions of concepts as complex as love and communication are
bound to be incomplete. The reason, of course, is that both can take
many forms. But for our purposes, we can use a simple, straightfor-
ward definition. Communication is the process of one person sending a
message that creates meaning in another person.
A key word in this definition is “process,” which implies an in-
teraction consisting of parts. Understanding these parts, or compo-
nents, of the communication process is a prerequisite to becoming
an effective public speaker.

The Components of Communication

The process of communication requires you to simultaneously
manage eight important structural components. The first and most
obvious component is the sender—the individual or group origi-
nating the message. In public speaking, the sender is the person
4 Public Speaking in a Multicultural Society

who has a need or desire to communicate with others. To fulfill this

motivation, the sender prepares and transmits the message to the
receiver(s).
The message contains the information the sender desires to
have understood. Messages take the form of verbal or nonverbal be-
haviors, which are encoded and transmitted via a channel to the re-
ceiver. The channel is the method used to move the message from
the sender to the receiver. The message may be transmitted through
a direct channel or may be mediated. For example, an oral message
can be sent directly when in the presence of the receiver or can be
mediated through a cell phone, radio, or television broadcast when
at a distance. A visual, or nonverbal, message can be transmitted by
waving good-bye to a friend as you drive away or can be mediated
through a video camera or a photograph.
The receiver is the intended recipient of the message and the
one who interprets the message. Because the receiver assigns a
meaning, which may or may not be what the sender intended, com-
munication is often said to be receiver based. If you tell your audience
that the next meeting will start at four o’clock, most members will
probably understand that you mean in the evening. However,
someone may misinterpret your message and show up for an early
morning breakfast meeting. After interpreting the message and as-
signing a meaning, the receiver may formulate a response. This is
the action taken by the receiver as a result of the meaning he or she
assigns to the message. In public speaking, the response is not usu-
ally immediate. Audience members will usually wait until the pre-
sentation is over before asking questions or making comments. The
audience’s response may also come later, depending on the
speaker’s message. Audience response can take many forms, such
as voting for a political candidate, changing diets, or purchasing a
particular product.
Feedback is another important component of communication
related to, yet separate from, the response. Feedback is what allows
the speaker to assign a qualitative evaluation to the effectiveness of
his or her message. Perhaps the audience will smile and nod their
heads, frown, or look confused after decoding the speaker’s message.
This behavior provides a clue as to how the message has been inter-
preted and facilitates adjustment of speaker behavior. Depending
on the feedback, you may rephrase or amplify your message to pro-
vide greater clarity, or even retract the statement.
 Chapter 1 ✦ Communication and Culture 5

Every communicative interaction takes place in both a physical

and a social environment. The physical environment is the actual
place where the communication takes place, such as a classroom,
conference room, or restaurant. The contextual, or social, environ-
ment is more abstract and influences the style of communication
used. Think about the different communication approaches for con-
ducting an interview, asking a friend for a favor, visiting your pro-
fessor during office hours, apologizing for being late for a date, giv-
ing a presentation to a group of close friends, or addressing a large
audience where you know very few of the people. People vary their
communicative style in response to the occasion—the contextual or
social environment.
Noise, the final component of communication, refers to the vari-
ous types of distractions that can plague any communication event.
Physical noise is separate from the communication interaction and
can take many forms, such as a skateboarder rolling past the open
classroom door, a noisy air conditioner fan, static from the instruc-
tor’s microphone, or your cell phone cutting out.
Noise that is intrinsic to the people participating in the commu-
nication episode can also take a variety of forms. Suppose that dur-
ing a Friday afternoon speech class you find yourself thinking more
about other topics instead of paying attention to your classmate’s
presentation. Maybe you had a disagreement with your significant
other and are trying to think of a way to patch things up, or you are
excited about plans for the weekend. Perhaps you are even worried
about the speech you have to give in class next week. These are all
examples of psychological noise that can affect your mental state and
reduce understanding of your classmate’s presentation. Physiologi-
cal noise relates to the physical well-being of the people engaged in
the communication activity. Being sleepy, hungry, or plagued by
allergies will detract from your ability to understand a speaker’s
message.
The final type of noise is one common to intercultural communi-
cation and most likely to produce misunderstandings. For inter-
cultural communication to be effective, the participants must use a
common language, which means that one or more of the people in-
volved may not be using his or her native tongue. Complete fluency
in a second language is difficult to attain and somewhat rare. As a
result, many people who use another language have an accent or
sometimes misuse a word or phrase, which can make understand-
6 Public Speaking in a Multicultural Society

ing the message more difficult. This type of distraction, referred to

as semantic noise, also includes jargon, slang, and even technical or
professional terminology (West and Turner, 2004).
Taken collectively, these eight components provide an overview of
factors that enable and influence a communication encounter, be it in-
terpersonal or public speaking. Also of importance is the role of culture
in each component, which is especially influential in intercultural com-
munication. To appreciate culture’s impact on communication, we
must first have an understanding of culture itself.

Culture

Like communication, culture has many definitions, most of

which can be complex and abstract, attesting to the difficult of ex-
plaining this social concept. For purposes here, however, we pro-
pose a simple, more applied definition. Recall the first time you
went to an ethnic restaurant. If you were given a menu, did you
know what to order? If you were accustomed to using a knife and
fork, were you comfortable with chopsticks? If you had only eaten
cooked fish, how did you react to sushi or sashimi? Any one of these
situations may have caused you some confusion and apprehension.
But you probably encountered other people in the restaurant who
exhibited no difficulty in knowing what to order or how to eat it.
This was because the other people knew the proper rules for obtain-
ing and eating the different types of food. Think about meeting
someone from another culture for the first time. Did you know the
appropriate greeting—shaking hands, bowing, embracing, or a kiss
on the cheek? These examples suggest an easily understood defini-
tion of culture: Culture constitutes the rules for living and functioning in
a particular social group. The rules differ from one society to another;
to function and be effective in a particular culture, you must know
the rules and how to apply them.
You began learning your own culture’s rules and norms at birth
and have continued to increase that cultural knowledge throughout
your life. As a result, the rules and behavioral expectations are in-
grained, enabling you to react to recurring social situations without
thinking. However, when you enter another culture, with different
rules, problems can arise, especially in communication situations.
 Chapter 1 ✦ Communication and Culture 7

Communication and Culture

Communication and culture are inextricably interwoven. The
communication style of a social group is a function of its culture,
while culture is formed and transmitted through communication.
Why do Euro-Americans normally shake hands when meeting some-
one in a formal setting? How did they learn this behavior? Why do
the Japanese almost never use first names? Where did they learn this?
Why do Arabs stand so close to each other in interpersonal settings?
When did they learn this? The answer to all these questions is the
same. People learn the culturally appropriate and expected social de-
portment, or rules, through communication.
If the behaviors of people from diverse cultures differ, we should
rightly expect their communication styles to also vary. These differ-
ences extend far beyond the obvious dissimilarities of language and
encompass variances in both verbal and nonverbal communication.
How communication is used, the style employed, and even when to
communicate are all products of culture. And what works in one
culture may not work in another culture. Indeed, in a cross-cultural
exchange, the accepted, normal communication practices of one
participant may even be offensive to the other person. In such situa-
tions, communication can be seriously impeded by a lack of cultural
awareness. This text is designed to help you increase your awareness
of different communication practices and learn how to be a more ef-
fective communicator in our ever-increasing multicultural society.
In addition to the considerations discussed earlier in this chap-
ter, another factor can influence communication interactions, espe-
cially when giving a speech. You have probably had limited public
speaking opportunities. Therefore, it is important to recognize early
on that stage fright, or communication apprehension, is a common
experience. It is, however, something that is easily managed, as we
explain in the final section of this chapter.

Managing Communication Apprehension

Most Americans find public speaking to be an extremely stress-
ful experience and many place it above fears related to flying,
heights, snakes, or even death. There are no scientifically validated
explanations for this fear, but it is certainly quite common. Media
celebrities, politicians, public figures at all levels, and even rock
8 Public Speaking in a Multicultural Society

stars must deal with varying levels of stage fright. Regardless of

how much public speaking experience an individual has, occasions
will still arise when he or she experiences a degree of apprehension
before and during a presentation. Competent speakers have simply
learned how to manage their fear.
Within the field of communication, this sensation of mental—and,
on occasion, physical—anxiety is termed communication apprehension.
What you may feel when giving speeches, especially at the beginning
of the semester, is a mild form of communication apprehension. The
psychological apprehension may cause you to fumble for words or
forget to present a particular visual aid when needed, and the physi-
cal anxiety might cause increased sweating, nervousness, dry mouth,
or even shortness of breath. These nervous feelings are no different
from what is sometimes experienced during a job interview or when
preparing to ask someone out for the first time.
Basically, speech anxiety is the speaker’s mind and body react-
ing to the fear of having an audience negatively evaluate his or her
message and delivery style. As with any task, no one likes to think
he or she might fail or perform poorly, and public speakers are con-
stantly faced with the uncertainty of how their ideas and presenta-
tion skills will be perceived by the audience.
People who come from cultures that do not have a rhetorical
tradition or who have learned English as a second language may
have increased levels of anxiety. Many Asian cultures do not value
speaking skills and place greater emphasis on the ability to listen
empathetically. Second-generation Vietnamese Americans or Ko-
rean Americans, for example, may experience speech anxiety be-
cause they have not been enculturated to value oratory skills. How-
ever, everyone who aspires to be successful in the U.S. dominant
culture will have to learn to make presentations to groups.
This discussion of communication apprehension is not meant to
be frightening or discouraging. We are simply trying to increase
your awareness and understanding of the possible influence of the
phenomenon. Most of you will probably experience minimal or no
anxiety. Additionally, you can use a number of methods to over-
come or lessen these feelings of anxiety. As you read about the fol-
lowing measures to combat speech anxiety, keep in mind that they
should be implemented well before the time comes to actually pres-
ent a speech. Waiting until the last moment will only increase your
apprehension.
 Chapter 1 ✦ Communication and Culture 9

Prior to Speaking
1. Develop a positive attitude. Fear of speaking in public can be-
come a minor phobia. One way to develop a positive atti-
tude is by selecting a topic of personal interest. Having
strong feelings about a subject is likely to instill a sense of
confidence. However, if you choose a topic you dislike, the
entire speaking experience will probably be disagreeable.
2. Be thorough in your knowledge of the audience. A familiarity
with the composition of the audience can lessen uncertainty
about how they may receive the presentation.
3. Think of speech anxiety as short-lived. Anxiety is often highest
just before standing up to speak. A satisfactory speech intro-
duction usually dissipates anxiety.
4. Start preparation early. Lack of preparation is a major cause
of stage fright. Waiting until the night before the presenta-
tion to begin preparing a speech is a sure invitation to di-
saster.
5. Rehearse the speech several times, preferably in front of others.
Also, try to speak extemporaneously. Attempting to commit
every word to memory can contribute to speech anxiety.
6. Inspect the physical environment where you will be speaking.
Prior familiarity with the actual setting helps reduce anxiety
and aids in making any needed adjustments.
7. Try to engage in some relaxing behaviors just before the speech.
Tension-relieving techniques include (a) walking around or
doing isometric exercises to help release nervous energy, (b)
taking deep breaths or yawning to increase your supply of
oxygen, and (c) taking a drink of water to keep your mouth
from becoming dry.
While Speaking
When it is finally time to give the speech, several behaviors can
help you maintain control over anxieties.
1. Use effective delivery techniques. Hand gestures, shifting your
posture, and moving about will help dissipate the natural
tension and simultaneously reinforce the verbal message. If
10 Public Speaking in a Multicultural Society

you use visual aids, the physical movements involved in

manipulating and gesturing toward the visuals can help re-
duce nervous energy.

2. Make proficient use of your voice. Too many beginning speak-

ers talk too fast. A hurried pace signals nervousness, further
contributes to anxiety, and detracts from the audience’s abil-
ity to understand you. Slow down and pause often.
3. Do not apologize for minor mistakes, just continue with the speech.
In most instances, the audience will not be aware of minor
errors or an omitted illustration. However, if the mistake
involves a major distortion of the facts, ethics demand that
the speaker pause and correct the misunderstanding. Also,
if a person’s name or a place name is mistakenly mispro-
nounced, a brief “sorry,” followed by the correct pronunci-
ation is appropriate.

4. Remember that the audience will usually not know you are ner-
vous. Most of the symptoms associated with speech anxiety
are not evident to the listeners. In reality, the speaker is usu-
ally the only one who knows. Do not add to the apprehen-
sion by thinking everyone else is aware of your stress.

Chapter Summary
Communication is one of the most important aspects of work
and social life, and people spend the major part of their waking
hours engaged in various communication activities. Globalization
and increased domestic diversity have created a growing need to be
able to communicate effectively. This text is intended to help you be-
come a competent and ethical public speaker, especially in a multi-
cultural environment.
In its broadest sense, communication is the process of sending
and receiving messages. The process, however, can be divided into
eight separate parts—sender, receiver, message, channel, response,
feedback, environment, and noise. Semantic noise can be a signifi-
cant detraction in intercultural communication.
Culture can be described as the rules for living and managing
social interaction in a particular social group, and the rules will vary
from one culture to another. Communication and cultural are inter-
 Chapter 1 ✦ Communication and Culture 11

twined, and each culture has its own set of socially appropriate
communication protocols.
Fear of public speaking, or communication apprehension, is a
common condition, even for experienced speakers. Although its
causes are not fully understood, it seems to surface when a speaker
is faced with an unfamiliar role in an unfamiliar environment before
an unfamiliar audience. The key to controlling communication ap-
prehension is to remove as much uncertainty and unfamiliarity as
possible. Thorough preparation and practice, coupled with a good
mental attitude, will help guard against the disabling effects of com-
munication apprehension.

Concepts and Questions

1. How can training in communication help in your specific ca-
reer choice?
2. How often do you communicate with people from cultures
different from your own? What are those cultures?
3. When interacting with someone from another culture, do you
ever notice any differences in their communication style? If
so, can you describe the differences?
4. What do think are the major differences between public
speaking and private conversation?
5. What do you find most troubling when you are asked to
speak before a group in public?

Activities and Exercises

1. Prepare a two-minute talk to deliver in class that mentions the
intercultural experiences you have had at work, at school, or
during your travels. Tell the class what you have learned
from the experiences.
2. Interview a member of the class. Try to gather cultural or
ethnic information that will aid the other members of the
class in getting to know your interviewee. In a 30-second
speech, introduce the classmate to the entire class.
3. Bring a personal picture or object to class and explain how
the item offers insight into your culture or ethnicity.
12 Public Speaking in a Multicultural Society

4. Give a short talk that discusses why you believe so many

people have a fear of public speaking.
5. Interview someone who you believe is a good public speaker.
Ask the person what measures she or he uses to cope with
communication apprehension.

Reference
West, R., and Turner, L. H. (2004). Introducing communication theory: Analy-
sis and application (2nd ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. ✦