A report submitted to the

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,

College of Engineering
University of Duhok
 Table of contents

Topics Page

1 Topic 1 2

2 Topic 2 7

3 Topic 3 11

4 Topic 4 17

5 References 20

Topic 1
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Resistor

The resistor is a passive electrical component to create resistance in the flow of electric current.
In almost all electrical networks and electronic circuits they can be found. The resistance is
measured in ohms. An ohm is the resistance that occurs when a current of one ampere passes
through a resistor with a one volt drop across its terminals. The current is proportional to the
voltage across the terminal ends. This ratio is  represented by Ohm’s law:

V
R=
I
Resistors are used for many purposes. A few examples include delimit electric current, voltage
division, heat generation, matching and loading circuits, control gain, and fix time constants.
They are commercially available with resistance values over a range of more than nine orders of
magnitude. They can be used to as electric brakes to dissipate kinetic energy from trains, or be
smaller than a square millimeter for electronics.

Overview of types and materials:

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Resistors can be divided in construction type as well as resistance material. The following
breakdown for the type can be made:

 Fixed resistors
 Variable resistors, such as the:
 Potentiometer
 Rheostat
 Trim pot
Resistance dependent on a physical quantity:

 Thermistors (NTC  and PTC) as a result of temperature change

 Photo resistor (LDR) as a result of a changing light level
 Varistor (VDR)  as a result of a changing voltage
 Magneto resistor (MDR) as a result of a changing magnetic field
 Strain Gauges as a result of mechanical load

For each of these types a standard symbol exists. Another breakdown based on the material and
manufacturing process can be made:

 Carbon composition
 Carbon film
 Metal film
 Metal oxide film
 Wire wound
 Foil

The choice of material technology is a specific to the purpose. Often it is a trade-off between
costs, precision and other requirements. For example, carbon composition is a very old technique
with a low precision, but is still used for specific applications where high energy pulses occur.
Carbon composition resistors have a body of a mixture of fine carbon particles and a non-
conductive ceramic. The carbon film technique has a better tolerance. These are made of a non-
conductive rod with a thin carbon film layer around it. This layer is treated with a spiral cut to
increase and control the resistance value. Metal and metal oxide film are widely used nowadays,
and have better properties for stability and tolerance. Furthermore, they are less influenced by
temperature variations. They are just as carbon film resistors constructed with a resistive film

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around a cylindrical body. Metal oxide film is generally more durable. Wire wound resistors are
probably the oldest type and can be used for both high precision as well as high power
applications. They are constructed by winding a special metal alloy wire, such as nickel chrome,
around a non-conductive core. They are durable, accurate and can have very low resistance
value. A disadvantage is that they suffer from parasitic reactance at high frequencies. For the
highest requirements on precision and stability, metal foil resistors are used. They are
constructed by cementing a special alloy cold rolled film onto a ceramic substrate.

Resistor characteristics

Dependent on the application, the electrical engineer specifies different properties of the resistor.
The primary purpose is to limit the flow of electrical current; therefore, the key parameter is the
resistance value. The manufacturing accuracy of this value is indicated with the resistor tolerance
in percentage. Many other parameters that affect the resistance value can be specified, such as
long term stability or the temperature coefficient. The temperature coefficient, usually specified
in high precision applications, is determined by the resistive material as well as the mechanical
design.
In high frequency circuits, such as in radio electronics, the capacitance and inductance can lead
to undesired effects. Foil resistors generally have a low parasitic reactance, while wire wound
resistors are amongst the worst. For accurate applications such as audio amplifiers, the electric
noise must be as low as possible. This is often specified as microvolts noise per volt of applied
voltage, for a 1 MHz bandwidth. For high power applications the power rating is important. This
specifies the maximum operating power the component can handle without altering the
properties or damage. The power rating is usually specified in free air at room temperature.
Higher power ratings require a larger size and may even require heat sinks. Many other
characteristics can play a role in the design specification. Examples are the maximum voltage, or
the pulse stability. In situations where high voltage surges could occur this is an important
characteristic.

Sometimes not only the electrical properties are important, but the designer also has to consider
the mechanical robustness in harsh environments. Military standards sometimes offer guidance
to define the mechanical strength or the failure rate.

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Resistor standards
Many standards exist for resistors. The standards describe ways to measure and quantify
important properties. Other norms exist for the physical size and resistance values. Probably, the
most well-known standard is the color code marking for axial leaded resistors.

Resistor color code

Resistor with a resistance of 5600 ohm with 2 % tolerance, according to the marking code IEC 60062.
The resistance value and tolerance are indicated with several colored bands around the
component body. This marking technique of electronic components was already developed in the
1920’s. Printing technology was still not far developed, what made printed numerical codes too
difficult on small components. Nowadays, the color code is still used for most axial resistors up
to one watt. In the figure an example is shown with four color bands. In this example the two
first bands determine the significant digits of the resistance value; the third band is the
multiplying factor and the fourth band gives the tolerance. Each color represents a different
number and can be looked up in a resistor color code chart.

Resistor color code calculator

The color code can easily be decoded using this calculator. It not only provides the resistance
value; it also indicates when the value belongs to an E-series.

SMD resistors
For SMD (Surface Mount Device) resistors a numerical code is used, because the components
are too small for color coding. SMD resistors are -just as leaded variants – mainly available in
the preferred values. The size of the component (length and width) is standardized as well, and is
referred to as resistor package. An example of an SMD resistor on a PCB is given in the picture
below. The marking “331” means that the resistance has a value of 33Ω x 10^1 = 330Ω.

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Resistor Values (Preferred values)
In the 1950s the increased production of resistors created the need for standardized resistance
values. The range of resistance values is standardized with so called preferred values. The
preferred values are defined in E-series. In an E-series, every value is a certain percentage higher
than the previous. Various E-series exist for different tolerances.

Resistor applications
There is a huge variation in fields of applications for resistors; from precision components in
digital electronics, till measurement devices for physical quantities. In this chapter several
popular applications are listed.

Resistors in series and parallel

In electronic circuits, resistors are very often connected in series or in parallel. A circuit designer
might for example combine several resistors with standard values (E-series) to reach a specific
resistance value. For series connection, the current through each resistor is the same and the
equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the individual resistors. For parallel connection, the
voltage through each resistor is the same, and the inverse of the equivalent resistance is equal to
the sum of the inverse values for all parallel resistors. In the articles resistors in
parallel and series a detailed description of calculation examples is given. To solve even more
complex networks, Kirchhoff’s circuit laws may be used.

Measure electrical current (shunt resistor)

Electrical current can be calculated by measuring the voltage drop over a precision resistor with
a known resistance, which is connected in series with the circuit. The current is calculated by
using Ohm’s law. This is a called an ammeter or shunt resistor. Usually this is a high precision
manganic resistor with a low resistance value.

Resistors for LEDs

LED lights need a specific current to operate. A too low current will not light up the LED, while
a too high current might burn out the device. Therefore, they are often connected in series with
resistors. These are called ballast resistors and passively regulate the current in the circuit.

Blower motor resistor

In cars the air ventilation system is actuated by a fan that is driven by the blower motor. A
special resistor is used to control the fan speed. This is called the blower motor resistor. Different
designs are in use. One design is a series of different size wire wound resistors for each fan
speed. Another design incorporates a fully integrated circuit on a printed circuit board.

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Topic 2

Capacitor
Capacitors are passive electrical components to store electric energy. In the past they were
referred to as condenser. A capacitor is made from electrical conductors that are separated by an
insulator. The insulating layer is called a dielectric. Although all capacitors share the same basic
principle components, the material choice and configuration can vary widely. They are common
elements in electrical circuits. A few examples are to allow only AC current and block DC
current, or to smooth a power supply output.
A capacitor is able to store energy in an electrostatic field that is generated by a potential
difference across the conductors. So, when a conductor is subject to a voltage, one plate of the
capacitor will collect positive charge while the other will be negatively charged. The ratio of
this electric charge and the potential difference (voltage) is called the capacitance in farads. This
is the main parameter to describe a capacitor. The capacitance is the largest when the distance
between the conductors is small and the surface of the conductors large. Ideal capacitors are
described solely with capacitance, but in the real world some limitations exist. For example, the
conductors and lead wires cause parasitic inductance and resistance. The static electric field has a
limit on the maximum strength, which is described by the breakdown voltage. The leaking
current through the dielectric is called the leakage current.

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Inductance
Inductance is an electrical property of conductors by which an electrical current passing through
the conductor induces an electromotive force in the conductor itself (self-inductance) and other
conductors nearby. Since resistors are made of conductive materials, they, too, exhibit
inductance as an unwanted, parasitic effect. This effect is especially noticeable if the resistor is
made out of wire formed into a coil shape. Depending on the application, resistor inductance
might be easily disregarded, especially in DC circuits. However, parasitic resistor inductance can
be a significant factor in high-frequency AC applications. The reason for this is that the
impedance of a resistor rises with the applied voltage frequency due to the increase in its
reactance.

Inductors and Capacitors Together

As we learned earlier, a capacitor stores energy in an internal electric field, while an
inductor stores energy in a surrounding magnetic field. When combined with a resistance in
an electrical circuit, either component will lose energy as it forces current to flow through
the resistor.

But what happens when we combine an inductor and a capacitor? We'll start with no
resistor at all, and explore the theoretical behavior of the circuit. We'll insert resistance in
the next page to see how that affects the behavior of the circuit. The results are very
interesting, as you're about to see.

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Consider the circuit shown to the right. The components are assumed to be ideal, so there is
no resistance anywhere in the circuit. Also, we have charged the capacitor to some initial
voltage. Since these are theoretically ideal components, this charge does not leak off, and
will remain in place as long as switch S remains open.

When S is closed, the voltage across C is suddenly applied to L. At this moment, C begins
to discharge itself through L. However, the current through L cannot change
instantaneously, and the voltage across C cannot change instantaneously. These are the
basic properties of these two components. Therefore, the current through L (and C)
increases only gradually as the voltage across C (and L) decreases gradually.

The curve is not exponential as you might expect. Remember that there is no resistance
present in this circuit, so there is no loss of energy. Instead, the rate at which C discharges
itself through L actually increases, thus more rapidly increasing the current through L.

When C has been fully discharged, the current through L and C is at its maximum value.
The magnetic field around L has been built up, and cannot be dissipated at once. Instead, it
begins to collapse, as L takes on whatever voltage is necessary to continue the current flow
at its current rate. As it does so, it recharges C, but with the opposite polarity. This
continues eternally (as long as S remains closed). The green curve in the graph to the right
shows the voltage across L and C, assuming S was closed at time t = 0.

When C is fully charged, the magnetic field is exhausted and the circuit current is once
again zero. Now, C begins to discharge once again, driving current through L in the
opposite direction. The red curve to the right shows the current flowing through L and C,
beginning at the instant S is closed. The end result is a continuous oscillation, as shown in
the graph.

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Note that the voltage and current curves look the same, but peak at different times. This is
the normal behavior of this type of circuit.

In fact, the waveforms for both voltage and current in this circuit are sine waves.
Technically, the (green) curve for circuit voltage is a cosine wave. Both are true sine waves,
but are 90° out of phase with each other.

This circuit operates by transferring energy back and forth between C and L. A circuit that
does this is said to resonate, and the particular frequency at which this phenomenon occurs
is known as the resonant frequency of the circuit. This resonant frequency is determined by
the values of L and C, in accordance with the equation:

When studying this circuit and its behavior, keep in mind that all components here are
theoretically ideal, having no resistance to absorb and dissipate energy. In the real world,
this is impossible. (Although we have made strides towards room-temperature
superconductors, we don't have perfect conductors at room temperature as of this writing.)
The inductor especially, being made of many turns of relatively fine wire, has an inherent
internal resistance. We can reduce that resistance by using heavier-gauge wire, but that
increases the cost rapidly. It is much easier to allow for that resistance, and to deal with it as
it is.

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Topic 3

Maximum Power Transfer

Maximum Power Transfer occurs when the resistive value of the load is equal in value to that of
the voltage sources internal resistance allowing maximum power to be supplied
Generally, this source resistance or even impedance if inductors or capacitors are involved is of a
fixed value in Ohm´s.
However, when we connect a load resistance, RL across the output terminals of the power
source, the impedance of the load will vary from an open-circuit state to a short-circuit state
resulting in the power being absorbed by the load becoming dependent on the impedance of the
actual power source. Then for the load resistance to absorb the maximum power possible it has
to be “Matched” to the impedance of the power source and this forms the basis of Maximum
Power Transfer.
The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem is another useful circuit analysis method to ensure that
the maximum amount of power will be dissipated in the load resistance when the value of the
load resistance is exactly equal to the resistance of the power source. The relationship between
the load impedance and the internal impedance of the energy source will give the power in the
load. Consider the circuit below.

Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit

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In our Thevenin equivalent circuit above, the maximum power transfer theorem states that “the
maximum amount of power will be dissipated in the load resistance if it is equal in value to the
Thevenin or Norton source resistance of the network supplying the power “.
In other words, the load resistance resulting in greatest power dissipation must be equal in value
to the equivalent Thevenin source resistance, then RL = RS but if the load resistance is lower or
higher in value than the Thevenin source resistance of the network, its dissipated power will be
less than maximum.
For example, find the value of the load resistance, RL that will give the maximum power transfer
in the following circuit.

Maximum Power Transfer Example No1

Where:
  RS = 25Ω
  RL is variable between 0 – 100Ω
  VS = 100v

Then by using the following Ohm’s Law equations:

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We can now complete the following table to determine the current and power in the circuit for
different values of load resistance.

Table of Current against Power

RL (Ω) I (amps) P (watts) RL (Ω) I (amps) P (watts)

0 4.0 0 25 2.0 100

5 3.3 55 30 1.8 97

10 2.8 78 40 1.5 94

15 2.5 93 60 1.2 83

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 20 2.2 97 100 0.8 64

Using the data from the table above, we can plot a graph of load resistance, RL against
power, P for different values of load resistance. Also notice that power is zero for an open-circuit
(zero current condition) and also for a short-circuit (zero voltage condition).

Graph of Power against Load Resistance

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From the above table and graph, we can see that the Maximum Power Transfer occurs in the load
when the load resistance, RL is equal in value to the source resistance, RS that
is: RS = RL = 25Ω. This is called a “matched condition” and as a general rule, maximum power
is transferred from an active device such as a power supply or battery to an external device when
the impedance of the external device exactly matches the impedance of the source.
One good example of impedance matching is between an audio amplifier and a loudspeaker. The
output impedance, ZOUT of the amplifier may be given as between 4Ω and 8Ω, while the
nominal input impedance, ZIN of the loudspeaker may be given as 8Ω only.
Then if the 8Ω speaker is attached to the amplifiers output, the amplifier will see the speaker as
an 8Ω load. Connecting two 8Ω speakers in parallel is equivalent to the amplifier driving
one 4Ω speaker and both configurations are within the output specifications of the amplifier.
Improper impedance matching can lead to excessive power loss and heat dissipation. But how
could your impedance match an amplifier and loudspeaker which have very different
impedances. Well, there are loudspeaker impedance matching transformers available that can
change impedances from 4Ω to 8Ω, or to 16Ω’s to allow impedance matching of many
loudspeakers connected together in various combinations such as in PA (public address) systems.

Transformer Impedance Matching

One very useful application of impedance matching in order to provide maximum power transfer
between the source and the load is in the output stages of amplifier circuits. Signal transformers
are used to match the loudspeakers higher or lower impedance value to the amplifiers output
impedance to obtain maximum sound power output. These audio signal transformers are called
“matching transformers” and couple the load to the amplifiers output as shown below.

Transformer Impedance Matching

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The maximum power transfer can be obtained even if the output impedance is not the same as
the load impedance. This can be done using a suitable “turns ratio” on the transformer with the
corresponding ratio of load impedance, ZLOAD to output impedance, ZOUT matches that of the
ratio of the transformers primary turns to secondary turns as a resistance on one side of the
transformer becomes a different value on the other.
If the load impedance, ZLOAD is purely resistive and the source impedance is purely
resistive, ZOUT then the equation for finding the maximum power transfer is given as:

 
Where: NP is the number of primary turns and NS the number of secondary turns on the
transformer. Then by varying the value of the transformers turns ratio the output impedance can
be “matched” to the source impedance to achieve maximum power transfer. For example,

Maximum Power Transfer Example No2

If an 8Ω loudspeaker is to be connected to an amplifier with an output impedance of 1000Ω,
calculate the turns ratio of the matching transformer required to provide maximum power
transfer of the audio signal. Assume the amplifier source impedance is Z1, the load impedance
is Z2 with the turn’s ratio given as N.

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Generally, small high frequency audio transformers used in low power amplifier circuits are
nearly always regarded as ideal for simplicity, so any losses can be ignored.
In the next tutorial about DC circuit theory, we will look at Star Delta Transformation which
allows us to convert balanced star connected circuits into equivalent delta and vice versa.

Topic 4

A source-free RC circuit 

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A source-free circuit is where all independent sources have been disconnected from
the circuit after some switch action. The voltages and currents in the circuit typically will have
some transient response due to initial conditions (initial capacitor voltages and initial inductor
currents).
Let's cause an abrupt step in voltage to a resistor-capacitor (RC) circuit and observe what
happens to the voltage across the capacitor.

We want to find the voltage v(t) across the capacitor as a function of time.

When something changes in a circuit, like a switch closes, the voltages and currents in the circuit
elements adjust to the new conditions. If the change is an abrupt step, as it is here, the response
of the voltages and currents is called the step response. The step response is a common way to
give a circuit a little "kick" to see what it does. It tells us quite a lot about the properties of the
circuit.

What we're building to

The total response of a circuit can be teased apart into a forced response plus a natural response.
These responses can be combined using the principle of superposition.
The forced response is calculated with the sources turned on, but with the initial conditions
(internal stored energy) set to zero.
The natural response is what the circuit does including the initial conditions, (initial voltage on
capacitors or current in inductors), but with input suppressed.

total = forced + natural

We derive the step response of an RC network using this method of forced and natural response:

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Find the RC step response
We are interested in the voltage on the capacitor, v as a function of time. We start by looking at
what happens before the switch closes. Then we jump way out in time to a long time from now,
and figure out where the circuit finishes up. Finally, we look at what happens in between the
switch closing and a long time from now.

Initial state
Before the switch is closed, (t<0) the schematic tells us an initial voltage exists on the
capacitor:  v ( 0 )=V 0

We know the current in the circuit is 0 because the switch is open. These are the initial
conditions of the circuit.

Final state
If we close the switch at t=0, equals, 0, current will start flowing around the now-completed
circuit. Current will continue to flow as long as there is a voltage difference across the resistor.

At some point in the future, the capacitor voltage, v, will become the same as the source
voltage, V s When this happens, the voltage across the resistor, V s −v , will be 0, and current will
fall to 0. This is the final state of the circuit.
Summary: The circuit starts with no current, and ends with no current, but the voltage (and
current) do something between start and end.

Transient period

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Between the initial state and the final state, the current and voltage adjust to new conditions
imposed by the voltage source. This is called the transient period, when things are changing. The
change v makes during this time is the transient response of the RC. In our example, the switch
closing event applies a voltage step to the RC circuit, so this is also called the step response.
We will use our knowledge of the initial and final states, plus what we know about R and C, to
come up with a precise understanding of the transient response.

References:
1) http://www.resistorguide.com/what-is-a-resistor/

2) http://www.play-hookey.com/dc_theory/combinations/lc_circuits.html

3) http://www.capacitorguide.com

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4) https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/dccircuits/dcp_9.html

5) https://www.khanacademy.org/science/electrical-engineering\

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