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Lecture 5 Propositional Logic (PL)

This document provides an overview of propositional logic and predicate logic. It discusses that propositional logic involves statements that are either true or false, while predicate logic is more powerful and can represent relationships between objects using predicates, variables, quantifiers and functions. The key points covered are: - Propositional logic involves basic true/false statements but cannot represent assertions with variables. - Predicate logic uses predicates to describe properties or relationships between objects represented by variables. - It provides an example of predicate "is blue(x)" and how this is more expressive than propositional logic. - The basics of the language of first-order logic are outlined including logical symbols, variables, predicate symbols and function symbols.

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علي عبد الحمزه
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36 views

Lecture 5 Propositional Logic (PL)

This document provides an overview of propositional logic and predicate logic. It discusses that propositional logic involves statements that are either true or false, while predicate logic is more powerful and can represent relationships between objects using predicates, variables, quantifiers and functions. The key points covered are: - Propositional logic involves basic true/false statements but cannot represent assertions with variables. - Predicate logic uses predicates to describe properties or relationships between objects represented by variables. - It provides an example of predicate "is blue(x)" and how this is more expressive than propositional logic. - The basics of the language of first-order logic are outlined including logical symbols, variables, predicate symbols and function symbols.

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علي عبد الحمزه
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Lecture 5 Propositional Logic (PL) Knowledge Representation KR 2nd stage

University of Kerbala- Science College-Computer Science

1-Propositional Logic (PL) or Propositional Calculus (PC).


2-Predicate Logic.
1- Propositional Logic (PL)
Is a branch of logic, it is also called propositional calculus, statement logic,
sentential calculus, sentential logic, or sometimes zeroth-order logic.
A proposition is a statement, which in English would be a declarative sentence.
Every proposition is either TRUE or FALSE.
A sentence is a group of words that usually have a subject, verb and information
about the subject. Remember: A sentence can be a statement, question or command.
A statement is a basic fact or opinion. It is one kind of sentence.
e.g.
All the following declarative sentences are propositions
 Baghdad is the capital of the Iraq. T
 1+1=2. T
 2+2+=3. F
Unlike first-order logic, propositional logic does not deal with non-logical objects,
predicates about them, or quantifiers.
However, all the machinery of propositional logic is included in first-order logic and
higher-order logics. In this sense, propositional logic is the foundation of first-order
logic and higher-order logic.
e.g.
(a) The sky is blue.
(b) Snow is cold.
(c) 12 * 12=144

 Propositions are “sentences”, either true or false but not both.


 A sentence is smallest unit in propositional logic.
 If proposition is true, then truth value is "true”.
 If proposition is false, then truth value is "false".
Lecture 5 Propositional Logic (PL) Knowledge Representation KR 2nd stage
University of Kerbala- Science College-Computer Science

Propositional logic is fundamental to all logic.


Propositional logic is also called propositional calculus, Sentential calculus, or
Boolean algebra.
Propositional logic tells the ways of joining and/or modifying entire propositions,
statements or sentences to form more complicated propositions, statements or
sentences, as well as the logical relationships and properties that are derived from
the methods of combining or altering statements.

1.2 Statement, variables and symbols


These and few more related terms, such as, connective, truth value, contingencies,
tautologies, contradictions, consequent and Argument are explained below.

a- Statement
Simple statements (sentences), TRUE or FALSE, that does not contain any other
statement as a part, are basic propositions; lower-case letters, p, q, r, are symbols for
simple statements.
Large, compound or complex statement are constructed from basic propositions by
combining them with connectives.

2
Lecture 5 Propositional Logic (PL) Knowledge Representation KR 2nd stage
University of Kerbala- Science College-Computer Science

b- Connective or Operator
The connectives join simple statements into compounds and joins compounds into
larger compounds.

Table below indicates, five basic connectives and their symbols:

 Listed in decreasing order of operation priority;


 operations with higher priority is solved first.

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Lecture 5 Propositional Logic (PL) Knowledge Representation KR 2nd stage
University of Kerbala- Science College-Computer Science

c- Truth value
The truth value of a statement is its TRUTH or FALSITY,
e.g.
P is either TRUE or FALSE,
~p is either TRUE or FALSE,
p v q is either TRUE or FALSE, and so on.
Use "T" or "1" to mean TRUE.
Use "F" or "0" to mean FALSE.

Terminology in Propositional Logic (PL)


A- Tautologies
A proposition that is always true is called a tautology.
e.g.

(P v¬P) is always true regardless of the truth-value of the proposition P.

B- Contradictions
A proposition that is always false is called a contradiction.
e.g.
(P ¬ P) is always false regardless of the truth-value of the proposition P.
4
Lecture 5 Propositional Logic (PL) Knowledge Representation KR 2nd stage
University of Kerbala- Science College-Computer Science

C- Contingencies
A proposition is called a contingency, if that proposition is neither a tautology nor
a contradiction
e.g.
(P v Q) is a contingency.

D- Antecedent, Consequent
In the conditional statements, p → q,
1st statement or "if - clause" (here p) is called antecedent,
2nd statement or "then - clause" (here q) is called consequent.

e- Argument
Any argument can be expressed as a compound
statement. Take all the premises, conjoin them,
and make that conjunction the antecedent of a
conditional and make the conclusion the
consequent. This implication statement is called
the corresponding conditional of the argument

An argument is valid "if and only if" its corresponding conditional is a


tautology.
Two statements are consistent "if and only if" their conjunction is not a
contradiction.
Two statements are logically equivalent "if and only if" their truth table
columns are identical;
"if and only if" the statement of their equivalence using " ≡ " is a tautology.

5
Lecture 5 Propositional Logic (PL) Knowledge Representation KR 2nd stage
University of Kerbala- Science College-Computer Science

2- Predicate logic
The propositional logic, is not powerful enough for all types of assertions;
e.g.
The assertion "x > 1",
Where x is a variable, is not a proposition because it is neither true nor false unless
value of x is defined.
For x > 1 to be a proposition,
either we substitute a specific number for x;
or change it to something like "There is a number x for which x > 1 holds";
or "For every number x, x > 1 holds".

e.g.
“All men are mortal.
Socrates is a man.
Then Socrates is mortal”,
These cannot be expressed in propositional logic as a
finite and logically valid argument (formula).

We need languages:
That allow us to describe properties (predicates) of objects, or a relationship among
objects represented by the variables.

 Predicate logic satisfies the requirements of a language.


 Predicate logic is powerful enough for expression and reasoning.
 Predicate logic is built upon the ideas of propositional logic.
 Predicate: Every complete sentence contains two parts: a subject and a predicate.
 The subject is what (or whom) the sentence is about.
 The predicate tells something about the subject;

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Lecture 5 Propositional Logic (PL) Knowledge Representation KR 2nd stage
University of Kerbala- Science College-Computer Science

e.g.
A sentence "Judy {runs}".
The subject is Judy and the predicate is run.
The predicate always includes a verb, tells something about the subject.
The predicate is a verb phrase template that describes a property of objects, or a
relation among objects represented by the variables.

e.g.
“The car Tom is driving is blue”;
"The sky is blue”;
"The cover of this book is blue”.
Predicate is “is blue”, describes property.
Predicates are given names;
Let ‘B’ is name for predicate “is blue".
Sentence is represented as "B(x)", read as "x is blue";
“x” represents an arbitrary Object.
3- Language of the First Order logic (Declarative language)
2.1 Alphabet:
a- Logic symbols:
 Punctuations: (,),
 Connectives: ¬, ˄, ˅, ∀, ∃, =
 Variables: x, x1, x2, ..., x', x", ..., y, ..., z, ...

b- Non-logical symbols
Predicate symbols (like cake)
Function symbols (like bestFriendOf)

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