ES 356: Surface Water Quality Monitoring and

Management (2 Units)

Course Expected Learning Outcomes

At the end of this course students will be able to;
i. Undertake water quality modelling
ii. Design and undertake water quality monitoring
programmes
iii. Carry out impact assessment on water
resources

1
Course Contents
1: Water quality management and the hydrological cycle:
a) Definitions- characteristic of water bodies and water quality,
b) Fields of surface water management.
c) The hydrological cycle,
d) Distribution of water on earth

2: The water quality component:

a) Spatial and temporal variation.
b)Pollutant sources and pathways,
c)Economic development
d)Development of water resources and water quality control
3:Water treatment:
a)Main water pollutants
b) Tanzania water quality standards for different uses;
c)Unit operations and Unit processes for water treatment
. 2
4: Introduction to Hydrometry:
Scope: a) Water level gauging
b) Measurements of flow rates

5: Water quality modelling:

a) Why modelling,:
b) Dispersion,
c) Mass balance including dispersion,
d) Reaction rate equations,
e) The dissolved oxygen sag of polluted rivers and Water quality modelling in lakes
and reservoirs
6:Water quality monitoring:
a)Definition and need for monitoring;
b)Identification of monitoring indicators;
c) Frequency of monitoring;
d) Water and sampling and analysis for monitoring purposes;
e) Biological monitoring of water quality
f)Designing monitoring programme

3
Delivery: Lectures --30 hours
Tutorial --30 hours
Assessment: Continuous assessment (Atleast 2 tests+2
Assignment including seminar paper and some quiz)-- 30%
and Final examination ---70%.

Tentative schedule for test/assignments

Test 1: 2nd December, 2016,

Test 2: 20th January 2017.
Assignment 1: 21st December 2016
Assignment 2: 9th January 2017
Quiz

4
Course Instructor: L. S . Leonard
• References
1. Linsley and Franzin (2002), Water Resources Engineering, International
student edition, McGraw-Hill.
2. Chapman, D. (1997), Water Quality Assessments, 2nd Edition, E & FN Spon,
an imprint of Chapman and Hall,2-6 Boundary Row, London
3. Chapra, S.C. (1997), Surface Water Quality Modelling., Mc Graw Hill
4. Nilgun B Harmancioglu, O Fistikaglu, M Necedet Alpaslan, Sevinc D Ozkul,
Okan Fistikoglu, Vijay P Singh (1999), Water Quality Network Design.
Springer, Dortretcht.
5. Cairns, J., Dickson, K.L., and WestLake, G.F (1997), Biological Monitoring of
Water and Effluent Quality, ASTM.

5
An Introduction to Environmental Monitoring

6
 Introduction on EM

We use monitoring in everyday life to keep track of

weather, stocks, gas prices, traffic patterns, and
housing costs.
We make decisions, such as whether to go out or not
or if we should buy or rent, based on this information.
We also monitor our health by evaluating how we feel
and with regular health checks. Monitoring keeps us
informed, helps us to maintain our health, and alerts
us to future problems that may arise.
Monitoring ecosystems is similar to monitoring human
health.
7
 Introduction cont…

There are both short-term and long-term

indicators of ecosystem health.
In general, however, ecosystems require long-
term monitoring because they are complex and
sensitive, and because they change slowly.
 Ecosystem monitoring means measuring
physical, chemical, and/or biological variables
over time to provide information on ecosystem
change.
It is only through such careful observation that
we can evaluate the health of our natural
resources and make science-based
management decisions 8
 Introduction cont…

Environmental monitoring provides both short- and

long-term pictures of the health of the planet's
ecosystems.
It allows for scientists and volunteers to assess the
health of our natural resources.
Environmental monitoring helps to keep us informed
about what is going on around us, helps lawmakers
make decisions regarding environmental planning and
policy, and can assist with ecosystem restoration and
management.
Environmental monitoring includes the extensive
monitoring of an area's air quality, water quality and
soil quality.
Samples are collected, data is compiled, studies are
conducted and reports are written on existing and 9
potential problems that are discovered.
 Environmental Monitoring
• Environmental monitoring is the systematic
collection of information used to assess the current
condition and trend of environmental or
performance indicators with respect to the standards
• Monitoring can be as simple as returning to a
restoration site to be sure a culvert is still functioning
properly; or, it can be as complex as assessing
multiple parameters in a watershed to determine how
overall watershed processes and functions change
over time.
• Environmental monitoring can be broken into multiple
categories: baseline, implementation, status and
trend, effectiveness, and validation monitoring.
10
 Categories of Environmental monitoring
a)Baseline Monitoring
This type of monitoring characterizes current conditions
as a "baseline" to compare against as future
monitoring is conducted. Baseline monitoring is
often used as a first step in determining the
effectiveness of restoration project implementation.
b)Implementation monitoring measures the
characteristics before and after an activity; the results
are compared to see if there has been any significant
change in the quality of the environment (water, soil&
air).
 Its purpose is to ensure work that was proposed was actually
completed successfully. Methodologies that might be used 11
for
this type of monitoring include photo-points and GPS readings.
 c)Status and Trend Monitoring

The purpose of this monitoring is to determine the

condition of physical, chemical, or biological attributes
across a given area and then evaluate over time how
those conditions change.
d) Effectiveness monitoring
The monitoring is done to determine if project
performance goals and future desired conditions have
been achieved
This differs from implementation monitoring in that it is
more in-depth and evaluates whether the overall
project objectives have been met. Effectiveness
monitoring can occur at project, watershed, or large
12
regional scales
e) Validation Monitoring

Validation monitoring is often considered

research. It is designed to validate
assumptions, models, methods, proposals, etc

13
 What is water quality monitoring?
 Did you ever stop to wonder how we get our information on the
condition of our Nation´s streams, lakes, estuaries, and coastal
waters? On whether these waters are safe enough to swim in,
fish from, or use for drinking? Monitoring provides this basic
information.
 There are many ways to monitor water conditions. Monitoring
specialists sample the chemical condition of water,
sediments, and fish tissue to determine levels of key
constituents such as dissolved oxygen, nutrients, metals, oils,
and pesticides.
 They also monitor physical conditions such as temperature,
flow, sediments, and the erosion potential of stream banks
and lake shores. Biological measurements of the abundance
and variety of aquatic plant and animal life and the ability of
test organisms to survive in sample water are also widely 14
used to monitor water conditions.
 Water quality monitoring
Monitoring
The long term programmed process of sampling, measurement
and subsequent recording, reporting or signaling or both, of
various issues on environment with the aim of assessing
compliance with specified standards (e.g.TZS, WHO etc)

Water quality monitoring

This is the process of actual collection of information about water
quality at set locations and at regular intervals in order to provide the
data which may be used to define current conditions, establish trends
of the water bodies being monitored etc.

Therefore water quality monitoring is a fundamental tool in the

management of freshwater resources which gives step-by-step
descriptions of field and laboratory methods.
15
Monitoring can be conducted at regular sites ("fixed
stations") on a continuous basis; at selected sites on
an as-needed basis, to answer specific questions,
or to characterize a watershed; on a temporary or
seasonal basis (for example, during the summer at
bathing beaches); at random sites throughout an area
or state; or on an emergency basis (such as after a
spill).

Increasingly, monitoring efforts are aimed at

determining the condition of entire watersheds -- the
area drained by rivers, lakes, and estuaries. This is
because we have come to realize the impact of land-
based activities on the waters that drain the land, and
the interconnectedness of all types of water bodies,
including those beneath the ground. 16
 Why monitoring?
Monitoring can be conducted for many purposes, these
includes:
i. Characterize waters and identify changes or trends in water
quality over time
ii. Identify specific existing or emerging water quality problems
iii. Gather information to design specific pollution prevention or
remediation programs;
iv. Determine whether program goals -- such as compliance with
pollution regulations or implementation of effective pollution
control actions -- are being met
v. Respond to emergencies, such as spills and floods.
vi. To provide water quality assessments to governments, the
scientific community and the public, on the quality of the
world’s freshwater relative to human and aquatic ecosystem
health, and global environmental concerns.

Some types of monitoring activities meet several of these purposes

17 at
once; others are specifically designed for one reason.
 Who monitors?
i. The responsibility to monitor water quality rests with many
different agencies. State pollution control agencies have key
monitoring responsibilities and conduct vigorous monitoring
programs. Many local governments, such as city and county
environmental offices, also conduct water quality monitoring
within their boundaries.
ii. Private entities such as universities, watershed associations,
environmental groups, and permitted dischargers also conduct
water quality monitoring. They may collect water quality data
for their own purposes, or to share with government decision
makers.
iii. Volunteer monitors -- private citizens who volunteer to be
trained in monitoring methods, regularly collect and analyze
water samples, conduct visual assessments of physical
conditions, and measure the biological health of waters -- are a
rapidly growing contingent providing increasingly important
environmental information.

Volunteer monitoring data are used for local decision-making

18
and often to supplement state water quality data
1. WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT AND
THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

19
 Introduction
The availability of water supply in terms of both quantity and
quality is essential to human existence. Early people
recognized the importance of water from a quantity viewpoint.

 Civilization developed around water bodies that could support

agriculture and transportation as well as providing drinking
water. Recognition of the importance of water quality developed
more slowly.

 Early humans could judge water quality only through the

physical senses of sight, taste and smell. Not until the
biological, chemical and medical sciences developed were
methods available to measure water quality and to determine
its effects on human health and well being.

 It was not until the mid 19nth century that relationship between
human waste, drinking water and diseases 20was
documented.
 Introduction Cont…
 In 1854, Dr John Snow, a public health worker in London noted a
high correlation between cholera cases and consumption of water
from a well on Broad Street. Not only was cholera running rampart in
the neighborhood around the well, but outbreaks of the disease in
other parts of the city could be traced to individuals who had had
occasion to drink from the Broad Street well

 Many of the chemicals used in industrial processes and agriculture

have been identified in water.

 However, the effort to identify other chemical compounds which may

already be found in trace quantities in many water supplies and to
determine their effect on human healthy have recently begun.

 It is likely that new analytical techniques will be developed that will

identify compounds not yet known to exist in water and it is
conceivable that these materials will also be linked to human health.
Thus the science of water quality will remain a challenge for
engineers and scientists for years to come.
21
A: Characteristics of water bodies and water quality
Water quality
This is the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of
water and is most frequently used by reference to a set of
standards against which compliance (fulfillment) can be
assessed.
 The most common standards used to assess water quality
relate to drinking water, safety of human contact and for the
health of ecosystems.
 Water in rivers, aquifers, and lakes naturally contains many
dissolved materials, depending on atmospheric inputs,
geological conditions, and climate. These materials define the
water’s chemical characteristics.
 Its biological characteristics are defined by the flora and fauna
within the water body, and temperature, sediment load and
22
color are important physical characteristics.
 Water quality
 Water in nature is most nearly pure in its evaporation state. Additional
impurities are added as the liquid water travels through the remainder
of the hydrologic cycle and comes into with materials in the air and on
or beneath the surface of the earth.

 Human activities contribute further impurities in the form of:

i) Industrial wastes
ii) Domestic waste
iii) Agricultural chemicals and other less obvious contaminants.

Ultimately, these impure waters will complete the hydrologic cycle

and return to the atmosphere as relatively pure water molecules.

 However, it is the water quality in the intermediate stage which is of

greatest concern because it is the quality at this stage that will affect
human use of the water

23
 Water quality Cont..
 Water “quality” is a function of chemical, physical, and biological
characteristics but is a value-laden term because it implies quality in
relation to some standard.

 Different uses of water have different standards.

 Pollution can be broadly defined as weakening of some aspect of the
chemical, physical, or biological characteristics of water (its “quality”) to
such an extent that it impacts some use of that water or ecosystems within
the water.

 The impurities accumulated by water throughout the hydrologic cycle and

as a result of human activities may be in both suspended and dissolved
form.

 Suspended material consists of particles larger than molecular size that

are supported by buoyant and viscous forces within the water. Dissolved
material consists of molecules or ions that are held by the molecular
structure of water.

 Colloids are very small particles that technically are suspended but often
exhibit many of the characteristics of dissolved substances. 24
Size ranges of dissolved colloidal and suspended substances are
shown in the following table below:

Dissolved Colloidal Suspended or no

filterable

10-5-10-4 10-3-10-1 1-10 Size of particles,

μm

10-8-10-7 10-6-10-4 10-3-10-1 Size particles,

mm

25
A:PHYSICAL WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
Physical parameters define those
characteristics of water that respond to the
senses of sight, touch, taste or smell. These
include:
a) Suspended solids
b) Turbidity
c) Colour
d) Taste and odour
e) Temperature
26
 a) Suspended solids
Solids can be dispersed in water in both suspended and dissolved forms.
Sources
 SS in water may consist of inorganic or organic particles or of immiscible
liquids. Inorganic solids such as clay, silt and other solids constituents are
common in surface water. Organic material such as plant fibres and
biological solids (algal cells, bacteria etc) are also common constituents of
surface waters.

 Other suspended material may result from human use of the water.
Domestic wastewater usually contains large quantities of SS that are mostly
organic in nature. Industrial use of water may result in a wide variety of SS
impurities of either organic of inorganic nature.

Impacts
 It is aesthetically displeasing and provides adsorption sites for chemical
and biological agents.
 Suspended organic solids may be degraded biologically, resulting in
objectionable by products. Biologically active (live) suspended solids may
include disease causing organisms as well as organisms such as toxic
producing strains of algae.
27
 Suspended solids Cont..
Most suspended solids can be removed from water by
filtration.
The amount of dissolved solids passing through the
filters is the difference between the total solids and
suspended solids content of a water sample.
However the filtration of a water sample does not
exactly divide the solids into suspended and dissolved
fractions.
Some colloids may pass through the filter and be
measured along with dissolved fraction while some of
the dissolved solids adsorb to the filter material
depending to the size and nature of the solids and the
pore size and surface characterises of the filter
material. Hence the terms filterable residues and no
filterable residues are commonly used.
28
 Suspended solids cont…
Filterable residues pass through the filter along the
water and relate more closely to dissolved solids,
while non filterable residues are retained on the filter
and relate more closely to suspended solids.
Use:
SS parameter is used to measure the quality of the
WW influent, to monitor several treatment
processes, and to measure the quality of the
effluent.

29
 b) Turbidity
This is a measure of the extent to which light is either
absorbed or scattered by SS material in water.

e.g. One small pebble in a glass of water would

produce virtually no turbidity, if this pebble were
crushed into thousands of particles of colloidal size, a
measurable turbidity would result, even though the
mass of solids had not changed.

30
Sources:
Erosion of colloidal material such as clay, silt,
rock fragments and metal oxides from the soil,
Vegetable fibers and MO may also contribute
to turbidity.
 Household and Industrial WW may contain a
wide variety of turbidity producing material.
Soaps, detergents and emulsifying agents
produce stable colloids that result in turbidity

Although turbidity measurements are not

commonly run on WW, discharges of WW may
increase the turbidity of natural bodies of water.

31
 b) Turbidity Cont…
Impacts
 When turbid water in a small, transparent container, such as
drinking glass, is held up to the light, an aesthetically
displeasing opaqueness or milky coloration is apparent.

 The colloidal material associated with turbidity provides

adsorption sites for chemicals that may be harmful

 Accumulation of turbidity causing particles in porous

streambeds results in sediment deposits that can adversely
affect the flora and fauna of the stream.

32
 c) Color
Pure water is colourless, but water in nature is often
colored by foreign substances. Water whose colour is
partly due to suspended matter is said to have
apparent color. Color contributed by dissolved solids
that remain after removal of suspended matter is
known as true color.

Sources
Iron oxides cause reddish water, and manganese
oxides cause brown or blackish water. Industrial
wastes from textile and dyeing operations, pulp and
paper production.
Food processing, chemical production and mining,
refining and slaughterhouse operations may add
substantial coloration to water in receiving streams.
33
 Color cont…
Impacts
 Colored water is not aesthetically acceptable to the general public.
Consumers tend to choose clear, non colored water of otherwise
poorer quality over treated potable water supplies with an
objectionable color.

Thus the color of water affects its marketability for both domestic and
industrial use.

 While true color is not usually considered unsanitary or unsafe, the

organic compounds causing true color may exert a chlorine demand
and thereby serious reduce the effectiveness of chlorine as
disinfectant.

 More important are the products formed by the combination of

chlorine with some color producing organics.

 Because biological and physical changes occurring during storage may

affect color, samples should be tested within 72 h of collection. 34
 d) Taste and Odor
Because the sensation of taste and smell are closely
related and often confused, a wide variety of tastes
and odors may attribute to water by consumers.
Substances that produce an odor in water will almost
invariably impart a taste as well.
Sources
Many substances with which water comes into contact
like minerals, metals and salts from the soil, end
products from biological reactions and
constituents of wastewater. Inorganic substances
are more likely to produce tastes unaccompanied by
odor.
 Alkaline material imparts a bitter taste to water, while
metallic salts may give a salty or bitter taste. Organic
material is likely to produce both taste and odor.
35
 Taste and Odor
Impacts
Consumers find taste and odor aesthetically displeasing for
obvious reasons. Because water is thought of a tasteless and
odourless, the consumer associates taste and odor with
contamination and may prefer to use a tasteless, odourless
water that might actually pose more of a health threat
Measurement
Measurement of taste and odor causing organics can be
made using gas or liquid chromatography.
Use
Although odors can be a problem with wastewater, the taste
and odor parameter is only associated with potable water.

36
 e) Temperature
 Temperature is not used to evaluate directly either potable
water or wastewater. It is, however one of the most important
parameters in natural surface water systems.
 The temperature of surface water governs to a large extent the
biological species present and their rates of activity.
Temperature has an effect on most chemical reactions that
occur in natural water systems. Temperature also has a
pronounced effect on the solubility’s of gases in water.
Sources
 The temperature of natural water systems responds to many
factors, the ambient temperature (temperature surrounding
atmosphere) being the most universal. Shallow bodies of
water are more affected by ambient temperature than deeper
bodies.
 The use of water for dissipation of waste heat in industry and
the subsequent discharge of the heated water may result in
dramatic, though perhaps localized, temperature changes in
receiving streams.
 Removal of forest canopies and irrigation return flows37can
result in increased stream temperature.
 Temperature Cont..
Impacts
 Cooler water usually has a wider diversity of biological species.
At lower temperatures, the rate of biological activity, i.e.
utilization of food supplies, growth, reproduction etc is slower.
 If the temperature is increased, biological activity increases.
 An increase of 10oC is usually sufficient to double the biological
activity, if essential nutrients are present.

 Temperature changes affect the reaction rates and solubility

levels of chemicals.
 Most chemical reactions involving dissolution of solids are
accelerated by increased temperatures.
 Temperature also affects other physical properties of water.
 The viscosity of water increases with decreasing temperature.

38
 B) CHEMICAL WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
 Water is the universal solvent, and chemical parameters are
related to the solvent capabilities of water.
a) Total dissolved solids
b) Alkalinity,
c) Hardness,
d) Fluorides,
e) Metals,
f) Organics and nutrients
These are chemical parameters of concern in water quality
management.
a) Total Dissolved solids
 The material remaining in the water after filtration for the
suspended solids analysis is considered to be dissolved. This
material is left as a solid residue upon evaporation of the water
39
and constitutes a part of total solids.
 Total Dissolved solids Cont…
Sources
 Dissolved material results from the solvent action of water on solids,
liquids and gases. May be inorganic (minerals, metals and gases) or
organic in nature. Water may come in contact with these substances
in the atmosphere, on surface and within soil.

 Materials from the decay products of vegetation, from organic

chemicals and from the organic gases are common organic dissolved
constituents of water

Impacts
 Minerals, gases and organic constituents may produce aesthetically
displeasing color, tastes and odor. Some chemicals may be toxic
and some of the dissolved organic constituents have been shown to
be carcinogenic.

 Quite often, two or more dissolved substances especially organic

substances and members of the halogen group, will combine to form
a compound whose characteristics are objectionable than those
40 of
either of the original materials.
 Total Dissolved solids Cont…
 Use
 The TDS is included in the analysis of water and WW only as a
gross measurement of the dissolved material and sometimes to
know more about the composition of the solids in water that is
intended for use in potable supplies, agriculture and some
industrial processes.

41
 b) Alkalinity
 This is the quantity of ions in water that will react to neutralize
hydrogen ions. Alkalinity is thus a measure of the ability of water to
neutralize acids. Low alkalinity can result in rapid pH changes, if acid
or base enters the water.
Sources
The primary source of alkalinity is carbonate-containing rocks, which
can come from:
 Natural erosion of carbonate-containing “limestone,” such as calcium
carbonate;
 Runoff from agricultural or other landscapes where “lime” has been
applied.
 In addition to their mineral origin, these substances can originate
from carbon dioxide, a constituent of the atmosphere and a product
of microbial decomposition of organic material.

42
 Alkalinity Cont…
 The most important compounds in water that determine
alkalinity include the carbonate (CO32-) and bicarbonate
(HCO3-) ions.
 The ability to resist changes in pH by neutralizing acids or
bases is called buffering.

 Alkalinity is important to aquatic organisms because it protects

them against rapid changes in pH. Alkalinity is especially
important in areas where acid rain is a problem.

43
 Important compounds for alkalinity.
H+ Hydrogen ion (acid)
OH- Hydroxide ion (base)
H2CO3 Carbonic acid
HCO3- Bicarbonate ion
CO32- Carbonate ion
CaCO3 Calcium carbonate (calcite)
CaMg(CO3)2 Dolomite lime

44
 Alkalinity Cont…
Impacts
 In large quantities, alkalinity imparts a bitter taste to water.
 The principal objection to alkaline water, however is the
reactions that can occur between alkalinity and certain cations
in the water.
 The resultant precipitate can foul pipes and other water
systems appurtenances.

45
 c) Hardness
This is defined as the concentration of multivalent
metallic cations in solution.
The hardness cations will react with anions in the
water to form a solid precipitate. It is classified as
carbonate hardness and noncarbonated hardness,
depending upon the anions with which it associates.
Carbonate hardness is sensitive to heat and
precipitates readily at high temperatures.

Sources
In natural water includes calcium and magnesium,
others include iron and manganese in their reduced
states F2+,Mn2+,strontium Sr2+ and aluminium Al3+ 46
 Hardness Cont…
Impacts
 Soap consumption by hard waters represents an economic
loss to the water user.
 Sodium soaps react with multivalent metallic cations to form
a precipitate, thereby loosing their surfactant properties.

 Lathering does not occur until all of the hardness ions are
precipitated at which point the water has been softened by
the soap.

 The precipitate formed by hardness and soap adheres to

surfaces of tubs, sinks and dishwashers and may stain
clothing , dishes and other items.
 It may cause considerable economic loss through fouling of
water heaters and hot water pipes.
47
 Hardness Cont…
Use
It is commonly used on natural waters and on waters
intended for portable supplies and for certain industrial
uses. The general acceptable classification is as
follows:
Soft…….< 50mg/L as CaCo3
Moderately hard….50-150 mg/L as CaCo3
Hard……150-300mg/L as CaCo3
Very Hard >300mg/L as CaCo3

48
 d) Fluoride
It is associated with a few types of sedimentary or
ignous rocks, fluoride is seldom found in appreciable
quantities in surface waters and appears in GW in only
a few geographical regions.
Fluoride is toxic to humans and other animals in large
quantities, while small concentrations can be
beneficial.
Conc of approximately 1.0 mg/L in drinking water help
to prevent dental cavities in children
During formation of permanent teeth, fluoride
combines chemically with tooth enamel, resulting in
harder, stronger teeth that are more resistant to
decay.
Fluoride if often added to drinking water supplies if
sufficient quantities for good dental formation are not
49
naturally present
 Fluoride Cont…
Extensive intakes of fluoride can result in
discoloration of teeth.
 Noticeable discolation called mottling is relatively
common when fluoride conc in drinking water exceed
2.0 mg/L, but is rare when conc are less than 1.5mg/L

Excessive dosages of fluoride can also result in bone

fluorisis and other skeletal abnormalities

Conc of <5mg/L in drinking water are not likely to

cause bone fluorosis or related problems and some
water supplies are known to have somewhat higher
fluoride conc with no discernible problem than severe
50
mottling of teeth
Borne and teeth florists

51
 e) Metals
 All metals are soluble to some extent in water. While
excessive amount of any metal may present health
hazards, only those metals that are harmful in
relatively small amounts are commonly labeled toxic,
other metals fall into the nontoxic group.
Sources in natural water bodies
i. Dissolution from natural deposits
ii. Discharges of domestic WW
iii. Discharge of industrial WW
iv. Agricultural WW
Measurements of metals in water is usually made by
atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS) 52
 i) Nontoxic metals
In addition to the hardness ions, calcium and
magnesium, other nontoxic metals commonly found in
water include sodium, iron, manganese, aluminium,
copper and zinc
Na by far the most common nontoxic metal found in
natural waters, is abundant in the earths crust and is
highly reactive with other elements.
The salts of Na are very soluble in water. Excessive
conc. cause a bitter taste in water and are a health
hazard to cardiac and kidney patients.
Sodium is also corrosive to metal surfaces and in
large conc. is toxic to plants
53
 Nontoxic metals Cont..
Iron and manganese in very small quantities
may cause color problems. Iron conc of
0.3mg/L and Manganese conc as low as
0.05mg/L can cause color problems.

Some bacteria use iron and manganese

compounds for an energy source, and the
resulting slime growth may produce taste and
odor problems

54
 ii) Toxic metals
Toxic metals are harmful to humans and other
organisms in small quantities. Toxic metals that may
be dissolved in water include arsenic, barium,
cadmium, lead, mercury and silver.
Cumulative toxins such as arsenic, cadmium, lead
and mercury are particularly hazardous. These
metals are concentrated by the food chain, thereby
posing the greatest danger to organisms near the top
of the food chain
Fortunately, toxic metals are present in only minute
quantities in most natural water systems. Although
natural sources of all the toxic metals exist. Significant
conc in water can usually be traced to mining,
industrial or agricultural sources 55
56