Phase Rule 6.

CHAPTER-6
PHASE RULE

6.1 Introduction
A phase is defined as any homogeneous and physically
distinct part of a system bounded by a surface and is
mechanically separable from other parts of the system.
A phase may be gaseous , liquid or solid. It is perfectly
homogeneous and distinct from every other phase that is present
in the system.There must be a definite boundary between any two
phases. This boundary is known as the interface.
Air constitutes a single phase only as it contains a mixture
of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapour etc.,. A
system consisting of only one phase is said to be homogeneous.
A mixture of two immiscible liquids such as water and
benzene, will exist in two distinct liquid phases and in addition
there will be a vapour phase. Thus there will be three phases each
separated from the other by a well-defined bounding surface.
A system consisting of more than one phase is said to be
heterogeneous. When various phases are in equilibrium with one
another in a heterogeneous system, there can be no transfer of
energy or mass from one phase to another. This means that at
equilibrium, the various phases must have the same temperature
and pressure and their respective compositions must remain
constant all along.
The homogeneous reversible reactions can be studied
using the law of mass action. For heterogeneous reversible
reactions , the phase rule given by Williard Gibbs is used.
6.2 Engineering Chemistry-II

6.2 Phase Rule

Statement
Phase rule states that “ If the equilibrium between any number of
phases is not influenced by gravity, or electrical, or magnetic
forces, or by surface action but are influenced only by
temperature, pressure and concentration , then the number of
degrees of freedom (F) of the system is related to the number of
components (C ) and number of phases (P) by thefollowing
phase rule equation :

F=C –P+2

6.3 Explanation of terms

I) Phase (P)
A phase is defined as “ an homogeneous, physically
distinct and mechanically separable portion of system, which is
separated from other such parts of the system by definite
boundary surfaces”
Example :
1. Liquid phase :
The number of liquid phase depends on the number of
liquids present and their miscibility.
Phase Rule 6.3

i) If two liquids are immiscible, they will form two separate

liquid phases.
Example : benzene and water
ii) If two liquids are miscible they will form one liquid phase
only.
Example : alcohol and water

2. Solid phase
Each solid forms a separate phase. The number of solid
phase depends on the number of solids present in it.
Example : Many forms of sulphur can exist together, but these
are all separate phases.

3. Gaseous phase
Since a gaseous mixture are thoroughly miscible in all
proportions, it will form one phase only.
Example : a mixture of N2 and H2 forms one phse only.
4. A solution of a substance in a solvent consists of one phase
only, e.g. glucose solution.
5. A heterogeneous mixture like:
CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
consists of three phases ( i.e., two solids and one gaseous).
In the equilibrium reaction,
Fe(s) + H2O(g) FeO(s) + H2(g)
There are two solid phases, Fe and FeO and one gaseous phase
consisting of H2O(g) and H2(g). Thus three phases exists in
equilibrium.
6.4 Engineering Chemistry-II

6. At freezing point, water consists of three phases:

Ice (s) Water (l) Water vapour (g)

7. A homogeneous solid solution of a salt forms a single phase.

Example : Mohr’s salt [ FeSO4. (NH4)2SO4.6H2O] solution has a

single phase.

II) Component (C)

Component is defined as “ the smallest number of independently
variable constituents, by means of which the composition of each
phase can be expressed in the form of a chemical equation”.
Example :
i) In the water system,

Ice (s) Water (l) Water vapour (g)

The chemical component of all the three phases is H 2O and

therefore it is one component system.
ii) Sulphur exists in four phases namely rhombic, monoclinic,
liquid and vapour, but the chemical composition of all phases is
S. Thus is an one component system.
iii) A system of saturated solution of NaCl consists of solid salt,
salt solution and water vapour. The chemical composition of all
the three phases can be expressed in terms of NaCl and H2O.
Therefore it is a two component system.
Phase Rule 6.5

iv) In the thermal decomposition of CaCO3,

CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

The composition of each of the three phases can be expressed in

terms of at least any two of the independent variable constituents,
CaCO3, CaO and CO2. Suppose CaCO3 and CaO are chosen as
the two components, then the composition of different phases is
represented as follows:
Phase : CaCO3 = CaCO3 + 0CaO
Phase : CaO = 0CaCO3 + CaO
Phase : CO2 = CaCO3 – CaO
Thus, it is a two component system..

v) In the equilibrium, Fe(s) + H2O(g) FeO (s) + H2 (g), the

minimum components required to express the composition of
each phase is three. Thus it is a three component system.
vi) In the dissociation of NH4Cl, the following equilibrium
occurs:
NH4Cl (s) NH3 (g) + HCl (g)
The system consists of two phass namely solid NH4Cl and the
gaseous mixture containing NH3+HCl.
When NH3 and HCl are present in equivalent quantities
the composition of both the phases can be represented by the
same chemical compound NH4 Cl and hence the system will be a
one component system.
6.6 Engineering Chemistry-II

III) Degree of freedom

Degree of freedom is defined as the minimum number of
independent variable factors such as temperature, pressure and
concentration of the phases, which must be fixed in order to
define the condition of a system completely.
A system having 1,2,3 or 0 degrees of freedom is called
univariant, bivariant, trivariant and nonvariant respectively.

Example :
i) Consider the water system,
Ice (s) Water (l) Water vapour (g)

The three phases can be in equilibrium only at particular

temperature and pressure.
Therefore, when all the three phases are present in
equilibrium, then no condition need to be specified. The system is
therefore zero variant or invariant or has no degree of freedom.
In this system if pressure or temperature is altered , three
phases will not remain in equilibrium and one of the phases
disappears.
ii) Consider a system consisting of water in contact with its
vapour,
Water (l) Water vapour (g)

To define this system completely, we must state either the

temperature or pressure Thus degree of freedom is one and the
system is univariant.
iii) For a system consisting of water vapour phase only, we must
state the values of both the temperature and pressure in order to
Phase Rule 6.7

define the system completely. Hence the system is bivariant or

has two degrees of freedom.
iv) For a gaseous mixture of N2 and H2, we must state both the
pressure and temperature, because if pressure and temperature are
fixed, the volume automatically becomes definite. Hence, for a
gaseous system, two factors must be stated in order to define it
completely and thus, it has two degrees of freedom or bivariant
system.
v) Consider a system consisting of

NaCl (s) NaCl-water (aq) Water vapour (g)

we must state either the temperature or pressure, because the

saturation solubility is fixed at a particular temperature or
pressure. Hence the system is univariant.

Merits of the Phase rule:

1. It is applicable to both physical and chemical equilibria.
2. It requires no information regarding molecular/micro-
structure, since it is applicable to macroscopic systems.
3. It is a convenient method of classifying equilibrium states
in terms of phases, components and degrees of freedom.
4. It helps us to predict the behaviour of a system, under
different sets of variables.
5. It indicates that different systems with same degree of
freedom behave similarly.
6. It helps in deciding whether under a given set of
conditions :
a) various substances would exist together in equilibrium
(or)
6.8 Engineering Chemistry-II

b) some of the substances present would be

interconverted or (c) some of the substances present
would be eliminated.

Limitations of Phase rule:

1. It can be applied only for system in equilibrium.
Consequently, it is of little value in case of very slow
equilibrium state attaining system.
2. It applies only to a single equilibrium system; and provide
no information regarding any other possible equilibria in
the system.
3. It requires at most care in deciding the number of phases
existing in an equilibrium state, since it considers only
the number of phases, rather than their amounts. Thus
even if a trace of phase is present, it accounts towards the
total number of phases.
4. It conditions that all phases of the system must be present
simultaneously under the identical conditions of
temperature and pressure.
5. It conditions that solid and liquid phases must not be in
finely-divided state; otherwise deviations occurs.

6.4 Applications of Phase rule to one

component system (water system)

The water system is a one component system

Ice Water Vapour

(Solid) (liquid) (gas)
Phase Rule 6.9

Since water exists in three possible phases such as solid, liquid

and vapour, there are three forms of equilibria :
Liquid – vapour , solid vapour and solid liquid

i.e., Liquid Vapour

Solid Vapour
Solid Liquid
Each equilibrium involves two phases. The nature of these
phases which exist in equilibrium at any time depends on the
conditions of temperature and pressure. These conditions have
been determined and summarized in the pressure-temperature
diagram in which pressure is treated as independent variable and
is plotted along y – axis whereas temperature is plotted along x-
axis.
The phase diagram for the water system is shown in Fig 6.1.
The phase diagram consists of
1.Curves : There are three curves OA, OB and OC.
2.Areas : Three curves OA , OB and OC divide the diagram into
three areas AOB, AOC and BOC.
3.Triple point : The above three curves meet at the point O and
is known as triple point.
4.Metastable equilibrium : The curve OA represents the
metastable equilibrium.
1) Curve OA
The curve OA is called vapourisation curve, it represents the
equilibrium between water and vapour. At any point on the curve
the following equilibrium will exist.

Water Water vapour

6.10 Engineering Chemistry-II

The degree of freedom of the system is one, i.e, univariant. Thus

applying phase rule equation,

F=C–P+2=1–2+2; F=1

This equilibrium (i.e, line OA ) will extend upto the critical

temperature ( 3740C). Beyond the critical temperature the
equilibrium will disappear only water vapour will exist.

2)Curve OB
The curve OB is called sublimation curve of ice, it represents
the equilibrium between ice and vapour. At any point on the
curve the following equilibrium will exist.

Ice Vapour
The degree of freedom of the system is one, i.e., univariant.
This is predicted by the phase rule.
F =C–P +2 ; F=1–2+2; F=1

This equilibrium line will extend upto the absolute zero(– 2730C )
where no vapour can be present and only ice will exist.

3) Curve OC
The curve OC is called melting point curve of ice, it represents
the equilibrium between ice and water. At any point on the curve
the following equilibrium will exist.

Ice Water
Phase Rule 6.11

The curve OC is slightly inclined towards pressure axis. This

shows that melting point of ice decreases with increase of
pressure.
The degree of freedom of the system is one. i.e., univariant.

C A
Liquid
Fusion curve

Ice Vap.Press.Curve

4.58 mm
O Vapour
Pressure

A’ Triple point
Subl. curve
B
0
Temperature 0.0075 C

Fig 6.1 Water System

iv) Triple point (Point ‘O’)
At triple point all the three phases namely ice, water and
vapour coexist. Thus the value of P is 3. Applying phase rule
equation, the degree of freedom at this point is zero. It means
that three phases can coexist in equilibrium only at a definite
temperature and pressure. The values are 0.00750C and 4.58 mm
respectively.
At this triple point, neither pressure nor temperature can
be altered even slightly without causing the disappearance of one
of the phases. The triple point is not the same as the ordinary
melting point of ice ( i.e, 00C). It’s value has been increased due
to the fact that 00C is the melting point of ice at 760mm of
mercury and a decrease of 4.58 mm will rise the melting point to
0.00750C.
6.12 Engineering Chemistry-II

v)Curve OB ( Metastable equilibrium)

The curve OB is called vapour pressure curve of the
super-cool water or metastable equilibrium.
Where the following equilibrium will exist.
Super-cool water Vapour
Sometimes water can be cooled below 00C without the
formation of ice, this water is called super-cooled water.
Supercooled water is unstable and it can be converted into solid
by ‘seeding’ or by slight disturbance.
vi) Areas
Area AOC, BOC , AOB represents water ice and vapour
respectively. In order to define the system at any point in the
areas, it is essential to specify both temperature and pressure. The
degree of freedom of the system is two. i.e., Bivariant.
This is predicted by the phase rule
F = C – P + 2; F = 1 – 1 +2 ; F = 2

6.5 Phase Diagram

Phase diagram is a graph obtained by plotting one degree

of freedom against another.
If the phase diagram is plotted between temperature
against pressure, the diagram is called P-T diagram. P-T diagram
is used for one component system.
If the phase diagram is drawn between temperature
against composition, the diagram is called T-C diagram. T-C
diagram is used for two component system.
Phase Rule 6.13

Uses of Phase diagram

1. From the phase diagram, it is possible to predict whether
an eutectic alloy or a solid solution is formed on cooling a
homogeneous liquid containing mixture of two metals.
2. The phase diagrams are useful in understanding the
properties of materials in the heterogeneous equilibrium
system.
3. The study of low melting eutectic alloys, used in
soldering, can be carried out using phase diagrams.

6.5 Two component system

Reduced phase rule or condensed phase rule.

We know the phase-rule equation,

F = C – P +2 ……… (1)

For a two component system, C = 2 and hence the above equation

becomes,
F=2–P+2 =4–P ……… (2)
The minimum number of phases in any system at
equilibrium is one. It is clear from the equation (2) , the
maximum number of degree of freedom is three.
Thus, three variables – pressure, temperature and
composition of one of the components must be specified to
describe the system. This will lead to three dimensional figures
which cannot be conveniently represented on a paper. To make
this simple, one of the three variables is kept constant.
6.14 Engineering Chemistry-II

In solid-liquid equilibrium of an alloy , practically there is

no gaseous phase and the pressure will not have much influence.
In the case of solid-liquid equilibrium, the experiments are
generally carried out at constant pressure.
Thus the system in which only the solid and liquid phases are
considered and the gas phase is ignored is called a condensed
system. This reduces the degree of freedom of the system by one.
The phase rule equation is then written as

F’ = C – P + 1 …….. (3)

This equation is called reduced phase rule or condensed phase

rule.
For a two component system the phase rule equation is written as
F’ = C – P + 1
= 2 – P +1 = 3 – P ……… (4)
he above equation is known as the reduced ( condensed) form
of phase rule for two component system.
There are various types of solid-liquid equilibria of which only
two of them are taken here.
1. Those equlibria in which the components are completely
miscible with one another in liquid state. They do not form any
compound on solidification. They give rise to merely an intimate
mixture known as eutectic .
Some examples of this system are
1) lead-silver system
2) Lead-Antimony system
3) Zinc-cadmium system
4) Potassium iodide- water system
Phase Rule 6.15

2. Those equilibria in which the components enter into chemical

combination . They give rise to one or more compounds.
Examples of this system are :
1) Zinc-magnesium system
2) Calcium chloride – Potassium chloride system
3) Gold-Tellurium system.

Classification of two component system

The two component systems are classified into the following
three types :
i) Simple eutectic formation
ii) a) Formation of compound with congruent melting
point.
b) Formation of compound with incongruent melting
point.
iii) Formation of solid solution.

i) Simple eutectic formation :

A system with two substances which are completely
miscible in the liquid state , but completely immiscible in the
solid state is known as eutectic system. In this system the
substances do not react chemically.
Among the mixtures of different proportions of two
substances, the mixture which has the lowest melting point is
known as the eutectic mixture.
The temperature and composition corresponding to the
point eutectic point is called eutectic temperature and eutectic
composition respectively.
6.16 Engineering Chemistry-II

ii) a)Formation of compound with congruent melting point :

In this type of binary alloy system the two substances
form one or more compounds with definite proportions. Of the
compounds, a compound is said to possess congruent melting
point, if it melts exactly at a constant temperature into liquid,
having the same composition as that of the solid.
b) Formation of compound with incongruent melting point :
Of the above compounds, a compound is said to possess
incongruent melting point, if it decomposes completely at a
temperature below it’s melting point yielding a new solid phase
with a composition different from that of the original.
iii) Formation of solid solution :
In this type, when two substances, especially metals, are
completely miscible in both the solid and liquid states, they form
solid solutions where mixing takes place in the atomic levels. A
solid solution can be formed only when the difference between
the atomic radius of two metals is not greater than 15%.

6.6 Simple eutectic systems

The general phase diagram for binary alloy systems is

shown in Fig 4.2 . Here the pressure does not have the
considerable effect. Hence, the other two variables viz,
temperature and compositions are taken into account.
Components A and B.
When small quantities of B are added to A gradually, the
melting point of A falls along the curve AC. In the same way
when small quantities of A are added to B gradually, the melting
point B falls along the curve BC. Hence, AC and BC are the
freezing point curves of A and B respectively.
Phase Rule 6.17

’ B

’
A
Temperature
Solid A + solution Solid B + solution

Eutectic
D point
D
Solid A C ’ Solid B
+ Solid A + solid B +
(Eutectic ) (Eutectic ) (Eutectic )
Composition
Fig 6.2 The simple Eutectic system

The curves AC and BC meet at the point C. At this point

the three phases solid A, solid B and their solution coexist. The
degree of freedom is zero here and the system is therefore
invariant. Also only at this point C, the liquid can exist at the
lowest temperature. Since the mixture of components A and B of
composition corresponding to the point C has the lowest melting
point, the point C is called the eutectic point.
The temperature and composition corresponding to the
point C is called eutectic temperature and eutectic composition
respectively.
Consider a liquid mixture of composition represented by a
point cooled at constant pressure. The temperature falls without
any change of composition until the point on the curve AC is
reached. At this temperature t 1, the solid A will separate out. The
system now consists of two phases and hence monovariant. As
cooling continues, the component A keeps on separating out and
the solution becomes relatively richer in B. The temperature and
the solution composition both change along AC. Thus at the
6.18 Engineering Chemistry-II

temperature t1, solid A is in equilibrium with solution of

composition X and at temperature t2, it is in equilibrium with
solution of composition Y. It is clear therefore, in the area ACD,
solid A is in equilibrium with solutions of varying composition
given by the curve AC depending upon the temperature.
When the temperature reaches a point represented by ,
the solid B also begins to separate out. On further cooling the
system, solid A and B separate out together in constant ratio so
that the composition of the solution remains constant. The
temperature also remains constant for some time. When the liquid
solution has been completely solidified and the system consists
only of a mixture of solid A and B, it becomes monovariant.
Further cooling will result in the fall of temperature below the
line DD into the area in which only the two solids coexist as
shown.
In the same way , if the composition of liquid mixture is
on the right of the eutectic point C, as represented by point ‘ ’,
similar series of changes will be obtained on cooling.

Construction of Phase diagram by Thermal analysis

(or) cooling curve
Thermal analysis is a method involving a study of the
cooling curves of various compositions of a system during
solidification. The shape of the freezing point curves for any
system, especially those involving metals can be determined by
thermal analysis.
The data obtained from thermal analysis along with
recorded curves are called as thermogram. These thermograms
are characteristic of a particular system composed of either
single or multi component materials . Thermograms indicate the
system in terms of temperature, dependencies of it’s
thermodynamic properties. Let us discuss in detail the cooling
curves or time-temperature curves of some simple systems.
Phase Rule 6.19

Example 1 :
If a pure substance say x , in molten state is cooled slowly
and the temperature is noted at different time interval. The graph
plotted between temperature and time (the cooling curve) will be
of the form shown in Fig 6.3 (a). In this diagram ab denotes the
rate of cooling of molten liquid and the liquid starts solidifying
at the freezing point b. Now the temperature remains constant
until the liquid melt is completely solidified. Solidification
completes at the point ‘c’. The horizontal line ‘bc’ represents the
equilibrium between the solid and liquid melt. After the point ‘c’,
the temperature of the solid begins to decrease along the curve
‘cd’.
Example 2 :
When a molten liquid containing two components ( say A
and B) is cooled slowly then the cooling curve is different and
one such curve is shown in Fig 6.3 (b). As before, initially the
rate of cooling is continuous. When it reaches the point ‘b’ one
substance ( either A or B) begins to solidify out of the melt,
which is indicated by a break and the rate of cooling is different.

a
Temperature
Temperature

b c b
c d
d
e
Time Time
Fig 6.3(a) Cooling curve of Fig 4.3(b) Cooling curve
a Pure solid of a mixture A + B
6.20 Engineering Chemistry-II

On further cooling at the break point ‘c’ the second

compound also begins to solidify. Now the temperature remains
constant until the liquid melt is completely solidified, which
forms the eutectic mixture (line cd) . After the break point ‘d’
cooling of solid mass begins. The temperature of horizontal line
‘cd’ gives the eutectic temperature.
The temperature measurements are done with a sensitive
thermometer and the arrest points are determined with good
precision.
A number of mixtures of A and B are taken with different
composition. Each mixture is heated to the molten state and their
cooling curves are drawn separately for each mixture. From the
cooling curves of various compositions, the main phase diagram
can be drawn by taking the composition in X-axis and
temperature in Y-axis. Any point on this line indicates the
appearance of the solid phase from the liquid. The area above
this curve is only liquid phase.
100% B
10% B

70% B
Pure A

40% B
50% B
20% B

80% B
90% B

a i
Temperature

h
Temperature
b g
c
d f

e
Solid A + solid B

Time Composition

Fig 6.4 Cooling curve of various compositions

of two solids
Phase Rule 6.21

Uses of Cooling curves

1. Cooling curves are used to find the percentage purity of
the compounds.
2. It is used to find the melting point of the compounds
3. Thermal analysis is useful in derivation of phase diagram
of any two component system
4. Used to find the composition of the alloy.
5. Used to analyse the behaviour of the compounds.

6.7 Lead –Silver system

It is a two component system . The two metals are completely

miscible in liquid state and do not form any compound . There is
almost no effect of pressure on this system. The temperature-
composition phase diagram is shown in Fig.6.5. It contains
lines, areas and the eutectic point.
i) The curve AC:
The curve AC is the freezing point curve of pure lead.
The melting point of lead decreases gradually along the curve
AC, with the continuous addition of silver. Thus the curve AC is
showing the effect of addition of silver on the melting point of
pure lead. All along the curve AC two phases –solid lead and
liquid are in equilibrium.
According to reduced phase rule equation
F’ = C – P + 1
= 2–2+1 = 1
i.e, F’ = 1
i.e., the system is univariant.
6.22 Engineering Chemistry-II

Liquid melt 1234 K

B
x
A
600 K y
Liquid + solid silver
Liquid
+
Solid Lead
576 K
D 2 C
Solid A Solid silver + Eutectic
+
(Eutectic )
2.6% Composition 100% Ag
100% Pb Ag

Fig 6.5 Lead-Silver System

ii) The curve BC

Curve BC is the freezing point curve of pure silver and represents
the effect of addition of pure lead on the melting point of pure
silver. All along the curve BC two phases –solid silver and liquid
are in equilibrium.
According to reduced phase rule equation.
F’ = C – P + 1
= 2 – 2 + 1 = 1, i.e. F’ = 1 ( The system is univariant )

iii) Point C ( Eutectic point)

Point C is the eutectic point where solid silver, solid lead and
their solution coexist. The curves AC and BC meet at point C.
Since the experiment is carried out at constant pressure, the
number of degree of freedom for the system at the eutectic point
C is zero on the basis of reduced phase rule.
Phase Rule 6.23

F’ = C – P + 1
= 2–3 +1 =0; i.e., F’ = 0
The system is non-univariant.
Eutectic composition is 2.6% , silver and 97.4% lead and the
corresponding temperature is 576 K.
iv) Areas
The area above the line ACB has a single phase (molten Pb+Ag).
According to reduced phase rule equation,
F’ = C – P + 1 ;
= 2–1+1 =2; i.e., F’ = 2
The system is bivariant.
Both the temperature and composition have to be specified to
define the system completely.
The area below the line AC ( solid Ag + liquid melt), below the
line BC ( solid Pb +liquid melt) and below the eutectic point ‘C’
have two phases and the system is univariant.
According to reduced phase rule equation,
F’ = C – P + 1 ;
= 2 – 2 + 1 = 1 i.e., F’ = 1

Application of Pattinson’s process :

The phase diagram of lead-silver is useful in the
extraction of silver from the argentiferous lead ore which has a
very small percentage of silver. This process is known as
Pattinson’s process.
Let x represent the molten argentiferous ( Pb + Ag alloy)
lead containing very small amount of silver in it. It is a
homogeneous liquid and on cooling, the temperature falls but
6.24 Engineering Chemistry-II

without change in concentration till any point y on the curve AC

is reached.
On further cooling, lead begins to separate out and the
solution becomes richer in silver. Further cooling will shift the
system along the line yc. More of lead separates as solid till the
point C is reached when the percentage of Ag rises to 2.6%. This
process of increasing the relative proportion of silver in the alloy
is known as Pattinson’s process of desilvering of lead.
Uses of Eutectic system :
1. Eutectic systems are useful in predicting the suitable alloy
composition.
2. It is used in the preparation of solders which are used for
joining two metal pieces together.

Review questions
1. State the phase rule and what are the merits and demerits
of phase rule?
2. State the condensed phase rule
3. Explain Phase, component and degree of freedom.
4. Describe the water system
5. Briefly describe the construction of phase diagram using
thermal analysis.