Fission-Track Dating: Equilibrium Line Altitude (ELA) Reconstruction

Equilibrium Line Altitude (ELA) Reconstruction see Glacial Landforms, Ice Sheets: Paleo-ELAs
Erratics, Glacial see Glacial Landforms, Sediments: Glacial Erratics and Till Dispersal Indicators
Extinctions, Quaternary Vertebrates see Vertebrate Records: Late Pleistocene Megafaunal Extinctions
F
Felsenmeer (Blockfields) see Permafrost and Periglacial Features: Block/Rock Streams
Fission-Track Dating
J A Westgate, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
N D Naeser, US Geological Survey, Reston, VA, USA
B V Alloway, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
ã 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Introduction account for most tracks in natural, terrestrial materials. Latent

tracks can only be observed with a transmission electron mi-
A fission track is a linear region of intense radiation damage croscope but can be made visible by chemical etching (Young,
formed by the passage of an energetic, charged nuclear particle 1958) and readily seen under an optical microscope. Etching
through an insulating solid. According to a popular hypothe- takes place by rapid dissolution of the disordered region of the
sis, known as the ‘ion explosion spike’ model (Fleischer et al., track core, which exists in a state of higher free energy than the
1975), the charged particle collides with atoms in its path, undamaged material. As can be seen in Figure 1, the shape of
displaces them and removes their electrons, producing a nar- the etched fission tracks varies in different materials, due
row zone rich in positive ions, which repulse each other into mainly to differences in symmetry and magnitude of the dif-
interstitial positions and form vacancies. An elastic adjustment ference between the track and bulk etch rates. Fission tracks in
of the crystal or glass then occurs, straining the undamaged glass are relatively wide, conical pits due to its isotropic prop-
matrix (Fleischer, 2004). Another idea, called the ‘thermal erties and a track etch rate that is not much greater than the
spike’ model, sees the fast-moving fission fragment producing bulk etch rate. Micas have diamond-shaped tracks, whereas
intense heat along its trajectory. After passage of the charged tracks in zircon and apatite are needle-like because of the
particle, the track core is quenched by heat loss to the adjacent large difference between track and bulk etch rates, the former
lattice, leaving it in a disordered state. According to Chadderton being much greater.
(2003), it is likely that both mechanisms are involved in track Fission tracks have varied uses ranging from applications in
formation. Maximum density damage exists at the site of fis- the fields of engineering, medicine, nuclear physics, and space
sion and decreases to the track termini. This damaged zone sciences to the earth sciences (Fleischer, 1998). The most
persists in the solid after the fission fragment has come to a rest important applications in the earth sciences are thermo-
and is called a latent track. Its length is equal to the sum of the chronology (Reiners and Ehlers, 2005) and geochronology.
range of the two charged particles formed by nuclear fission, Thermochronology – the more active field at present – focuses
each moving in opposite directions. 238U fission events form on understanding the thermal history of rocks and duration
latent tracks that are 6–10 nm wide and 10–20 mm long and and rates of geological processes, such as crustal uplift.
643
644 Fission-Track Dating
(a) (b)
1600X 10 µm
(c) (d)
Figure 1 Fission tracks in glass shards, mica, and zircon. (a) Fission tracks (6–8 mm wide) in glass shard as seen using an optical microscope; (b) SEM
image of fission tracks in glass shard (darker areas are the deepest part of the conical pits); (c) fission tracks in mica (5 mm wide); (d) needle-like
fission tracks in zircon from the Bishop Tuff, California (crystal is 0.2 mm wide).
Geochronology, on the other hand, is primarily concerned decay of 238U by spontaneous fission is known (the decay
with formation age, the topic of interest to us here. constant, lF), then we need only to know the U concentration
Zircon and glass are the most suitable phases for dating and abundance of spontaneous fission tracks, assuming all are
Quaternary deposits by fission-track (FT) methods, although preserved, to calculate an age (Price and Walker, 1963). The
apatite and sphene may also be useful. The most desirable basic age equation for an FT age, t, given by Wagner and Van
situation for dating Quaternary sediments is where they are den haute (1992) is:
associated with silicic tephra beds because not only can they be
t ¼ 1=lD ln f1 þ ðlD =lF Þðrs =ri ÞQGIsF ’g [1]
reliably dated using their zircon and glass shards, but their
10
widespread distribution and common distinctiveness make where lD is the total decay constant for U (1.551 10
238
tephra beds excellent markers, linking the stratigraphies of year1), lF is not well determined (values cluster around
isolated sites, sometimes over distances exceeding 1000 km 7 1017 year1 and 8.5 1017 year1; Bigazzi, 1981), rs is
(see Major Scale Forms). the areal track density of etched spontaneous tracks, ri is the
We outline in this article the basic principles of FT dating, areal track density of etched induced fission tracks, Q is a
detail the different methods used for glass and zircon, describe procedural factor involving track registration and observation
the correction procedures for partial track fading (PTF) in efficiency (Q ¼ 1 if track etching and counting procedures are
glasses, comment on the accuracy and precision of FT dates, identical), G refers to the initial geometry ratio of the etched
and compare the results obtained to those of other dating surfaces for counting spontaneous and induced tracks (G ¼ 1 or
methods, especially the 40Ar/39Ar technique. Finally, we illus- 0.5 depending on the dating procedure used), I is the isotopic
trate the application of FT dating to the Quaternary Sciences by abundance of 235U/238U (7.2527 103), sF is the cross sec-
reference to a few case studies. tion for induced nuclear fission of 235U by thermal neutrons
(580.2 1024 cm2), and ’ is the thermal neutron fluence,
measured by the induced FT density on a U-doped glass (e.g.,
Age Equation NIST 612), rD, irradiated together with the sample, and is
equal to BrD, where B is a calibration constant that is empiri-
In principle, FT dating is similar to other radioisotopic dating cally determined. The irradiation procedure is used to enable the
methods except that the decay product of interest is the spon- U concentration to be determined through the known relative
taneous fission track, not the daughter nuclide. If the rate of abundance of 235U–238U because only 235U fissions when
Fission-Track Dating 645
irradiated with thermal neutrons. Hence, given these constants, (a)

an FT age is obtained by measuring three areal track densities, rs,
ri, and rD. Due to the uncertainties in the values of lF and sF,
and the dependency of ’ on the nuclear reactor characteristics,
especially the degree of thermalization, use of the zeta calibra-
tion based on analysis of age standards was recommended by
Hurford and Green (1983) and is now widely used. The zeta age
calibration factor, z, is defined by:
z ¼ BðIsF =lF Þ [2]
Substituting eqn [2] in eqn [1], and considering G ¼ 1 and

Q ¼ 1, gives:
t ¼ 1=lD ln f1 þ lD ðrs =ri ÞzrD g [3]
Rearranging eqn [3] for a standard of known age (tstd) gives:

10 kv 400⫻ 50 mm
z ¼ f exp ðlD tstd Þ 1g= lD ðrs =ri Þstd rD [4]
The value of z can then be used in eqn [3] to give the age of a (b)
sample.
If the grains within a sample have a common age, the
uncertainty on the age is given by (Green, 1981):
1=2
sðt Þ=t ¼ 1=Ns þ 1=Ni þ 1=ND þ ½sðzÞ=z2 [5]
where s(t) is the 1s uncertainty on the age, s(z) is the 1s
uncertainty on z; Ns, Ni, and ND are the total number of tracks
counted for rs, ri, and rD, respectively, and the area is deter-
mined using an eyepiece graticule. If the area is estimated by
use of the point-counting technique, commonly the case with
glass shards, an additional experimental error is involved. In
this case, the relative standard error (se) on the age (t) is given
by (Bigazzi and Galbraith, 1999):
10 kv 150⫻ 100 mm
seðt Þ=t f1=Ys þ ½1 ðXs =ns Þ=Xs þ 1=Yi þ ½1 ðXi =ni Þ=Xi þ 1=YD g
1=2
[6] Figure 2 (a) Pumiceous grains from the late Pleistocene Sheep Creek-K
tephra, Yukon, Canada. (b) Poorly vesicular, blocky glass shards of the
where Ys, Yi, and YD are the total number of spontaneous and middle Pleistocene Gold Run tephra, Yukon, Canada. Sheep Creek-K
induced tracks counted in the sample, and the number of tracks tephra cannot be dated by glass FT methods because of insufficient glass
counted in the fluence monitor, respectively. Xs and Xi are the surface area. Gold Run tephra, on the other hand, is readily dated by
total number of points on glass in determining rs and ri, and ns fission tracks (Table 1).
and ni are the corresponding totals for the fields of view.
the material. In some materials, this requirement can now be

Prerequisite Conditions for FT Geochronology assessed directly by laser ablation inductively coupled plasma-
mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) (Pearce et al., 2004). The EDM
The mineral or glass to be dated by the FT method must meet of FT dating, described below, can compensate for the inhomo-
several criteria (Dumitru, 2000; Faure, 1977). The U concen- geneous U distribution typical of minerals such as zircon. The
tration must be sufficient to give a statistically significant sample must not have suffered any post-emplacement (deposi-
age. Tracks, once formed, must be stable at ambient tempera- tional) heating that would cause resetting of its fission tracks. The
tures and not fully anneal soon after formation. Partial fading nature of the sample’s geologic environment would offer insights
of tracks is common in some minerals and glasses, but correc- on the likelihood of such an event, as does the size distribution
tion procedures have been developed to account for this con- of its spontaneous tracks. The mineral or glass must be unaltered
dition, particularly in glass. Ideally, the material should be free and form a primary constituent of the rock or sediment being
of microlites and other inclusions, defects, and lattice disloca- dated. For example, tephra deposits, commonly dated by the FT
tions, which, upon etching, can resemble fission tracks and make method, typically contain foreign grains of xenocrystic, lithic,
track identification and counting difficult (Storzer and Wagner, and detrital origin, which must be avoided during the track-
1982). The crystal or glass surface area must be large enough to counting operation. This requires use of grain-specific methods
permit an accurate measurement of the areal track densities. For for FT counting. As with all geochronologic studies, the strati-
example, the pumiceous grains in Figure 2(a) cannot be dated, graphic, and, in some cases, sedimentologic context of the de-
but the poorly vesicular, blocky glass shards in Figure 2(b) can posit must be well established. Materials that satisfy these criteria
be readily dated by fission tracks. The lower limit in grain size is are glass (obsidian, tektites, volcanic glass shards, and glasses
80 mm. Ideally, U must be distributed uniformly throughout made by humans), zircon, apatite, and sphene, although the
latter two are seldom used to date Quaternary events because of

low U and rarity.
Glass-FT Methods
General Considerations
One of the earliest successful examples of FT dating involved
the use of glass shards to determine the age of Bed 1 at Olduvai
Gorge (Fleischer et al., 1965a,b). The FT age of 2.0 0.3 Ma
agreed with the K–Ar age of 1.75 0.05 Ma, obtained earlier by
Leakey et al. (1961). Silicic, hydrated glass shards are an ideal
medium for FT dating. They are the most abundant phase of
tephra beds; they are mostly homogeneous and seldom con-
tain microlites or inclusions; they are isotropic with uniform Figure 3 Photograph of Huckleberry Ridge tephra. The lower part of the
etching characteristics; U contents typically range from 2 to bed is primary air-fall tephra with horizontal bedding. The upper,
8 ppm for rhyolitic to dacitic glasses, enough to produce a cross-bedded part is reworked material washed into the site, and is,
sufficient number of spontaneous tracks for a statistically use- therefore, more likely to be contaminated by detrital grains. Scale is mm
ful Quaternary age; rapid cooling during the eruption and ruler. Photograph by Glen A. Izett.
subsequent storage at near-surface temperatures mean that
acceptable formation ages can be obtained; proven correction host tephra, resulting in a distinctive areal density and size of
methods for PTF exist; and glass shards as small as 80 mm can their fission tracks.
be dated, opening up the geochronology of regions distant A unimodal major-element composition of glass shards in a
from volcanic centers (especially those of calc–alkaline com- sample (e.g., Old Crow tephra, Figure 4) argues for U homo-
position where K-rich minerals are rare) because their parent geneity. However, a direct measurement of U homogeneity on
silicic tephra beds are commonly very widespread. It must be a shard-to-shard basis can now be made by LA-ICP-MS (Pearce
admitted, however, that FT dating late Quaternary events by et al., 2004), and two examples are shown in Figure 5.
rhyolitic glass shards is a challenge, although possible, if long Uranium contents range from 4 to 12 ppm for both the Lava
counting times are accepted (e.g., Kohn, 1979; 20.3 7.1 ka), Creek B and Huckleberry Ridge tephra beds with the average U
or the glass is unusually rich in U (Alloway et al., 2004b; values obtained by solution ICP-MS and LA-ICP-MS being very
50 3 ka). Similarly, glass shards of andesitic and basaltic similar. In FT dating, U is conventionally measured by irradi-
composition commonly have U contents <1 ppm U and ating an aliquot of the sample with a specified dose of thermal
cannot be used to date Quaternary events. Obsidians are neutrons that induce fission of a portion of the 235U, which can
much more suitable in this respect because of the large surface then be used to determine the amount of 238U in the sample
areas for counting that are available. Bigazzi and Bonadonna because the ratio of 238U–235U is a fixed number (I in eqn [1]).
(1973) dated Lipari obsidians in the range of 1.4–11.4 ka, Thousands of glass shards are scanned to give ri so that a very
and U-rich archaeological glasses of late historic age have good average value of the 238U content is obtained, despite the
been dated by fission tracks (Wagner and Van den haute, large range in U values seen in Figure 5. Further, rs is deter-
1992). mined under identical conditions so that rs/ri in age eqn [1]
Whereas the problem of contamination in obsidian and can be regarded as accurately determined, and proven to be so
tektite glasses is neglible, it is an issue when FT dating glass by the excellent agreement between corrected glass-FT and
40
shards and zircon from tephra beds, which are very susceptible Ar/39Ar dating methods for Huckleberry Ridge tephra
to reworking (Figure 3). Grain-specific methods for composi- (1.97 0.22 and 2.003 0.014 Ma, respectively). In a recent
tional characterization and FT dating must be used to neutral- development, FT ages of apatite grains are now being deter-
ize this problem. Tight compositional clustering of glass mined using U concentrations determined by LA-ICP-MS
shards, as seen in Old Crow tephra (Figure 4), show little if (Hasebe et al., 2004). Future investigations should explore
any contamination, but compositional outliers exist in the the viability of this approach for glass shards, obsidians, and
Dominion Creek tephra and must be addressed before an tektites, using both average U values from a large number of
accurate FT age can be determined (Figure 4). In the latter LA-ICP-MS analyses as well as solution ICP-MS.
case, the contaminating glass shards possessed a notably There is only one formally accepted glass age standard, Mol-
higher track density, allowing them to be recognized and ig- davite (Balestrieri et al., 1998). Because the I.U.G.S. Subcommis-
nored. Samples that show multiple compositional clustering sion on Geochronology specified the use of splits from a single
due to magma-mixing or post-depositional reworking cannot Moldavite (Hurford, 1990), and no supplier is known who can
be reliably dated by glass-FT methods. Samples with minor provide a sample large enough for distribution to the FT com-
contamination are tractable, however, because glass-FT dating munity, in essence, no formal glass age standard presently exists!
methods are grain-specific in that the track data are accumu- Other necessary attributes of a formal age standard are that it
lated by examination of individual grains so that any foreign contains sufficient tracks to give a statistically meaningful age,
glass shards that are encountered during the counting process and that it has not suffered from PTF. Whether such a glass exists
can be ignored. In such cases, the exotic glass would have to or not is debatable. The candidate that comes closest to these
have an age and composition that is very different to that of the requirements is the Jankov Moldavite. Other potential age
5 2.0
Old Crow tephra Old Crow tephra
4
Na2O (wt%)
CaO (wt%)
3 1.5
N = 537 N = 537
1 1.0
3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
K2O (wt%) FeOt (wt%)
2.0
4.9
Dominion Creek tephra Dominion Creek tephra
4.7
1.5
4.5
CaO (wt%)
1.0 K2O (wt%) 4.3
4.1
0.5 3.9
N = 99 3.7 N = 99
0.0 3.5
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
FeOt (wt%) FeOt (wt%)
Figure 4 Oxide-variation diagrams showing major-element composition of glass shards from late Pleistocene Old Crow and Dominion Creek tephra
beds, Yukon Territory, Canada. Tight clustering in Old Crow tephra demonstrates that contamination is very minor, if present. Several compositional
outliers occur in Dominion Creek tephra indicating presence of contamination that must be addressed before an accurated FT age can be obtained. N is
the number of individual glass-shard microprobe analyses.
20 standards recommended by Balestrieri et al. (1998) are Roccas-

trada R2V, Mancusanite, and the Japanese glass JAS-G1. The
University of Toronto Laboratory currently uses the Huckleberry
Huckleberry Ridge tephra Ridge tephra from Meade County, Kansas, USA, to monitor
15
accuracy of its FT age determinations (Table 1). This tephra
Lava Creek B tephra
bed has large glass shards with no inclusions, high U content
U (ppm)
(Figure 5), an 40Ar/39Ar age of 2.003 0.014 (2s) Ma (Gansecki

10
et al., 1998), and abundant spontaneous fission tracks, making
it a useful informal reference glass. PTF has occurred in its glass
shards (Ds/Di ¼ 0.81 0.03 based on five samples; no labora-
5
tory heat treatment), but well-established correction procedures
are available (see below).
0
0 10 20 30 40
Population FT Method
Th (ppm)
The glass-population method can be used for homogeneous
Figure 5 U and Th contents in glass shards from Lava Creek B and
samples. In the case of glass shards, the coarsest, least vesicular
Huckleberry Ridge tephra beds, USA, as determined by LA-ICP-MS.
fraction is obtained using sieves combined with magnetic and
Average values for these elements given by solution ICP-MS are shown
by pink circle (HRt) and pink oval (LCBt). Average U concentrations by heavy-liquid techniques. Obsidian and tektite samples are
each method are very similar: HRt – 8.2 ppm by LA-ICP-MS, 6.7 ppm by gently crushed and sieved to concentrate the 0.25–0.125 mm
solution ICP-MS; LCBt – corresponding values are 7.4 and 7.5 ppm. fraction. The sample is split into two aliquots, one of which is
Agreement in the average Th values by these two methods is obviously heated to remove the spontaneous tracks and irradiated. Both
not as good. aliquots are then mounted on glass slides with epoxy, polished
648
Table 1 Glass-fission-track age of Gold Run tephra, Klondike goldfields, Yukon Territory, Canada
Sample number Date irradiated Spontaneous track Corrected Induced track Track density on Etching conditions Ds (mm) Di (mm) Ds/Di or Di/ Age (Ma)
density (102 t cm2) spontaneous track density (105 muscovite detector (HF:temp:time; Ds
density (102 t cm2) t cm2) over dosimeter %:oC:s)
glass (105 t cm2)
Gold Run tephra

UT1791 21/01/2002 4.09 0.28 1.10 0.01 5.15 0.03 24:22:110 5.39 0.10 6.24 0.06 0.86 0.02 0.61 0.06
(211) (12976) (31171) [155] [848]
UT1791a 21/01/2002 4.75 0.33 1.10 0.01 5.15 0.03 24:22:110 5.39 0.10 6.24 0.06 1.16 0.02b 0.71 0.07
(211) (12976) (31171) [155] [848]
UT1907c 25/06/2004 3.01 0.28 0.60 0.01 4.90 0.04 24:21:200 6.46 0.18 6.81 0.09 0.95 0.03 0.78 0.09
(119) (6780) (15640) [94] [398]
Weighted 0.74 0.06
mean
age
Internal Standard: Huckleberry Ridge tephra
UT1366 21/01/2002 27.35 1.27 2.21 0.02 5.01 0.03 24:22:160 5.89 0.10 6.26 0.07 0.94 0.01 1.97 0.22
(520) (14722) (31171) [212] [597]
Ages calculated using the zeta approach and lD ¼ 1.551 1010year1. Zeta value is 318 3 based on six irradiations at the McMaster Nuclear Reactor, Hamilton, Ontario, using the NIST SRM 612 glass dosimeter and the Moldavite tektite glass
(Lhenice locality) with an 40Ar/39Ar plateau age of 15.21 0.15 Ma (Staudacher et al., 1982). Standard error (1s) on age estimate is calculated according to Bigazzi and Galbraith (1999). Weighted mean age based on UT1791a and UT1907c. Area
estimated using the point-counting method (Naeser et al. 1982). Ds ¼ mean spontaneous track diameter, Di ¼ mean induced track diameter. Number of tracks counted is given in brackets. Number of tracks measured given in square brackets. The single-
crystal (sanidine) laser-fusion 40Ar/39Ar age of Huckleberry Ridge tephra, the internal standard, is 2.003 0.014 Ma (2s error) (Gansecki et al. 1998). The low value of Ds/Di for UT1366 and its associated small error suggest that the plateau condition was
not reached, although the calculated age is very close to its 40Ar/39Ar age. The population-subtraction method was used. These glass-ft ages have not been corrected according to our new calibration scheme. See notes in Table 4.
a
Sample corrected for partial track fading by the track-size (DCFT) method (Sandhu and Westgate, 1995); uncorrected age noted simply by sample number.
b
Di/Ds value used to correct spontaneous track density.
c
Samples corrected for partial track fading by thermal pretreatment, the ITPFT method (Westgate, 1989); samples heated for 30 days at 150 C.
to expose internal surfaces within the grains, and etched in HF annealing experiments on the irradiated aliquots (Arias et al.,
to reveal the tracks. The spontaneous areal track density, rs, is 1981; Storzer and Wagner, 1969). Sandhu and Westgate (1995)
obtained from the unheated shards, and ri from the heated, developed a modified version of the size correction method in
irradiated shards. Acceptable ages were determined on the which apparent ages of glass shards from tephra beds are cor-
Macusanite obsidian using this method (Osorio et al., 2003), rected for PTF by using a 1:1 relationship between r/ro and D/
the samples being heated for 10 h at 560 C in order to erase Do – an approach supported by experimental data. If the sample
the spontaneous tracks. However, for a number of reasons, this is etched to give Di in the range of 6–8 mm, the corrected
method is not recommended for hydrated glass shards. The spontaneous areal track density (rsc) is given by:
differential heat treatment means that track-etching efficiencies
rsc ¼ rs ðDi =Ds Þ [7]
for rs and ri are different. Heating above 200 C drives off
water and produces brittle glass shards, which fracture easily The near–linear relationship observed by Sandhu and
when polished, thereby reducing the glass surface area avail- Westgate (1995) contrasts sharply with the distinctly nonlinear
able for counting because of the larger surface area exposed correlation found by Storzer and Wagner (1969; Figure 7).
to chemical attack during etching. Crazed surfaces are also Van den haute’s study (1985) explains this difference as due
produced and hinder track recognition (Naeser et al., 1980). to the different etching conditions used. He theoretically
calculated a set of curves showing how r/ro varies with D/Do
Population-Subtraction Method with progressively longer etch times (i.e., increase in h, the
thickness of the glass layer removed by the etchant). At low
The important distinction of this method is that the two ali-
values of h, the curves are strongly nonlinear, but become
quots are not subjected to any heat treatment prior to irradia-
near–linear with larger values of h (Figure 7). According to
tion. The induced areal track density, ri, is calculated by
these data, the average track diameter in Storzer and Wagner’s
determining the areal track density of the irradiated sample
study (1969) is 5 mm, whereas Sandhu and Westgate (1995)
and then subtracting rs. An example of a FT age determination
etched their glasses to give a mean track diameter in the range
using this method is shown in Table 1, which also demon-
of 6–8 mm.
strates the information that should be provided in the docu-
mentation of a glass-FT age determination.
Plateau Correction Methods

Correction Methods for PTF in Glasses
The step-heating plateau method (Storzer and Poupeau, 1973)
Introduction takes advantage of the higher thermal stability of partially
When a glass or mineral with latent tracks is held at high faded spontaneous tracks. The FT age of a sample is propor-
temperatures for a sufficient period of time, the disordered tional to rs/ri. If PTF has occurred, this ratio will be too low.
structure becomes restored, presumably by a diffusion mecha- However, when pairs of the natural sample and its irradiated
nism. A number of factors influence the stability of latent aliquot are heated together for a given time at progressively
nuclear tracks in solids, but temperature is by far the most higher temperatures, rs/ri increases until a plateau level is
important (Fleischer et al., 1965a,b). As latent tracks are pro- reached. The value of rs/ri at this plateau level is used to give
gressively heated, they gradually shorten. For internally distrib- an FT age corrected for PTF. An example of this approach is
uted tracks, the observed areal track density at a surface given in Arias et al. (1981). An alternative method is to keep a
depends on the etchable length of the tracks and so this length constant temperature and change the heating time (Burchart
reduction is accompanied by an areal track density reduction. et al., 1975). An excellent example is the work of Bonetti et al.
Thus, if the range of spontaneous fission tracks has been low- (1998) on an Australian obsidian (Figure 8). The steady increase
ered by heating, the calculated age will be younger than the in apparent age with continued heating at 140 C is clearly
true age. Glasses suffer from PTF, which can occur even at shown, as is the plateau condition, which is reached after 50 h
ambient surface temperatures (Naeser et al., 1980), so that it and indicates an age of 85 Ma. Attainment of the plateau condi-
is always necessary to apply a correction for this fading effect tion is also shown by Ds/Di ¼ 1. A modified version of the plateau
before a meaningful FT age can be obtained. technique has been developed by Westgate (1989), who showed
that a single heat treatment of 150 C for 30 days is sufficient to
correct fully for PTF. Again, the plateau position is recognized by
Track-Size Correction Methods
Ds ¼ Di. In practice, an error is associated with Ds/Di. For example,
The track-size correction method involves measuring the diam- taking eight recently determined glass-ITPFT ages, the range in
eters of spontaneous tracks in the natural sample and comparing Ds/Di values is 1.03–0.94 with a mean value of 0.99 0.03. This
them to the diameters of induced tracks in the irradiated aliquot. procedure has been successfully applied to hydrated, silicic glass
If the mean track diameter of spontaneous tracks, Ds, is less than shards of many tephra beds, as noted below. Following up on this
the mean diameter of induced tracks, Di, PTF must have affected work, Kitada and Wadatsumi (1995a) showed that by increasing
the sample (Figure 6). A correction for the lowered areal track the temperature to 165 C only a 5-day heat treatment was
density is made by reference to a calibration curve, which shows needed to give a plateau age (Figure 9). Other workers have
the correlation between reduction in areal track density, r/ro, to used different time–temperature combinations to reach the
reduction in mean track diameter, D/Do, where ro and Do are plateau (Table 2). Plateau-annealing conditions should be such
the original areal track density and mean track diameter, respec- as to ensure minimal structural damage to the glass with no
tively. The points defining this curve are derived from a series of deleterious effects on its etching characteristics. Consequently, a
Figure 6 Size frequency curves of FT diameters in glass shards from the Huckleberry Ridge and Gold tephra beds showing partial track frading. DCFT
samples unheated; ITPFT samples heated 150 C for 30 days. (a) Mean track diameter of spontaneous tracks is 5.98 0.06 mm (n ¼ 329); mean
diameter of induced tracks is 7.63 0.09 mm (n ¼ 597), Ds/Di ¼ 0.78 0.01. Corresponding values for other samples are: (b) 6.41 0.19 mm (n ¼ 50),
6.41 0.11 mm (n¼199), 1.00 0.03; (c) 5.39 0.10 mm (n ¼ 155), 6.24 0.06 mm (n ¼ 848), 0.86 0.02; (d) 6.46 0.18 mm (n ¼ 94),
6.81 0.09 mm (n ¼ 398), 0.95 0.03.
1.0 low temperature–long time combination is favored, although, in

Annealed to unannealed ratio of mean track diameter
Storzer and Wagner the light of the data shown in Table 2, a heating period of over 15
curve
days at 150 C is probably excessive.
0.4
0.8 h– = 0.2
R 0.8
Comparison of Glass-FT Ages Corrected by the Diameter and
0.6
Plateau Methods
0.6
Glass-FT ages have been determined for many tephra beds at the
University of Toronto FT Laboratory using the diameter-correction
(glass-DCFT) method of Sandhu and Westgate (1995) and iso-
0.4
Sandhu and westgate thermal plateau (glass-ITPFT) method of Westgate (1989; Table 3,
curve Figure 10). Excellent agreement exists, adding confidence to the
validity of both methods. Optimal etch times are longer for sam-
0.2
ples that have been heated, as in the ITPFT method, and limit
application of this method to glass shards 120 mm. On the other
hand, glass shards as small as 80 mm can be dated by the DCFT
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 technique, which requires no heat treatment.
Annealed to unannealed ratio of areal track density
Figure 7 Calculated curves (solid lines) representing the annealed to Accuracy and Precision of Glass-FT Ages
unannealed ratio of mean track diameter versus areal track density for
different etching conditions in an internal glass surface. The thickness of
The glass-FT ages shown in Table 4 range from 50 to 15 Ma.
the glass layer removed by the etching is h, and R is the etchable range of
track of a single fission fragment. Experimental curves of Storzer and All are within 5% of the age determined by other methods,
Wagner (1969) and Sandhu and Westgate (1995) are indicated by the mainly 40Ar/39Ar, and also K–Ar, thermoluminescence, 14C,
dashed lines. Modified from Van den haute P (1985) The density and the zircon FT, and orbitally tuned ages (Table 5). In particular,
diameter of fission tracks in glass with respect to age interpretation. both the DCFT and ITPFT ages on reference glasses mentioned
Nuclear Tracks 10: 335–348. by Balestrieri et al. (1998) agree very well with the 40Ar/39Ar
grain that is counted. If there is a statistically significant differ-

100 ence in age between the primary and contaminating grains, the
AU602
latter can be identified by their anomalous ages and eliminated
Age (Ma)
from the analysis (e.g., Galbraith, 1990; Galbraith and Green,

80 1990; Kowallis, 1988; Seward and Kohn, 1997). Attached glass is
a good indicator of a primary zircon (Figure 11), but euhedral
zircons are not necessarily primary because they can retain their
60 euhedral form through several erosional cycles.
Zircon has several advantages over glass for FT dating,
mainly its significantly higher annealing temperatures. Fission
tracks in glass can fade at ambient surface temperatures
40
(Naeser et al., 1980; Seward, 1979; Seward and Kohn, 1997),
resulting in an anomalously young age, but zircon does not
begin to lose tracks until temperatures of 160 C or higher,
20
depending on the duration of heating and the a-radiation
Induced tracks damage in the zircon (Brandon et al., 1998). Zircon has the
Spontaneous tracks added advantage that it can still be dated after glass has altered
7 to clay. On the other hand, it is not present in all tephra beds–
D (mm)
6 silicic tephra beds are more likely to yield usable zircons than
5
mafic tephra deposits. Furthermore, zircons may be too small
(80 mm) to be dated by fission tracks, particularly in tephra
4 beds sampled far from their source vents, and, because zircon
3 is so rare in tephra deposits, much larger samples need to be
0 40 60 collected compared to glass. If tephra beds are being sampled
Time (h) from drill cores, glass is probably the only phase that can be
Figure 8 Plateau age for Australian obsidian AU602 obtained by using dated with fission tracks because of the limited amount of
isothermal treatment at T ¼ 140 C (upper). Induced and spontaneous FT material available.
diameters at each step of thermal treatment (lower). Plateau age of Unlike glass, zircons from a single source tend to have a
85 Ma is reached at 50 h when Ds/Di ¼ 1. Reproduced from Bonetti R, very inhomogeneous U distribution, both within and between
Guglielmetti A, Malerba F, Migliorini E, Oddone M, and Bird R (1998) Age individual crystals, and therefore U content must be deter-
determination of obsidian source samples from North Queensland and mined from exactly the same area of a crystal in which spon-
New South Wales, Australia. In: Van den haute P and De Corte F (eds.)
taneous tracks are counted. This is accomplished using
Advances in Fission-Track Geochronology, pp. 305–312. Dordrecht:
Kluwer. Copyright 1998, with kind permission of Springer Science and
the EDM (Naeser and McKee, 1970; Figure 12). In the EDM,
Business Media. spontaneous tracks are etched, normally in a eutectic
KOH–NaOH melt (Gleadow et al., 1976), and counted in the
crystal, whereas induced tracks are counted in the image of the
crystal recorded in a plastic or low-U (<10 ppb) muscovite
results. The glass surface area in all these samples was estimated
detector that was in direct contact with the crystal during
by the point-counting technique, so that the se on each glass-FT
neutron irradiation (Figure 13). An age is obtained for each
age is calculated from eqn [6] (Bigazzi and Galbraith, 1999).
grain that is analyzed, but experience indicates that a mini-
For the most part, the 1s uncertainty is
10%. An improved
mum of six grains should be dated to determine a sample age.
precision can be achieved if the sample is dated by several
Seward and Kohn (1997) recommend that for young zircons
persons, a weighted mean and associated error being deter-
with low-track densities, at least 20 crystals should be dated. An
mined by the standard inverse variance method. It can be
alternative method of determining U content by LA-ICP-MS is
seen, therefore, that glass-FT methods can be successfully
being developed in several laboratories (Cox et al., 2000;
applied to volcanic glass shards, obsidians, and tektites, giving
Donelick et al., 2005; Hasebe et al., 2004). LA-ICP-MS elimi-
accurate and precise ages. Of special note, these grain-specific
nates the need for neutron irradiation.
methods are ideally suited to the dating of distal tephra beds,
Precautions are necessary when dating zircon, particularly
which are typically thin, discontinuous, fine grained, and con-
from young tephra beds. Care must be taken to ensure that
taminated by detrital material. They will greatly facilitate the
tracks are fully etched because even slight underetching can
development of detailed chronologies of tephra-bearing sedi-
result in ages that are too young (Gleadow, 1980; Kohn et al.,
mentary sequences located far from volcanic centers.
1992; Naeser et al., 1987; Seward and Kohn, 1997). This is a
common pitfall in dating young, low-track-density zircons in
which the lack of tracks makes it difficult to judge correct
Zircon Fission-Track Method etching time. A solution suggested by Gleadow (1980) is irra-
diating a separate test mount of zircons from the sample with
252
As with glass, zircon fission-track (ZFT) dating is a grain- Cf tracks and then etching the two mounts together, using
specific method in which individual grains are scanned and the 252Cf tracks to determine correct etching time. Zircon
counted, making it easier to recognize and eliminate contami- populations in young samples typically include many grains
nating grains (Figure 11). For zircon, an age is obtained on each with no spontaneous tracks. It is critical that induced-track
Temperature (⬚ C)
440 240 190
300 225 150 100 50 20 0
104
103
165 ⬚C
(My)
102
10
1my
105
10% Retention
104
(Years)
103
102
10
1yr
105
30 days a Upper limit
of full retention
5 days 104 A
Time (min)
103
102
10
5
2
1
1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.4 3.8
(Temperature)-1 (103/T(⬚ K))

Figure 9 Arrhenius plot of FT annealing experiments for Clearlake glass from Fleischer et al. (1968) showing positions of (a) annealing conditions for
glass shards used by Westgate (1989), and (A) annealing conditions used by Kitada and Wadatsumi (1995a). Reproduced from Kitada N and Wadatsumi
K (1995a) Annealing properties of natural glass fission tracks at the controlled temperature and its implication on the isothermal plateau dating
technique. Journal of Geosciences, Osaka City University 38: 4.
counts from these grains be included in the age calculation. Applications

Zero-track grains are a real part of low-track-density zircon
populations. Failure to include them can result in a calculated New Zealand
age that is significantly older than the true age. A classic illus- Quaternary sequences in New Zealand and in surrounding oceans
tration is provided by the early attempt to date the 1.9 Ma up to a distance of 1000 km contain abundant silicic tephra
KBS Tuff (Gleadow, 1980; Hurford et al., 1976). beds erupted from the Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ) in central
The precision of zircon and glass-FT ages is similar, and larger North Island (e.g., Shane, 2000). The TVZ is considered to be
than the typical precision on K–Ar and 40Ar/39Ar ages, which can the most active rhyolitic center on Earth and has been the locus of
be a few percent or less, depending on the material dated and numerous large (>100 km3) caldera-forming ignimbrites and
the age of the sample (McDougall, 1995; Table 6 and 7). How- plinian eruptions. Dispersal of volcaniclastic material around
ever, one of the advantages of fission tracks is that many tephra the TVZ is strongly controlled by prevailing westerly winds,
beds that do not contain suitable material for K–Ar or 40Ar/39Ar position of fluvial drainage systems, and Mesozoic-aged axial
dating can be dated by FT using glass and/or zircon. ranges forming topographic obstructions (Figure 14). In New
Table 2 Plateau annealing conditions for glasses Table 3 A comparison of glass-DCFT and glass-ITPFT ages
Material Temperature ( C) Time References Sample name Glass-DCFT Glass-ITPFT References

age age
Obsidian 250 24 h Osorio et al. (2003)
Obsidian 220 4h Osorio et al. (2003) Gold Run tephra 0.71 0.07 0.78 0.09 This article
Obsidian 250 5h Miller and Wagner Lost Chicken 2.81 0.18 2.90 0.20 Matthews et al.
(1981) tephra (2003)
Obsidian 245 24 h Miller and Wagner Quartz Creek 3.00 0.33 2.93 0.36 Westgate et al.
(1981) tephra (2003)
Obsidian 242 5h Miller and Wagner Maninjau 49.5 3.5 ka 51.0 6.0 ka Alloway et al.
(1981) Ignimbrite (2004a)
Glass shards 165 5–10 Kitada and Toba tephra 84 17 ka 68 7 ka Westgate et al.
days Wadatsumi (1998)
(1995a) Fort Selkirk 1.47 0.14 1.48 0.19 Westgate et al.
Obsidian 165 5–10 Kitada and tephra (2001)
days Wadatsumi Huckleberry 2.00 0.21 2.02 0.12 This article
(1995a) Ridge tephra
Obsidian 140 50–70 h Bonetti et al. (1998) Jankov 15.10 0.47 15.38 0.52 This article
Obsidian 205 1–2 h Dorighel et al. moldavite
(1998) Roccastrada 2.58 0.09 2.50 0.11 This article
Glass shards 150 30 days Westgate (1989) R2V glass
Glass shards 150 15 days Sandhu et al. Old Crow tephra 0.14 0.03 0.14 0.01 Sandhu and
(1993) Westgate (1995)
Glass shards 200 4h Bigazzi et al. (2000) Mamaku 0.23 0.02 0.23 0.01 Shane et al.
Glass shards 210 8h Bigazzi et al. (2000) Ignimbrite (1994)
Glass shards, 150–350 1h Naeser et al. (1980) Ester Ash 0.77 0.12 0.81 0.07 Westgate et al.
obsidian, (1990)
tektite Lake Tapps 0.86 0.11 1.06 0.11 Westgate et al.
Glass shards, 200 1h Macdougall (1976) tephra (1987)
chilled rim Pakihikura 1.53 0.22 1.63 0.15 Alloway et al.
of basalt Pumice (1993)
flows BKT-3 tephra 2.28 0.20 2.05 0.20 Hart et al. (1992)
Glass shards 150–220 2–3 h Arias et al. (1981) SHT tephra 3.42 0.29 3.53 0.37 Walter and
Aronson (1993)
In most cases, the plateau condition is recognized by equivalence of the mean Cindery Tuff 3.32 0.22 3.70 0.14 Westgate (1989)
spontaneous track diameter (Ds) and mean induced track diameter (Di).
All ages in Ma unless otherwise noted. Error given is 1s. All ages determined at the
University of Toronto FT Laboratory.
Zealand, the predominant tropospheric westerly winds promote

dispersal of tephra toward the east coast region of North Island 4.0
and beyond into the adjacent Pacific Ocean. In sedimentary
basins (e.g., Wanganui Basin) located adjacent to the TVZ and
outside the main atmospheric dispersal axis, the tephra record is
dominated by water-supported mass flow, hyperconcentrated
3.0
flow, and fluvially transported deposits, which can be considered
Glass-ITPFT age (Ma)
near-contemporaneous with the proximal eruptive deposits.

In New Zealand, FT dating of tephra and pumice-rich hori-
zons has traditionally played a significant role in advancing the
2.0
stratigraphy and chronology of Plio–Pleistocene sediments in
the southern half of the North Island (e.g., Boellstorff and Te
Punga, 1977; Milne, 1973; Seward, 1974, 1976). Zircon and
glass are the important phases in this respect, although the use
of zircon in some cases is thwarted by low abundance and 1.0
fine-grain size. On the other hand, hydrated glass shards are
typically the most abundant component of tephra beds and
commonly the only datable phase present.
The glass-ITPFT technique was first applied in New Zealand 0
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
to three widespread and stratigraphically important rhyolitic
horizons from Wanganui Basin (Alloway et al., 1993). In that Glass-DCFT age (Ma)
study, the glass-ITPFT ages, in conjunction with a revised Figure 10 Close correspondence between glass-DCFT and glass-ITPFT
magnetostratigraphy, demonstrated that the then existing ages determined in University of Toronto FT Laboratory. Dashed line is
Plio–Pleistocene marine chronology required significant age 1:1 line. Regression line through data points has r2 ¼ 0.989.
Table 4 Accuracy and precision of glass-fission-track ages: a comparison with other numerical dating methods
Sample Material FT method Glass-FT age Age using other References

(Ma) (1s) methods (Ma)
Jankov Moldavite (Czech R.) Tektite DCFT 15.10 0.47 Ar–Ar Staudacher et al.(1982)
ITPFT 15.38 0.52 15.21 0.15
Roccastrada R2V glass (Italy) Glass shards DCFT 2.58 0.09 Ar–Ar Bigazzi et al. (1993)
ITPFT 2.50 0.11 2.44 0.02
JAS-G1 glass (Japan) Obsidian ITPFT (4) 1.01 0.03 Ar–Ar Kitada and Wadatsumi (1995b)
0.947 0.005
Huckleberry Ridge tephra (USA) Glass shards DCFT 2.00 0.21 Ar–Ar Gansecki et al. (1998)
ITPFT (3) 2.02 0.12 2.003 0.014
Potaka tephra (New Zealand) Glass shards ITPFT (6) 1.00 0.03 Ar–Ar Alloway et al. (2004b)
1.04 0.03
Fort Selkirk tephra (Canada) Glass shards DCFT 1.47 0.14 K–Ar Westgate et al. (2001)
ITPFT (2) 1.48 0.19 >1.47 0.11
<1.60 0.08
Quartz Creek tephra (Canada) Glass shards DCFT 3.00 0.33 Ar–Ar Westgate et al. (2003)
ITPFT 2.93 0.36 >2.71

3.01
2.64 0.24
Ongatiti Ignimbrite (New Zealand) Glass shards ITPFT 1.14 0.06 Ar–Ar Alloway et al. (2004c)
1.21 0.04
Toba tephra (India) Glass shards ITPFT (3) 79 8 ka Ar–Ar Westgate et al. (1998)
74 2 ka Oppenheimer (2002)
Maninjau Ignimbrite (Sumatra, Glass shards ITPFT 51 6 ka 14
C Alloway et al. (2004b)
Indonesia) DCFT (2) 49.5 3.5 ka
53 2 ka
Old Crow tephra (Canada) Glass shards ITPFT (7) 140 10 ka TL Westgate et al. (1990)
>128 22 ka Berger (2003)
<147 16 ka
Lake Tapps tephra (USA) Glass shards ITPFT 1.06 0.11 Ar–Ar Westgate et al. (1987)
1.15 0.01 Hildreth (1996)
Bishop tuff (USA) Glass shards ITPFT 0.74 0.04 Ar–Ar Sarna-Wojcicki et al. (2000)
0.759 0.002
Cindery Tuff (Ethiopia) Glass shards ITPFT 3.70 0.14 Ar–Ar Hall et al. (1984)
3.94 0.05
Rangitawa Tephra (New Zealand) Glass shards ITPFT (6) 0.35 0.02 Orbitally tuned Pillans et al. (1996)
0.35 0.01
Mamaku Ignimbrite (New Zealand) Glass shards DCFT 0.23 0.02 Ar–Ar Houghton et al. (1995)
ITPFT 0.23 0.02 0.22 0.01
SHT tephra (Ethiopia) Glass shards DCFT 3.42 0.29 Ar–Ar Walter and Aronson (1993)
ITPFT 3.53 0.37 3.40 0.03
Moiti tephra (Ethiopia) Glass shards ITPFT 3.89 0.25 K–Ar Hart et al. (1992)
4.1
BKT-3 tephra Glass shards ITPFT 2.05 0.20 ZFT Hart et al. (1992)
(Ethiopia) 2.3
FT ages determined at the University of Toronto FT Laboratory. Number in brackets indicates number of samples dated. All the glass-FT ages in this table are based on a calibration
using lD ¼ 1.551 1010year1, a zeta value of 318 3 based on six irradiations at McMaster Nuclear Reactor, Hamilton, Ontario, the NIST SRM 612 glass dosimeter, and the
Moldavite glass with an 40Ar/39Ar age of 15.21 0.15 Ma (Staudacher et al., 1982). We now use a new calibration scheme that is based on a more precise 40Ar/39Ar age of
14.34 0.08 Ma for the Moldavite glass (Laurenzi et al., 2003, 2007) giving a zeta value of 301 3. Mean age estimates using this new calibration are 5% younger than the ages
noted in this table – that is, within the error due to counting statistics for most of the Pleistocene tephra beds.
revision and confirmed that the previously published uncor- several other sedimentary basins in southern North Island
rected glass ages were up to 50% too young (Figure 15). As that contained the same tephra beds.
discussed in Seward and Kohn (1997), the glass ages in Seward Since that study, the technique has also been used to con-
(1974, 1979) were determined before the effects of annealing firm the age of stratigraphically important rhyolitic horizons
on glass were fully recognized, and they demonstrate the extent (i.e., Potaka Tephra, Shane, 1994; Rangitawa Tephra, Pillans
to which annealing can lower uncorrected glass-FT ages. This et al., 1996; Waipuru and Vinegar Hill tephras, Naish et al.,
revision had important implications for the evolution of 1995; Ototoka Tephra, Alloway et al., 2004a), and has
Table 5 Comparison of glass-ITPFT ages for tephra beds in Mineral concentrate

Wanganui Basin, New Zealand, with paleomagnetic and astronomically
calibrated age estimates Mount in epoxy or
teflon
Tephra Glass-ITPFT age Paleomagnetic age Astronomical age
Grind and polish
Kupe 0.63 0.08 <0.78 0.65 Etch
Kaukatea 0.86 0.08 0.78–0.99 0.9
Potaka 1.00 0.03 0.99–1.07 0.99
Rewa 1.20 0.14 ca. 1.19 1.19
Mangapipi 1.51 0.16 1.19–1.77 1.54 Add external
Pakihikura 1.58 0.08 1.19–1.77 1.60 detector
Table Flat 1.71 0.12 1.19–1.77 1.65
Vinegar 1.75 0.20 1.19–1.77 1.75 + Standards
Hill
Waipur 1.79 0.15 1.77–1.95 1.83 Reactor Irradiate
Data from Pillans et al. (2005). All ages in Ma with 1s.
Etch detector
Mount on slide
Ps 1/2Pi Count
Neutron dose (φ)
Age
Figure 12 Flow diagram of steps in the external detector method of
dating minerals. Details of laboratory procedures are in Naeser (1976).
Modified from Naeser CW, Briggs ND, Obradovich JD, and Izett GA
(1981) Geochronology of Quaternary tephra deposits. In: Self S and
Sparks RSJ (eds.) NATO Advanced Studies Institute Series C. Tephra
Studies, pp. 13–47. Dordrecht: Reidel.
Figure 11 Photomicrograph of zircons separated from a contaminated
tephra bed. Primary zircons (arrowed) can be identified by glass adhering
to them. Detrital zircons in this tephra are generally darker, more
rounded, and lack glass mantles. Zircons are 150-mm long. Modified
from Naeser CW, Briggs ND, Obradovich JD, and Izett GA (1981)
the older interpreted by Seward and Kohn (1997) as detrital
Geochronology of Quaternary tephra deposits. In: Self S and Sparks RSJ
contamination, and the younger interpreted as the eruption
(eds.) NATO Advanced Studies Institute Series C. Tephra Studies,
pp. 13–47. Dordrecht: Reidel. age. The disagreement in glass and zircon FT ages for the
Mangapipi tephra remains to be resolved.
The glass-ITPFT technique is well suited to the dating of
distal silicic tephra and has permitted a direct and detailed
comparison of stratigraphic and chronologic data in a variety
been pivotal in establishing a robust Plio–Pleistocene tephros-
of sedimentary environments in New Zealand. Furthermore,
tratigraphic framework throughout North Island, New Zealand
the technique has significantly improved the cross-correlation
(Alloway et al., 2004c; Naish et al., 1998; Pillans et al., 1994,
between tephrochronology, paleomagnetic chronology, and
2005; Shane et al., 1996; Figure 14). More recently, ITPFT ages
d18O stratigraphy in marine cores.
have been determined on glass shards from eight stratigraphi-
cally important macroscopic tephra layers from ODP-core
1124C (Alloway et al., 2005; Carter et al., 2004).
Indonesia
In a careful interlaboratory comparison, Seward and Kohn
(1997) reported zircon FT ages for five of the tephra beds in Introduction
Wanganui Basin, four of which (Pakihikura, Potaka, Vinegar Indonesia is situated adjacent to the Sunda subduction system,
Hill, and Rewa tephras) are in good statistical agreement with which has produced a 1600-km-long volcanic arc with as many
previously determined glass-ITPFT ages. Two of the tephras as 129 historically active volcanoes, extending from Sumatra in
(Rewa and Mangapipi) contain two age populations of zircons, the northwest to Sulawesi in the southeast of the Indonesian
(a) (b)
Figure 13 (a) Photomicrograph of crystal (left) and (b) image of the crystal in a muscovite detector (right). In the external detector method,
spontaneous fission tracks are counted in the crystal (in this example, an apatite grain), and induced tracks are counted in the detector. Reproduced
from Naeser CW and Naeser ND (1989) Laboratory procedures and techniques. In: Crowley KD, Naeser CW, and Naeser ND (eds.) Geological Society of
America Short Course Notes: Fission-Track Analysis: Theory and Applications, pp. 3-1–3-17. Boulder, CO: Geological Society of America.
archipelago. Sumatra, in particular, contains a great variety and the very widespread distribution of YTT through southern
number of volcanoes. Many of these volcanoes are dormant southeast Asia and across the Indian Ocean makes it a very
but a few have erupted during historic time (i.e., Marapi and useful marker for dating archaeological sites on the Indian
Singgalang–Tandikat). To date, much of the volcanological subcontinent (Westgate et al., 1998).
research conducted in Sumatra has focused on the eruptive
history of Toba caldera (e.g., Chesner et al., 1991), and the
best record of Indonesian arc volcanism is from tephra layers Maninjau
preserved in ODP-sedimentary cores retrieved from the north- Maninjau is a volcanic edifice situated in the Padang Highlands
eastern Indian Ocean adjacent to Sumatra (e.g., Dehn et al., 300 km to the south of Toba in west-central Sumatra
1991; Lee et al., 2004). Many of these tephra layers have yet to (Figure 16). The central part of this edifice is occupied by a
be correlated to their onshore eruptive source areas, confirm- collapsed caldera 20 km long and 8 km wide, and is now
ing that there is little known about the eruptive history of many occupied by a lake with an estimated volume of 100 km3.
volcanic centers located in Sumatra. In Indonesia, the glass-FT The caldera lake parallels the Sumatran volcanic front and is
dating technique has been applied to tephra erupted from located within the northwest–southeast trending Sumatran
Toba and Maninjau calderas, situated in northern and west- fault zone, which runs the entire length of Sumatra. Glass-FT
central Sumatra, respectively (Figure 16). and radiocarbon techniques were used by Alloway et al.
(2004b) in an attempt to determine an accurate age for the
Maninjau eruptive succession. Glass-ITPFT and -DCFT ages
give a weighted mean of 50 3 ka (n ¼ 3), and, together with
Toba
concordant 14C ages, give a timing for the latest silicic eruptive
The Toba caldera complex consists of four overlapping cal-
activity at 52 3 ka, an age supported by the occurrence of an
deras, the youngest of which is the world’s largest caldera
underlying silicic tephra bed that is geochemically indistin-
(100 30 km) and envelopes the three older calderas. An esti-
guishable from the ca. 75 ka YTT. This new age for the Man-
mated 2500–3000 km3 of dense-rock-equivalent pyroclastic
injau eruptives is significantly different from previous and
material, termed the Youngest Toba Tephra (YTT), was erupted
disparate FT (ca. 70–80 ka, Nishimura et al., 1978) and K–Ar
from the youngest caldera during one of the largest single
(ca. 0.28 ka, Leo et al., 1980) determinations.
volcanic eruptions in geological history (Rose and Chesner,
1987). Glass-FT ages for YTT have been determined from sites
in Malaysia (68 7 ka; Chesner et al., 1991) and distally in
northwest India (84 16 ka; Westgate et al., 1998) and are Concluding Statement
indistinguishable from an 40Ar/39Ar age of 73 4 ka (Chesner
et al., 1991) and K–Ar ages of 75 12 ka (on biotite) and We have demonstrated that FT-dating methods applied to
74 3 ka (on sanidine) (Ninkovitch et al., 1978). Certainly, volcanic glass and zircon can produce accurate and precise
Table 6 Comparison of representative glass and zircon fission-track and sanidine K-Ar and 40Ar/39Ar ages of the Pearlette family ash beds and
correlative Yellowstone Group tuffs, western North America
Tephra bed/tuff Pearlette family ash beds Yellowstone Group tuffs

40
Fission-track Fission-track Fission-track K-Ar sanidine Ar/39Ar sanidine
glass agea (Ma) zircon age (Ma) zircon age (Ma) age (Ma) age (Ma)
Lava Creek B – 0.7 0.1b 0.6 0.2b – –

0.60 0.02c 0.68 0.15c – 0.616 0.008d –
0.61 0.12e – – 0.67 0.01f 0.60 0.01f
0.60 0.08g – – 0.63 0.01f 0.61 0.01f
– – – – 0.602 0.002h
– – – – 0.639 0.002i
Mesa Falls – – – 1.27 0.10d –
– – – 1.26 0.01f 1.29 0.01f
– – – 1.55 0.04f 1.30 0.01f
– – – – 1.293 0.006h
– – – – 1.285 0.004i
Huckleberry Ridge – 1.9 0.1b 1.9 0.2b – –
1.39 0.08j 1.93 0.16j – 2.02 0.08d –
– 1.91 0.25e – 2.01 0.16f 2.09 0.01f
1.3 0.2k – – 2.02 0.03f 2.04 0.01f
1.21 0.07l – – 2.05 0.02f 2.05 0.01f
2.04 0.16m – – – 2.003 0.006h
2.06 0.15n – – – 2.059 0.004i
1.97 0.22o – – – –
Notes: Analytical uncertainty is 1 sigma unless otherwise noted.

Table 1.
a
Ages in italics are corrected ages, determined by either ITPFT or DCFT method (see below, and text).
b
Naeser et al. (1973), Wilcox and Naeser (1992): reported zircon age of Lava Creek B tephra (‘Pearlette type O’) is an average of four age determinations; age of Huckleberry Ridge
tephra (‘Pearlette type B’) is an average of seven determinations; uncertainty is 1 standard error of the mean.
c
Westgate et al. (1977): ages determined on correlative Wascana Creek Ash. Glass age is average of five age determinations; uncertainty is 1 standard error of the mean.
d
J.D. Obradovich, in Naeser and Naeser (1988).
e
Naeser et al. (1982): glass age of Lava Creek B tephra determined on correlative Wascana Creek Ash; zircon age is on Huckleberry Ridge tephra (‘Pearlette type B’).
f
Obradovich and Izett (1991).
g
Alloway et al. (1993): ‘Lava Creek B ash bed’; ITPFT age.
h
Gansecki et al. 1998.
i
Lanphere et al. (2002): age is weighted mean of total-fusion, plateau, and isochron ages (Lava Creek and Huckleberry Ridge Tuffs), or weighted mean of plateau and isochron ages
(Mesa Falls Tuff).
j
Seward (1979): ‘Borchers Ash’; reported glass age is an average of four age determinations; uncertainty is 1 standard error of the mean.
k
Naeser et al. (1980): ‘Pearlette type B’.
l
Naeser and Naeser (1988): ‘Huckleberry Ridge ash bed’.
m
Westgate (1989): ‘Borchers Ash’; ITPFT age.
n
Sandhu and Westgate (1995). ‘Borchers Ash’, DCFT age.
o
Table 1.
Table 7 Comparison of representative glass and zircon fission-track ages of Quaternary events in regions affected by Quaternary
and sanidine K-Ar and 40Ar/39Ar ages of the Bishop Tuff, California silicic volcanism. Although precision levels are inferior to those
40 achieved by the 40Ar/39Ar method, FT methods are particularly
Fission-track Fission-track K-Ar sanidine Ar/39Ar
glass agea (Ma) zircon age age (Ma) sanidine age
useful for dating K-poor, calc–alkaline volcanics, and highly
(Ma) (Ma) vitric tephra beds. Other favorable attributes include the small
sample requirement for glass-FT ages and the grain-discrete
0.56 0.05b 0.74 0.03c 0.727 0.015d – methodologies used, which neutralize the contamination
0.72 0.05e – 0.741 0.007f 0.734 0.012f problem. Importantly, setting up a FT dating laboratory is a
0.73 0.03g – 0.722 0.007h 0.757 0.009i comparatively inexpensive operation because of its low-
– – 0.738 0.003h 0.764 0.005i technology and low-maintenance requirements. Accordingly,
Analytical uncertainty is 1 sigma. it is very applicable to volcanic regions of the world where
a
Ages in italics are corrected by the ITPFT method (see text). monetary resources are limited.
b
Naeser and Naeser (1988).
c
Izett and Naeser (1976).
d
Dalrymple et al. (1965), Mankinen and Dalrymple (1979). Acknowledgments
e
Westgate (1989).
f
Hurford and Hammerschmidt (1985).
JAW gratefully acknowledges the support of the Natural Sci-
g
Bishop ash bed, south-east Idaho: weighted mean of two ITPFT ages, 0.72 0.05 Ma
(determined by B.V. Alloway) and 0.74 0.04 (J.A. Westgate). ences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, and BVA
h
Izett (1982), Izett et al. (1988): Izett et al.(1988) also report a K-Ar isochron age of acknowledges the financial support from the New Zealand
0.74 Ma for sanidine, plagioclase, biotite, and glass from the Bishop Tuff. Foundation for Research Science and Technology (FRST con-
i
Izett and Obradovich (1994). tract C05X0202). NDN acknowledges support from the USGS
Auckland
(Alloway et al. 2004b)
(Ma)
0.00
Onepuhi corr., 0.53 ± 0.02 N
0.78
0.99 Waiuku, 1.00 ± 0.03 N

AT-58 & -20, 1.08 ± 0.06 R
1.07
AT-55 & Ok-16, 1.14 ± 0.06 R; Or-31.14 ± 0.09 R Eastern North Island
Ok-10, 1.18 ± 0.10 R
1.20 Ok-14 1.20 ± 0.10 R; AT-22 1.20 ± 0.11 R and ODP site 1124
Ongatiti, 1.21± 0.09 R; AT-22 & Ok-62, 1.21 ± 0.06 R (Shane et al. 1995a,b, 1996; Carter et al. 2004;
Alloway - unpubl. data)
Few tephra-fall deposits
(Ma)
0.00
Many widely dispersed

1.77
tephra-fall deposits
(<10cm)
1.95
Taupo AT-575, 0.62 ± 0.09 N

Numerous tephra-fall
Auckland volcanic deposits (<10cm) AT-257, 0.71 ± 0.08 N
AkVC zone (TVZ) 0.78 F, 0.79 ± 0.06 R
E, 0.86 ± 0.05 R
UTM, 0.88 ± 0.08 R
Wanganui Basin 0.99

B, 1.00 ± 0.10 R
A, 0.99 ± 0.09 N
(Pillans et al. 2005) LTM, 1.02 ± 0.08 N
1.07
(Ma) 1.20 AT-264, 1.19 ± 0.07 R

Mangatewaiiti, 1.23 ± 0.09 R
0.00
247, 1.31 ± 0.11 R; 352, 1.31 ± 0.12 R
EgVC TgVC
166, 1.42 ± 0.13 R
Eastern AT-260, 1.50 ± 0.18 R
North Island
Rangitawa, 0.35 ± 0.02 N 288, 1.64 ± 0.13 R; Akupe, 1.64 ± 0.16 R
Wanganui 108, 1.68 ± 0.14 R
AT-259, 1.70 ± 0.20 R
Basin 1.77
Kupe, 0.63 ± 0.08 N

1.95
0.78
Kaukatea, 0.86 ± 0.08 R
100 Km
0.99 Potaka, 1.00 ± 0.03 N
1.07
1.20 Rewa, 1.20 ± 0.14 R

Mesozoic basement
Ignimbrite sheets
Mangapipi, 1.51 ± 0.16 R
Pakihikura, 1.58 ± 0.08 R Fluvially emplaced tephra and
distal ignimbrites
Table flat, 1.71 ± 0.12 R
Ototoka, 1.72 ± 0.32 R
Vinegar hill, 1.75 ± 0.20 R
Sedimentary basins with macroscopic
1.77 Waipuru, 1.79 ± 0.15 N tephra-fall deposits
TVZ caldera
1.95
Figure 14 Distribution of Quaternary rhyolitic pyroclastic and associated reworked deposits in North Island, New Zealand and summaries of key
Quaternary tephra beds outside of the TVZ that have published glass-ITPFT age control. Paleomagnetic polarity shown as normal (N) or reversed (R)
where known. AkVC, Auckland Volcanic Centre; EgVC, Egmont Volcanic Centre; TgVC, Tongariro Volcanic Centre. Modified from Shane PA (2000)
Tephrochronology: A New Zealand case study. Earth-Science Reviews 49: 223–259.
Previous FT-Chronology Revised ITPFT-Chronology
UT-1164
a = seward (1974, 1979); Pillans et al. (2005)
b = Boellstorff and Te Punga (1977);
UT-1156
W
BP-303
1.79 ± 0.15 1.8
UT-1157
Waipuru tephra (W)
Vinegar hill tephra (VH) 1.75 ± 0.20 Ot Ot TF
Ototoka tephra (Ot) 1.72 ± 0.32 VH
1.6
Pakihikura tephra (Pk) 1.58 ± 0.08
Pk
Ohingaiti ash 1.50 ± 0.21(a) Mangapipi tephra (Ma) 1.51 ± 0.16
UT-1158
Ma
Ma
1.4
Revised
chronology
Mangahou ash 1.26 ± 0.17(a)
Rewa tephra (R) 1.20 ± 0.14 1.2 R
Age (Ma)
BP-305
R
Pakihikura pumice 1.10 ± 0.08(a,b) Previous
UT-1151
Pk chronology
Mangapipi ash 0.88 ± 0.13(a) Potaka tephra (Po) 1.00 ± 0.03 1.0 Po Po
Ma
UT-1154
Kaukatea tephra (Ka) 0.86 ± 0.08 Ka Ka
0.8
Section
Rewa pumice 0.74 ± 0.09(a) R Castlecliff
Whangaehu
Potaka pumice 0.61 ± 0.04(a) Kupe tephra (Ku) 0.63 ± 0.08
0.6 Ku Po Turakina
Kaukatea ash 0.57 ± 0.08(a) Ka Rangitikei/rewa hill
Waiomio shell bed 0.45 ± 0.09(a)
Oroua
0.4
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1 000 1 100 1 200
Stratigraphic thickness (m)
Figure 15 Comparison of previous and revised glass-FT chronologies for middle and lower Pleistocene tephras, Wanganui Basin. Shaded area represents 1s on glass-ITPFT dated tephra beds from
Rangitikei/Rewa Hill. Stars connected by dashed lines represent astronomically tuned ages determined for the same tephra beds. Reproduced from Pillans BJ, Alloway BV, Naish T, Westgate JA, Abbot S, and
Palmer AS (2005) Silicic tephras in Pleistocene shallow marine sediments of Wanganui Basin, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 35: 43–90.
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Fission-Track Dating: Equilibrium Line Altitude (ELA) Reconstruction

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Fission-Track Dating: Equilibrium Line Altitude (ELA) Reconstruction

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Equilibrium Line Altitude (ELA) Reconstruction see Glacial Landforms, Ice Sheets: Paleo-ELAs

Introduction account for most tracks in natural, terrestrial materials. Latent

irradiated with thermal neutrons. Hence, given these constants, (a)

z ¼ BðIsF =lF Þ [2]

Substituting eqn [2] in eqn [1], and considering G ¼ 1 and

Rearranging eqn [3] for a standard of known age (tstd) gives:

the material. In some materials, this requirement can now be

latter two are seldom used to date Quaternary events because of

1.0 K2O (wt%) 4.3

20 standards recommended by Balestrieri et al. (1998) are Roccas-

(Figure 5), an 40Ar/39Ar age of 2.003  0.014 (2s) Ma (Gansecki

Gold Run tephra

Plateau Correction Methods

1.0 low temperature–long time combination is favored, although, in

grain that is counted. If there is a statistically significant differ-

from the analysis (e.g., Galbraith, 1990; Galbraith and Green,

(Temperature)-1 (103/T(⬚ K))

counts from these grains be included in the age calculation. Applications

Material Temperature ( C) Time References Sample name Glass-DCFT Glass-ITPFT References

Zealand, the predominant tropospheric westerly winds promote

near-contemporaneous with the proximal eruptive deposits.

Sample Material FT method Glass-FT age Age using other References

Table 5 Comparison of glass-ITPFT ages for tephra beds in Mineral concentrate

Neutron dose (φ)

Tephra bed/tuff Pearlette family ash beds Yellowstone Group tuffs

Lava Creek B – 0.7  0.1b 0.6  0.2b – –

Notes: Analytical uncertainty is 1 sigma unless otherwise noted.

Onepuhi corr., 0.53 ± 0.02 N

0.99 Waiuku, 1.00 ± 0.03 N

Many widely dispersed

Taupo AT-575, 0.62 ± 0.09 N

Wanganui Basin 0.99

(Ma) 1.20 AT-264, 1.19 ± 0.07 R

Kupe, 0.63 ± 0.08 N

1.20 Rewa, 1.20 ± 0.14 R

Bonetti R, Guglielmetti A, Malerba F, Migliorini E, Oddone M, and Bird R (1998) Age

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(Figure 5), an 40Ar/39Ar age of 2.003 0.014 (2s) Ma (Gansecki

Material Temperature ( C) Time References Sample name Glass-DCFT Glass-ITPFT References

Lava Creek B – 0.7 0.1b 0.6 0.2b – –

Notes: Analytical uncertainty is 1 sigma unless otherwise noted.