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Feeding distance of tin bronze castings: intrinsic and extrinsic estimates

Article in Materials Science and Technology · September 2019

DOI: 10.1080/02670836.2019.1666226

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 E. Erzi. M. Tiryakioğlu: Materials Science & Technology, v. 35, pp. 2211-2216, 2019.

Feeding Distance of Tin Bronze Castings: Intrinsic and Extrinsic

Estimates

Eray Erzi
Metallurgical and Materials Department, Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, 34320 Istanbul, Turkey

Murat Tiryakioğlu
Jacksonville University, Jacksonville, FL 32211, USA

Abstract

Casting alloys with long freezing ranges are extremely difficult to cast because of the mushy zone.
During solidification, the liquid metal needs to find its way through the dendritic structure. Tin
bronzes also have a wide freezing range and it is hard to cast pore-free castings because of the
interdendritic shrinkages. In this study, the intrinsic feeding ability of the tin bronze is calculated
based on the intrinsic fracture pressure of liquid metals. Calculations have shown that feeding
distances increase with longer solidification times, and that the metal is capable of feeding itself
over long distances. The differences between calculated and observed feeding distances can be
attributed to entrainment defects in the solidying metal.

Keywords: Interdendritic flow; Darcy’s law; permeability; C90700 alloy

Introduction

Pores are quite detrimental to the integrity and therefore to the performance of alloy castings,
which are usually attributed to solidification shrinkage and/or gases dissolved in liquid metal being
rejected out of solution upon solidification. There has been extensive research on optimization of
the size and location of feeders (alternatively referred to as risers) so that sufficient liquid metal
can be made available to parts of the casting that solidify last to prevent the formation of pores.
Campbell [1], as one of his seven feeding rules, has stated that internal pores can form if pressure
gradient, ∇P, needed to cause liquid metal flow through the mushy zone is not available.
Consequently, feed metal will not flow to areas where it is needed, i.e, where the pressure drop
(ΔP) due to solidification shrinkage and contraction is highest. Moreover, the length of the mushy
zone can be as long as 10 times the thickness of the casting (z) in long freezing range alloys. When
liquid flow is not sufficient, the pressure drop can exceed the level necessary for pore formation.
This critical pressure drop is usually taken as 1 atmosphere (101.3 kPa) [2], which has been found
to be more than four orders of magnitude lower than the intrinsic fracture pressure of liquid metals
[2-4].
It is well known that feeders have a range for efficient feeding, referred to as feeding distance or
feeding range, Lf. In their pioneering work, Pellini et al. [5-8] investigated feeding distance for
steel castings, and showed the distance that the feeder is effective was 2z. Furthermore, the total
effective distance could extend to 4.5z due to the edge effect. Distances over 4.5z, a zone in which

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 E. Erzi. M. Tiryakioğlu: Materials Science & Technology, v. 35, pp. 2211-2216, 2019.

temperature gradient is zero forms which leads to the formation of pores along the centerline, as
depicted schematically in Figure 1 [9]. Similarly, feeding distances longer than 15z were reported
[10] in Al-Si and Al-Cu alloys with medium to long freezing ranges. Interestingly, tin bronze has
been reported to have no discernible feeding distance [11, 12], which has been attributed to the
long freezing range of these alloys (~200oC for Cu-11wt.%Sn). This finding is in contrast with
the relatively long feeding distances for Al-Cu alloys, such as 204, which also has a relatively long
freezing range (~100 oC). This study is motivated by this anomalous result in the literature.

Figure 1. Schematic illustration of the results of Pellini and coworkers in steel castings, showing
that there is a section within the casting with a shallow or no temperature gradient, in which
pores form during solidification [9].

Background

Let us consider a pore nucleus with a difference in pressures inside it and that being exerted on
it, ΔP. Consequently, the amount of work (W) required to fracture the liquid to create a pore of
volume V is equal to ΔP∙V. The surface energy barrier that needs to be overcome for the pore to
be stable is equal to σA, where σ is the surface tension of liquid metal and A is the surface area
of the pore. Based on classical nucleation theory, the total work for the formation of the pore is

4
W = 4π𝑟 2 σ + π𝑟 3 ∆𝑃 (1)
3
The critical radius of the pore at which the pore will keep growing can be found by differentiating
Equation 1 and finding the critical radius, r*, that makes dW/dr=0. Hence, the critical radius above
which a pore is stable, r* is found by:

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 E. Erzi. M. Tiryakioğlu: Materials Science & Technology, v. 35, pp. 2211-2216, 2019.

−2𝜎
𝑟∗ = (2)
∆𝑃∗
where ΔP* is a negative number. Note that while surface tension for liquid metals is known, either
ΔP* or r* need to be estimated or alternatively assumed. It is also well known that ΔP * can be
taken as the fracture pressure of the liquid metal [2, 3, 13], Pf(int), which is an intrinsic property.
Among the fracture pressure equations available in the literature, the one developed by Fisher [14]
has been reported [2, 15] to be the most accurate for liquid metals. Fisher equation is written as;

16𝜋𝜎 3
𝑃𝑓(𝑖𝑛𝑡) = −√ (3)
𝑘𝑁 𝑇
3𝑘𝑇𝑙𝑛( 𝑎 )
ℎ

where k is the Boltzmann constant (1.381×10-23 J. K-1), Na is the Avogadro’s number ( 6.022 ×
1023), T is the absolute temperature (K), and h is the Plank’s constant (6.626 × 10-34 m2kg/s).

During solidification dendritic structure produces a porous medium, and the pressure gradient of
liquid traveling through a porous medium is expressed with Darcy’s Law [16], written as

v𝑙𝑖𝑞 ∙ 𝜇𝑙𝑖𝑞 (1 − 𝑓𝑠 )
∇𝑃𝑑𝑒𝑛 = − (4)
𝐾𝑝

where vliq is the liquid velocity through the dendritic structure (m/s), μliq is liquid viscosity (Pa.s),
fs is volumetric solid fraction and Kp is the permeability of the mushy zone (m-2). Let us review
each factor in Equation 4 before we modify it to calculate feeding distances.
When the mushy zone is occupied by equiaxed dendrites, as would be expected in grain refined
alloys, permeability can be calculated by using the Kozeny-Carman equation [17], especially when
fs exceeds 0.5 [18];

𝜆22 ∙ (1 − 𝑓𝑠 )3
𝐾𝑝 = (5)
180 ∙ 𝑓𝑠2
where λ2 is secondary dendrite arm spacing. When the alloy is not grain refined, the expected
solidification mode will be columnar dendritic, and the liquid flow will be mostly perpendicular
to the columnar dendrites, as suggested by Pellini et al. In such cases, permeability perpendicular
to the primary dendrites, Kp(⊥), can be found [18] as

(1 − 𝑓𝑠 )3 𝜆1 3 2
𝐾𝑝(⊥) = 𝐾𝑝0(⊥) ∙ ∙ ( ) ∙ 𝜆1 (6)
𝑓𝑠2 𝜆2

where λ1 is the primary dendrite arm spacing. The term Kp0(⊥) is found as;

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 E. Erzi. M. Tiryakioğlu: Materials Science & Technology, v. 35, pp. 2211-2216, 2019.

𝑒𝑥𝑝(7.979 ∙ 𝑓𝑠 − 15.608) 𝑓𝑠 ≤ 0.75

𝐾𝑝0(⊥) ={ −0.242 (7)
𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) 𝑓𝑠 > 0.75
(1 − 𝑓𝑠 )2 𝑓𝑠3

The velocity of the molten metal through dendritic structures during solidification process has been
reported in the literature. Campanella et al. [19] have reported that the liquid metal velocity through
the interdendritic region is between 10 to 250 µm.s-1. Ludwig et al. [20] have found interdendritic
velocity of liquid copper can reach 2.5 mm.s-1 in their study. The interdendritic velocities reported
in the literature are clearly a function of the rate of solidification; a higher rate of volumetric change
upon solidification will result in a higher interdendritic velocity. Hence interdendrtic velocity will
be controlled by such factors as the thermal diffusivity of the mold. A copper mould would result
in a higher velocity than if the metal were freezing in a sand mould.
The viscosity of liquid copper alloys can be calculated with Arrhenius equation [21];

𝐸𝑓
𝜇𝑙𝑖𝑞 = 𝜇0 ∙ 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) (8)
𝑅𝑇
where μ0 is a constant in Pa.s and Ef is the activation energy for liquid flow (J.mol-1), R is gas
constant (=8.314 J/mol.K).
Let us now assume that the worst case scenario that Pellini defined in Figure 1 has taken place;
there is a region in the casting where the temperature is uniform. This scenario can take place
regardless of the pouring temperature during the progress of solidification. In this region, fs is also
uniform. If where liquid metal is needed is on the other side of this region, then the pressure
gradient can be written as ΔP/Lf. Therefore, Equation 4 can be arranged such that [9];

𝐾𝑝
𝐿𝑓 = − ∙ ∆𝑃 (9)
(1 − 𝑓𝑠 ) ∙ v𝑙𝑖𝑞 ∙ 𝜇𝑙𝑖𝑞
The feeding distances in tin bronze castings will now be analyzed by using Equation 9.

Details of Analysis
In this study, the C90700 casting alloy has chosen for calculations. C90700 alloy is a tin bronze
casting alloy that is a hard and strong alloy commonly used in gears, bearings and worm wheels.
Chemical composition is given in Table 1 [12].
Table 1. Chemical composition range for C90700 tin bronze.

Cu Sn Pb Zn Fe Sb Ni S P(f) Al Si
88.0–90.0 10.0–12.0 0.5 0.5 0.15 0.2 0.5 0.05 0.3 0.005 0.005

Selected temperature for analysis for the solidification of C90700 bronze alloy is 960°C. The
partition coefficient, k0, at this temperature has been estimated to be 0.341. Based on the Cu-Sn

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 E. Erzi. M. Tiryakioğlu: Materials Science & Technology, v. 35, pp. 2211-2216, 2019.

binary equilibrium phase diagram [22], the C90700 alloy has a liquidus temperature (Tliq) of
1000°C. All the values for the alloy properties used in this study are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2. Values for alloy properties used in this study.

Value(s) Unit Ref. Notes
k0 0.529 Estimated from phase diagram
o
Tm 1085 C [22]
o
Tliq 1000 C Estimated from phase diagram
σ 1.154 J/m2 [23] Extrapolated
ρliq 8430 kg/m 3
[24, 25]
vliq 10-2500 µm.s-1 [20, 26]
μ0 1.219 mPa.s [27, 28]
Ef 14117 J.mol-1 [27, 28]
λ1 100-1000 µm [29]
λ2 10-100 µm [26, 29, 30]

Results and Discussion

Intrinsic Fracture Pressure of Liquid C90700

To estimate the intrinsic fracture pressure of liquid copper alloys by using the Fisher equation,
surface tension of the C90700 alloy needs to be known at 960°C. Kawai et al. [23] investigated
the effect of temperature and Sn concentration on the surface tension of liquid Cu-Sn alloys.
Based on their findings, the surface tension of Cu-10%Sn alloy was estimated to be 1.154 J/m2.
Inserting this value into Equation 3, Pf(int) of the C90700 alloy is calculated as -4.19 GPa at
960°C. This value is similar to the fracture pressure of liquid aluminum at its melting
temperature, ~-4.0 GPa [4].
Solid Fraction, Viscosity and Liquid Velocity
The weight fraction of solid (fsw) of these alloy can be estimated by the Scheil-Gulliver equation;
1
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑚 𝑘𝑜 −1 (10)
𝑓𝑠𝑤 =1−( )
𝑇𝑙𝑖𝑞 − 𝑇𝑚
where Tm is the melting point of pure copper. The evolution of solid weight fraction for C90700
by using the values in Table 2 is presented in Figure 2. Note that solidification is completed at a
temperature of 798°C and therefore the solidification interval of the alloy is 202°C. For T= 960°C,
fsw is calculated as 0.555. For further calculations, this value needs to be converted to volume
fraction of solid, fs. The solidification shrinkage of C90700 alloy has been reported as 1.6% [12].
By using the liquid density for C90700 alloy at 1000°C reported in the literature [24, 25], the liquid
density (ρliq) at the 960 °C has been calculated to be approximately 8430 kg/m3. Subsequently, fs
has been calculated as 0.546 at 960 °C.

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 E. Erzi. M. Tiryakioğlu: Materials Science & Technology, v. 35, pp. 2211-2216, 2019.

Figure 2. The evolution of solid weight fraction with temperature for the C90700 alloy following
the Gulliver-Scheil equation.
Tan et al. [27, 28] reported the μ0 and Ef values as 1.219 mPa.s and 14117 J.mol-1 for a Cu-10%Sn
alloy, respectively. Hence, μliq was calculated as 4.83×10-3 Pa.s at 960°C.
As stated previously, interdendritic velocity range reported in the literature is 10-2500 µm.s-1.
Therefore, this range has been used in calculations.
Equiaxed Dendritic Mushy Zone
In equiaxed microstructures, Kumoto and Martonaro [20, 21] have reported that secondary
dendrite arm spacing, λ2, in Cu-8Sn and Cu-10Sn alloys is lower than 30 µm at cooling rates
exceeding 100oC/minute. Similarly, Campanella et al. [19], Kumoto et al. [31], and Martorano et
and Capocchi [32] have found the secondary dendrite arm spacing of tin bronzes to be between
10-100 µm. Therefore, in order to calculate effective feeding distance, the λ2 is taken as 10, 30 and
100 µm in this study.
Figure 3 shows the calculated intrinsic effective feeding distances for three different secondary
dendrite arm spacings and 8 different interdendritic velocity values, ranging from 10 to 2500 µm.s-
1
for equiaxed solidification.

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E. Erzi. M. Tiryakioğlu: Materials Science & Technology, v. 35, pp. 2211-2216, 2019.

(a)

(b)

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 E. Erzi. M. Tiryakioğlu: Materials Science & Technology, v. 35, pp. 2211-2216, 2019.

(c)
Figure 3. Effective feeding distance calculations for secondary dendrite arm spacing of (a) 10 µm,
(b) 30 µm, and (c) 100 µm according to the different liquid metal velocities and pressure drop.
As an example tin bronze with a cooling rate of 200 K/minute which has a 30 µm secondary
dendrite arm spacing and 200 µm.s-1 interdendritic velocity has a 358 mm of feeding distance at 1
atm pressure drop value. This value drops to 28.6 mm at the worst-case scenario when the
interdendritic velocity reaches 2500 µm.s-1. The letter result is consistent with the literature in
which the feeding distance for tin bronzes was reported as zero. However, if the alloy does not
have extrinsic defects, such as bifilms and other inclusions, it has the potential of fracture at a
much higher pressure, at which the effective feeding distances can reach up to 104 m. Hence the
observation about the nonexistent feeding range for tin bronze reported in the literature is not an
intrinsic property and is definitely governed by the presence of extrinsic defects, weakening the
liquid during solidification.
It is also noteworthy that the lines presented in Figure 3 shift upwards with increasing secondary
dendrite arm spacing, i.e., with decreasing solidification rate. This finding is in contrast with the
common foundry practice of trying to increase solidification rate in castings by using chills. Our
results show that a coarser structure allows more effective feeding through the mushy zone and
therefore is more beneficial for efforts to produce sound castings.

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 E. Erzi. M. Tiryakioğlu: Materials Science & Technology, v. 35, pp. 2211-2216, 2019.

Columnar Dendritic Mushy Zone

To calculate the permeability of columnar dendritic structures, both primary and secondary
dendrite arm spacings need to be known. Both features are affected by the solidification rate, Ṫ ,
or alternatively solidification time, and therefore are not independent from each other. Martonaro
and Capocchi [32] have investigated the effect of cooling rate on primary and secondary tin bronze.
Their results are presented in Figure 4. Following the model developed by Bouchard and Kirkaldy
[33], and exponent was kept at -0.5. Similarly, the exponent of the secondary dendrite arm spacing
was kept at -0.33 [34-36].

Figure 4. λ1, λ2 values and the best fit equations for tin bronze (data from [29]).
By using the best fit models, the ratio of primary to secondary dendrite arm spacing can be found
as;
λ1 10.36
= 6 (11)
λ2 √Ṫ

Solidification rate can be written as a function of λ1 as;

1625.9 2
̇T = ( )
𝜆1 (12)

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 E. Erzi. M. Tiryakioğlu: Materials Science & Technology, v. 35, pp. 2211-2216, 2019.

Inserting Equation 12 into Equation 11, we obtain,

λ1 3
= 0.88 √𝜆1 (13)
λ2
We can now insert Equation 13 into Equation 6 and calculate permeability for various columnar
dendritic structures, ranging from λ1=30 to λ1=300 µm. Results are presented in Figure 5.

(a)

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 E. Erzi. M. Tiryakioğlu: Materials Science & Technology, v. 35, pp. 2211-2216, 2019.

(b)

(c)
Figure 5. Effective feeding distance calculations for primary dendrite arm spacing of (a) 30 µm,
(b) 100 µm, and (c) 300 µm with different liquid metal velocities and pressure drop.

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 E. Erzi. M. Tiryakioğlu: Materials Science & Technology, v. 35, pp. 2211-2216, 2019.

Results in Figure 5 are similar to those in Figure 3. A fine microstructure with a high interdendritic
velocity in the presence of extrinsic defects cause the feeding distance to approach zero, as
observed in the literature. With increasing liquid metal quality and longer solidification time
(larger λ1), feeding distances are well above any dimension that can be produced in any commercial
casting. Therefore, low or nonexistent feeding distances are a result of extrinsic defects, such as
bifilms with the gas content found in the liquid metal. The abundance of these bifilms in the liquid
metal, that get entrained during the filling process or exist due to prior damage to the liquid metal
[37]. There is ample evidence in the literature that that bifilms are the main defect in metal
castings. In the absence of bifilms, the metal is completely capable of feeding itself over long
distances, as shown in the present study. It can also be stated that the term “feeding distance”
exists only because of the extrinsic defects in solidifying metals.
Conclusions
• The intrinsic fracture pressure as well as effective feeding distances for Cu-11Sn tin bronze
alloy with various microstructures have been calculated. The intrinsic fracture pressure of Cu-
11Sn tin bronze at 960°C is -4.19 GPa.
• Similar to other alloys with a wide freezing range, tin bronze has been reported in the literature
as “difficult to feed”. However, calculations for both equiaxed secondary and primary
columnar dendrites, have shown that effective intrinsic feeding distance of a tin bronze can
reach up to 1000 meters.
• Short or nonexistent feeding distances can be attributed to entrainment defects, such as bifilms,
which are extrinsic defects.
• In the absence of extrinsic defects, the metal is completely capable of feeding itself over long
distances, as shown in the present study.
• The term “feeding distance” exists only because of the extrinsic defects in solidifying metals.
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