Unit Pile Foundations: Structure
Unit Pile Foundations: Structure
Unit Pile Foundations: Structure
Structure
7.1 Introduction
Objectives
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Situations are encountered in the field when the upper soil levels have a very low bearing
capacity or when the column loads are very large. Footings in these cases may cxcupy a
large percentage of the area beneath the structure and may not be economical or safe. Pile
foundations are adopted in these cases. Piles are relatively long and slender members that
are used to transmit foundation loads through soils of low bearing capacity to deeper
stronger soil or rock. They are also sometimes used to resist heavy uplift forces lateral
forces.
The piles carry the load through friction generated along the shaft and the tip resistance
due to end b-aring. If the tip of the piles rest on a strong stratum such as rock, derise sand
or gravel, a major portion of the load will he carried by the resistance developed at the
base of the pile. These piles are called 'End-Bearing Piles' or 'Point Bearing Piles'
(Figure 7.1). Sometimes, it is not possible to drive the pile to rest on a strong stratum at a
great depth a major portion of the carrying capacity will then be camed by the shaft
resistance due to adhesion developed between the embedded surface of the pile and
surrounding soil. Such piles are called 'Friction Piles9or 'Floating Piles'.
Piles are of marly types depending upon material, shapes and method of installation or
functional requirement. The decision to choose a proper type is based on the soil profile
and the structure type. Piles are generally placed in groups, the number in a cluster varying
from 2 to greater than 60. The piles in the group are joined by a reinforced concrete cap so
that the pile cluster can act as a unit. The general problem in the analysis of pile
foundation is that of determining the safe carrying capacity of a group and not the capacity
of a single pile.
Foundation Engineering -11
SAQ 1
In a soil profile consisting of 4 in Ihick dense sand underlain by very soft clay to
great depth, piles 6 m length have been used to support a two-storey building. What
is your opinion regarding the choice'?
Another factor that should be borne in your nlind is the fact that the tip resistance and shaft
resistance of the pile are not mobilised simultaneously. The frictional resistance is
mobilized at displacements of 0.5-2% of the pile diameter while deformations of 5 to 10%
of pile diameter of the pile tip is required to fully mobilise the base capacity. Figure 7.3
shows the resulls of a test performed on a 60 cm diameter, 10 m long pile installed in stiff
clay. The shaft capacity of 600 kN is mobilised at a displacement of 3 mm while the base
capacity of400 kN is mobilised at a displacement of 30 mm. You can see that if a factor of
$2.5is applied to the ultimate load of 1000 kN, more than 90% of the load is carried by the
Foundation Engineering -11
SHAFT
kN
BASE
SET T LEMENT, m m
shaft at the working load of 400 kN.The mobilisation of resistance by friction and bearing
is important. You can select different combinations of diameter and length to carry a
particular load. The settlement of the pile will depend on the relative proportion of end
bearing and shaft resistance.
SAQ 2
i) A precast concrete pile is driven in
a) loose sand, and
b) stiff clay.
What soil disturbance do you expect in each case?
ii) Underreamed bored piles undergo larger settlement than straight shaft bored
piles. Do you agree with the statement?
a) Timber Piles
Timber piles have been used since prehistoric times to support waterfront
structures. The normal length is about 8 m and the diameter 25 to 40 cm. Timber
piles perform very well in completely dry or fully submergt d conditions. Alternate
wetting and drying reduces the life of timber pile. Cresoting and other chemical
impregnation methods are adopted to protect the timber piles. Timber piles are
strapped with steel bands at the top to prevent splitting while driving. Excessive
driving may cause the separation of fibres at the tip. This can be controlled through
use of a metal shoe for the tip. The maximum carrying capacity will be about
150-250kN.
b) Steel Piles
Steel piles can be H piles or tube piles or box piles. They can be driven to great
depths and length can be easily increased by welding. Precautions have to be taken
against corrosion. Large diameter pipe piles are capable of resisting impact forces
efficiently. The carrying capacity will be about 1000-1100 kN.
I c) Concrete Piles
The piles can be precast driven piles, cast-insitu driven or bored piles.
C i) Precast Concrete Piles
These are normally of square section for short and moderate lengths but circular,
octagonal or hexagonal shapes with special type of joints are preferred for longer
lengths. The structural designof precast piles are governed by the need to provide
sufficient strength against the stresses caused by lifting and handling the piles and
subsequent driving of the piles. They are reinforced similar to columns. ?he piles
require space for casting and storage, time for curing and heavy driving equipment
for handling and driving. The quality of concrete can be inspected before it is
driven. The pile is stable in soft soil. But you have to bear the noise and vibration
caused during driving and they cannot be installed in sites of low head room.
ii) Cast-in-situ Driven Concrete Piles
These are available in a wide variety of proprietory types. They can be either
straight or tapered. Straight type is for end-bearing situation while tapered section is
pfeferred for friction. During installation a casing or shell with a mandrel at the
bottom is driven into the ground to the required length. After driving, the mandrel is
removed and the hollow casing filled with concrete. The casing is usually lifted and
removed during concreting. The length of the pile can be adjusted to suit varying
level of bearing stratum and it is possible to form enlarged bases. Precautions have
to be taken against necking or waisting in soft soils. They are not suitable when
artesian tlow is present and for river and marine structures.
iii) Bored Cast-in-situ Concrete Piles
For installing such piles holes are drilled and these are filled with concrete. These
'types of piles are now becoming more popular in India since heavy driving
equipment is not needed. The soil removed in boring can be inspected. They can be
installed in large diameters and great lengths. Noise and vibration is reduced. Bored
piles are also susceptible to squeezing and necking. Boring may loosen sandy and
1 gravclly soils thus resulting in loss of friction. Special precautions are to be taken to
prevent the holes from caving in soft soils and sands. In such cases casing pipes can
be used. Another method is to use bentonite slurry to support the pile walls.
d) Underreamed Bored Piles
Bored files with enlarged bases are also used in some special situations. These are
known as Underreamed Bored Piles and have been successfully used in India to
support single and two-storey buildings built on residual expansive soil.
e) Composite Piles
When yciu have a situation when the upper portion has to project above water, steel
and concrete or wood and concrete piles can be used. Lower portion below water
can be either of timber or steel while the upper portion can be of concrete.
7.4.3 Classification Based on Installation Method
The main types of piles based on installation in general, are as follows:
i) Driven Piles: Preformed units usually in timber, concrete or steel are driven
into the soil by the blows of a hammer.
ii) Driven and Cast-in-dtu Piles: These are formed by driving a tube with a
closed and into the soil and filling the tube with concrete.
iii) Jacked Piles: Steel or concrete piles jacked into the soil.
iv) Bored and Cast-inplace Piles: Bored and cast in place piles are formed by
boring a hole into the soil and then filled with concrete.
7.4.4 Classification Based on Soil Displacement
The disturbance to the soil during installation varies with the method. The driven piles and
jacked piles displace the soil as they are installed and are called Displacement Piles. In
loose sands, the displacement may compact the soil and increases the strength; however in
stiff clay, such installation may crack the soil and reduce the strength.
Bored piles are "Non-displacement" piles since soil is first removed by boring a hole into
which concrete isplaced. Frictional resistance is normally reduced by boring operation.
You have to remember the basic difference between displacement and non-displacement
piles when calculating carrying capacity.
SAQ 3
i) Match the following
a) Wooden Piles a) Handling Stresses
b) Steel Piles b) Necking and Waisting
C) Resent Concrete Piles C)Corrosion
d) Cast-in-situ Concrete Piles d) Wetting and Drying
ii) State whether the following statements are true or false
a) Bored pile is a displacement pile.
b) Underreamed bored pile is used in expansive soil.
c) Batter piles are inclined piles.
A MMER LEAD
LEADS
I I
PILE
I
LJ
'
(a) Crane Rig (b) Sectional Plan of Leads
-
Figure 7.4: Pile Driver Crwler Rig
The following types of pile hammers are generally used in the fields.
i) Drop Hammers
These are solid masses of forged steel weighing 10 kN to 50 kN fitted with lugs for
sliding in the guide. The height of drop varies from 1.5 m to 2.5 m; but it is difficult
to control the drop. This is a slow process and used for small jobs.
ii) Single Acting Hammers
These comprise a massive weight in the form of a cylinder. Steam or compressed
air admitted to the cylinder raises it up the piston rod. At the top of the stroke steam
is cut off and the hammer falls on the top of the pile helmet. The height of drop and
frequency of each individual stroke can be controlled by the operator. The height of
the drop is about 60-90 cm and the operation rate about (60strokes per minute. The
weight of the hammer is usually equal to the weight of the pile. However, heavier
hammers with smaller drops are more effective than lighter hammers with larger
drops.
iii) Double Acting Steam Hammer
These are used to impart a rapid succession of blows to the pile. Steam or air
pressure lifts the ram and accelerates it downward. The rate of driving ranges from
100-250 blows per minute and the weight of hammer from 10 to 25 kN. The blows
follow in rapid succession, keeping the pile in continuous motion. Thus, the effect
of impact and damage to pile head is reduced.
iv) Diesel Hammers
These hammers are self contained, economical and simple; but they are not
effective in all types of soils. In this type the moveable ram is raised-initially by
outside means. When released, falls on an impact block or anvil which itself rests
on the pile. The falling ram compresses the air and this raises the temperature. The
impact vapourises a pool of diesel oil. The instantaneous expansion of gases gives
an additional kick to the pile and raises the ram for the next downstroke. The energy
imparted is difficult to evaluate and varies with the resistance offered to the pile.
They are ineffective in soft soils when the impact of the blow is not sufficient to
vapourize the fuel.
v) Vibratory Hammers
These consist of a unit with eccentric weights mounted on shafts rotated in different
directions. Electric motors rotate the shaft at about 700-2000 vibrations per minute.
Foundation Engineering -11 A resonant condition is created and pile penetrates into me grvlulu WIUI a l l l r u l
driving force. The hammers will not be effective in cohesive soils and when
boulders are encountered in sandy soils. They are effective in cohesionless soils.
7.5.2 Bored Piles
Spiral auger or bucket auger rotary drilling machines are now effectively used for
installing large diameter bored piles in a wide range of soils. Bentonite slurry in
conjunction with bucket auger have eliminated the problem of caving of holes during
drilling in soft clays and sands and the use of casing is thus avoided. Machines are now
available to drill holes upto a length of 70 m and diameter of 4.0 m.
In ground where mechanical augering is not possible, percussion boring rigs can be used.
Percussion boring rigs have been used in water bearing sands and gravels, bouldery clays
and soft clays.
The under reams for the bored piles are achieved by a bailing bucket rotated by the drill
rods. The arms of the underreamer may be hinged either at the top or at the bottom. The
top hiriged underream creates a more stable conical underream while the bottom hinged
arm gives a less stable hemispherical bulb.
SAQ 4
i) Why are diesel hammers not suitable in soft soil?
ii) Why is bentonite slurry used to install bored piles?
Example 7.2
A round pile 30 cm diameter is driven to a depth of 21 m in a deep deposit of clay
having an unconfined strength of 90 kN per sq.m. as shown in Figure 7.5 What is
the design carrying capacity?
Solution
Unconfined strength q, = 90 W1sq.m.
cU = qu/2= 45 kN1sq.m Tt? 21 rn q= 9 0 kpa
Cohesionless Soils
The s k h friction resistance per unit area on the pile shaft is given by the general
expression.
2.0
1 - p-
Wood- -- p
1
- -
213 -
1 -
1.5 4.0
Equation 7.8 implies that unit skin friction increases with increasing depth. However, it
has been observed that unit skin friction does not increase beyond a critical length LC.The
critical length varies from 15 d for the relative density of the sand less than 30 percent to
20 d for relative density greater than 70 percent.
The end bearing resistance of a square pile Q, driven in sand can be written as
Qb = pdNq + 0.4 By Ny . . . (7.9)
h e second term can be generally neglected as it is relatively small.
The bearing capacity factor N, can be obtained from the values given by Berzantsav
(Figure 7.6). From the Tables and Equation 7.9, it is seen that the end bearing capacity
increases with increasing length and increasing density. But observations indicate that at a
depth of 10-30 diameters, the maximum base resistance is reached and it is about 11000
I
I
kIV/m2.Generally, if the pile is driven to refusal in dense sand or gravel, compressive
strength of concrete governs the carrying capacity and not the bearing capacity of soil.
I
The ultimate carrying capacity of a pile driven in sand can be written as
I
I
I
You have to bear in mind that in sand there are uncertainties regarding the values of K and
6. Hence load tests are recommended to confirm the calculated values.
Example 7.3
A 40 cm diameter precast concrete pile is driven to a depth of 15 m in a deep
deposit of sand. The ground water table is at a depth of 4 m below ground level.
The angle of shearing resistance of sand is 34". The dry unit weight of sand is
17 kN/m3 and the submerged unit weight 11 kN/m3. Estimate the design carrying
capacity.
Solution
Assume critical length as 20 d = 20 x 0.4 = 8 m
The vertical stress distribution is as shown in Figure7.7.
Pile Foundations '
Figure 7.7
(p,) 4 m = 17 x 4 = 68 kN1sq.m
( & ) 8 m = 6 8 + l l x 4 = 112kN/m2
Let us assume k = 1.5
= 314 x 34 = 25.5"
x 0.4 x 4 + 1.5
'
The frictional resistance = 1.5 x (68/2) x tan 2 5 . 5 ~
x 0 . 4 4~ + 1.5 x 122 x tan 25.5 x 0.4 x 7
x ((68+112)/2)tan 25.5.~~
= 122+324+705 = 1151kN.
Bearing capacity factor Nq = 60 (from Figure 7.5)
End bearing resistance = 122 x 60 x 7114 x 0.43 = 920 kN
Ultimate carrying capacity = 115 1 + 920 = 2071 kN
Allowable capacity = 207112.5 = 829 kN
Note that the shaft resistance and end bearing resistance are of similar magnitudes.
TJ?:
Solution
CLAY
0 kpa
r% 0.5 m
H
2.5 m
Figure 7.9
Solution
Assume an angle of 60' for the underream.
The length of underream = 0.5 m
Effective length = 12 - 0.5 - 2 x 1 - 1
= 8.5 m
Frictional resistance = 0.45 x 60 x 1 x 8.5
= 721 kN
Nc = 6.0 (1 + 0.2 (1212.5)) = 11.76
Take N, = 9
End bearlng resistance = 60 x 9 x 7c x 774
= 3819 kN
Q, = 3819 + 721 = 4540 kN
Allowable load = 454013 = 1514 kN
SAQ 5
I) Calculate the proportion of shaft frictional resistance Q, and bearing
resistance Qb to the total resistance Qf in Examples 7.2 to 7.5.
ii) Which type of pile will have the lowest deformation for a particular load ?
Indicate method of installation and pile type.
c, = elastic shortening of
Other Timber
Qs
-- -
= F.S.
r)
Q, = (25 X 9040.6 + 0.25) = 2647 kN
- = 441 LN
NAULIC JACK
DIAL
G AUGE
I
L..-
3+-PILE ,,
-CLAMPS ON PILE
O AUGE LJ
Figure 7.11 :Pile Load Test
Two types of load penetration curves are shown in Figure 7.12. The failure load can be
immediately determined in curve A. However you have to resort to code provisions to
determine the design load carrying capacity in curve B.
LOAD, kN
The allowable load on the single' pile may be obtained as one of the following as per IS
code.
i) 50% of the ultimate load at which the total settlement is equal to one tenth
the diameter of the pile.
ii) Two thirds of the load which causes a total settlement of 12 11lm.
iii) Two thirds of the load which causes a net seitlement of 6 rnm (total
settlement minus elastic settlement).
S I N G L E P I L E FAILURE
GROUP F A I L U R E
The sum of
i) End bearing capacity of the assembled pile tips of the group acting as a
square or rectangular footing.
ii) . Cohesional support of the group perimeter throughout the pile length with
the adjacent soil.
~ ~ ~ n d a tEngineering
ion -11 where, Ag = B x L, calculated to the outside edge of pile
Qb = C" Nc
where, c = undrained cohesive strength
N,= 5.0 ( 1 4 . 2 BL) ( 1 4 . 2 1/B)
A, = (2B+2L) 1
Please note that adhesion factor a is not applied as the area of disturbance
along the perimeter is small.
Example 7.7
A six-pile cluster with 40 cm diameter piles with centre to centre spacing of 105 cm
as shown in Figure 7.14 is driven into a deep deposit of clay. ?he unconfined
compressive strength is 90 kN per sq.m. The length of pile is 21m. Calculate the
carrying capacity.
lo!jT W%
0
-
0
250crn
0
,
F5
r /!
1-45 m
2.50 rn -/
4 b
Figure 7.14
Solutlon
Group capacity = Bearing Resistance + Frictional Resistance
N, = 5.0 ( 1 4 . 2 BL) ( 1 4 . 2 I/B)
= 5.0 ( 1 4 . 2 11451250) (1M.2 21001145) = 5 x 1.12 x 1.2
= 6.0 (1.126) = 6.70
End bearing capacity = 2.50 x 1.45 x 45 x 6.70 = 1093.0 kN
Frictional Resistance = 2 (2.50 + 1.45) x 21 x 45 = 7466 kN
Ultimate carrying capacity = 1093 + 7466 = 8559 kN
Design Capacity = 855913 = 2853 kN
In the Example 7.2, we have already calculated the individual capacity as 250 kN.
Hence design group capacity = 6 x 250 = 1500 kN
You have to select the lower value of the two. Hence the value of 1500kN is
adopted
POSITIVE SKIN
FIRM SOIL FRICTION
RESISTANCE
Figure 7.15: Negative Skin Friction
A protective coating of biturnan or chemical may be provided to reduce the skin friction.
Sometimes a casing is provided. However, the bottom 15-20% of length should not be
coated to provide sufficient end bearing.
For a single pile the maximum skin friction that can act is equal to the frictional resistance
of the pile embedded in the settling soil including the fill portion. For a group of piles, the
down drag force can be taken as the frictional force on the block plus the weight of soil
causing settlement enclosed in the block.
Foundation Engineering -11 The present practice is to design the group of piles in settling soil with a low factor of
safety so that the group settles with the consolidating soil.
L
Refer Figure 10 for fixed head pile = 2.15
T
L,= 2.15 x 175.53 = 377.4 cm
Refer IS: 291 1 Part IV
Permissible deflection = 5 mrn Ref: pp 37
For a fixed head pile
Q ( Li + LrQ
Y =
El
Q ( 0 + 377.4 )3
:. 0.5 =
2.85 x 10' x 3.07 x 10' x 12
Solving the above, we get Q = 9.766 t
Though 5 mrn is permissible deflection under 1.5 times the allowable load, Pile Fouudatioos
Additional factor of safety available for a permissible load of 5 t.
:. safe
7 29 = 1.46
Permissible Load being 5 t, Additional Factor of Safety available = -
5
say 1.5
Hence safe.
270 mm
Concrete grade M25
x5
Foundation Engineering -11
4 801
Permissible load being 3 t, Additional Factor of Safety available = -= 1.6 > 1.5 as
3
said and required. Hence safe.
In this unit we have described the different types of pile foundations, methods of
installation and methods to compute carrying capacity of individual piles and pile groups.
Here are the main points.
i) Pile foundations are used when the top layer of soil profile is weak or when
the column loads are large.
ii) Piles are available in different materials. A number of methods are used to
install them. The material of the pile, method of installation and soil profile
all influence the behaviour of pile.
iii) Carrying capacity can be calculated by using suitable soil parameters. Care
should be exercised in selecting the soil parameters to be used. Pile load tests
are carried out on test piles to check the design values adopted.
iv) Dynamic pile driving formulae and penetration resistance values can be used
in some cases to determine carrying capacity.
v) The carrying capacity of group of piles need not necessarily be equal to the
number of piles multiplied by the individual capacity of the piles in the
group. The group capacity has to be calculated for block failure and
individual pile failure.
86-