CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. General

Fiber reinforced concrete (FRC) is a composite material consisting of mixtures

of cement, water, fine or fine and coarse aggregate, and discontinuous discrete fibers.
It may also contain pozzolans and other admixtures commonly used in conventional
concrete. Fibers of various shapes and sizes produced from steel, synthetic (nylon,
polypropylene, polyethylene), glass, and natural materials are being used. FRC is used
to improve concrete properties in all directions. Fibers help to improve the post peak
ductility performance, pre-crack tensile stress, fatigue strength, impact strength and
eliminate temperature and shrinkage cracks. Nowadays, for most structural and
nonstructural purposes, polypropylene fiber is the most widely used of all the fibers.
Nowadays, Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC) has been successfully used in France,
Australian, India, UK, USA, China and Thailand, etc. So, this fiber is used in my
thesis. Steel fibers, glass fibers, synthetic fibers, natural fibers and polypropylene
fibers are shown in Figure 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4 and 2.5.
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Figure 2.1. Steel Fibers

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Figure 2.2. Glass Fibers

Figure 2.3. Synthetic Fibers

Figure 2.4. Natural Fibers

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Figure 2.5. Polypropylene Fiber

2.1.1. Historic Development of Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC)

The concept of using fibers in order to reinforce matrices weak in tension is

more than 4500 years old. Ancient civilizations used straw fibers in sun-dried mud
bricks in order to create a composite with increased toughness, i.e. a matrix with a
better resistance to cracking and an improved post cracking response. Since Portland
cement concrete started to be used widely as a construction material attempts were
made to use fibers for arresting cracked. Engineers had to overcome the major
deficiencies of concrete, which were the low tensile strength and the high brittleness.

A French engineer, named Joseph Lambot, in 1874 came out with the idea of
adding continuous fibers into the concrete, in the form of wires of wire meshes. This
led to the development of ferrocement and reinforced concrete as known today. The
use of continuous steel reinforcing bars in the tensile zone of concrete undoubtfully
helped to overcome the problem of the low tensile strength of concrete. However, the
idea of using discontinuous fibers in the concrete was always a challenge.

The development of fiber reinforcement for concrete was very slow before
1960. Until then there were some papers describing the basic concept of using fibers
for reinforcement in concrete mixes but there was no application. Nevertheless,
research on glass fibers had been conducted in USA, UK and Russia in early 1950’s.
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Actually, in Russia, glass fibers were not only under research but were also used in
the construction industry. However, this kind of fibers was found to be prone to
alkaline attacks. In late 1950’s, Portland Cement Association started investigating
fiber reinforcement.

Since early 1960’s, there has been an increased interest in fiber reinforced
concrete (FRC). This period is the turning point for the development of FRC. More
rapid modern advances are paralleled by increasing applications. While more new
applications were identified a wide range of fibers was introduced. These include steel
fibers, glass fibers, carbon fibers, natural organic fibers and polypropylene fibers.
Generally, the fibers used to reinforce concrete can be characterized as discontinuous,
discrete fibers with length less than 50mm and diameter no more than 500mm.

During the modern development of FRC in late 1970’s and early 1980’s, when
the testing equipment and analysis procedures became more quantitative and better
qualitatively the concept of energy absorption (or fracture toughness) was introduced.
This concept enabled the toughness measurement of materials. It was then that the
major advantages of FRC was discovered and it was not other than the outstanding
property of absorbing large amounts of energy compared to Ordinary Portland
Cement Concrete. Even today, after more than three decades of research in this field it
can be said that the principal benefit of FRC is the high fracture toughness. However,
further research with different types of fibers and admixtures targets the development
of a composite with increased tensile and compressive strengths, are now known as
the high fiber reinforced concrete (HFRC).

The production of a cement based material having high tensile and

compressive strengths, remarkable energy absorption capacity and which will be
homogeneous and isotropic (almost similar to cast iron) is no longer a utopia any
more. The incessant research in the field of FRC has led to the production of HPFRC,
which shows a combination of amazing properties compared to other cementitious
composites.

2.1.2. Application of Fiber Reinforced Concrete

The application of fiber reinforced concrete (FRC) are for so varied and so
widespread, that it is difficult to categories them. Following are the common
applications of FRC constructions:
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(a) Runway, Aircraft Parking, Roadways and Pavements

(b) Slope Stabilization and Tunnel Lining
(c) Blast Resistance Structures
(d) Precast Structures
(e) Dams and Hydraulic Structures

2.1.2.1. Runway, aircraft parking, roadways and pavements

With the use of FRC, the thickness of the slabs has been reduced to less than
half compare with the normal reinforced concrete (from 375 mm thick reduced to150
mm). The crimped-end in shape of FRC was used to overlay an existing asphaltic-
paved area. For example, more than 400 tons of steels fibers has been used recently in
the construction of a road overlay for a project at Mathura (UP), India, as shown in
Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6. Construction of A Road Overlay for A Project at Mathura (UP), India

2.1.2.2. Slope stabilization and tunnel lining

The steel fiber reinforced shotcrete (pumping out the steel fiber reinforced
concrete through a hose) is used to put on the surface since with the properties of steel
fiber reinforced concrete which the toughness and impact strength are more than
conventional reinforced shotcrete. For example, in Australian, the St Helena Tunnel is
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used polypropylene fibers as the primary reinforcement in the shotcrete lining of the
tunnel, as shown in Figure 2.7.

Figure 2.7. Shotcrete Lining of St Helena Tunnel, in Australian

2.1.2.3. Blast resistance structures

Steel fiber reinforced concrete is used in design of these structures due to the
enhancement of post cracking properties and the blast loading. Additionally, it is
found that, under blast or shock wave, the slabs with steel fiber reinforced concrete
reduce 20% in fragment velocities and 80% in fragmentation.

2.1.2.4. Precast structures

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Fiber reinforced concrete increases the strength of the structures. Additionally,

fiber reinforced shotcrete is used to make the circular shapes using the inflated
membrane process. Precast using FRC are shown in Figure 2.8.

Figure 2.8. Precast Using FRC

2.1.2.5 Dams and hydraulic structures

Fiber reinforced concrete (shotcrete) are used to repair the dams and hydraulic
structure due to its resistance to cavitation (damages) and erosion caused by the strong
impact of water flow. For example, the Tehri dam is used fiber reinforced concrete, in
Uttarakhand, India, shown in Figure 2.9.

Figure 2.9. Tehri Dam, in Uttarakhand, India

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2.1.3. Advantages of Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC)

The advantages of Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC) are the following

important factors;

(a) High tensile strength (small cross-sections, Earthquake resistance)

(b) Improving durability (corrosion-free, less running cost)
(c) Eco-friendly (less materials needed for maintenance and construction)
(d) Low weight (easy to handle)
(e) High flexibility (more creative architectural design)
(f) Low coefficient of thermal expansion (High fire resistance)
(g) Reduce crack widths
(h) Reduce steel reinforcement
(i) Improve structural strength
(j) Increase resistance to plastic shrinkage
(k) Improve ductility
2.1.4. Disadvantages of Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC)

The disadvantages of Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC) are the following

important factors.

(a) Expansive (high initial cost)

(b) Greater reduction of workability
(c) Rick of lung cancer in the manufacturing phase
(d) Exacting of production technology
(e) Higher specific gravity

2.2. Cement

Cement is a fine mineral powder manufactured with very precise processes.

Mixed with water, this powder transforms into a paste that binds and hardens when
submerged in water. Because the composition and fineness of the powder may vary,
cement has different properties upon its makeup. Cement is the main component if
concrete. It’s an economical, high-quality construction material used in construction
projects worldwide.

2.2.1. Types of Portland Cement

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The various types of Portland cement and some special cements are described
below.

(a) Ordinary Portland cement

(b) Rapid-hardening Portland cement
(c) Special rapid-hardening Portland cement
(d) Low-heat Portland cement
(e) Modified cement
(f) Sulfate-resisting cement
(g) Portland blast-furnace cement
(h) Supersulfated (slag) cement
(i) White and coloured Portland cement
(j) Portland-Pozzolan cement
(k) High alumina cement
(l) Air-entraining cement

2.2.2. Physical Properties of Portland Cement

The quality of cement is vital for the production of good concrete, the
manufacture of cement requires stringent control. A number of tests are performed in
the cement plant laboratory to ensure that the cement is of desired quality and that it
conforms to the requirements of the relevant national standards. The physical
properties of Portland cement are:

(a) Normal Consistency

(b) Setting times
(c) Specific Gravity
(d) Fineness
(e) Soundness and
(f) Strength.

2.3. Aggregate
Aggregate is a term for any particular material. It includes gravel, crushed
stone, sand, slag, recycled concrete and geosynthetic aggregates. Aggregate may be
natural, manufactured of recycled. Aggregates are the important constituents in
concrete. Aggregates make up any particular mix of concrete mix. They provide
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compressive strength and bulk to concrete Aggregates in any particular mix of

concrete are selected for their durability, strength, workability and ability to receive
finishes. For a concrete mix, aggregates need to be clean, hard, strong particles free of
absorbed chemicals or coating of clay and another fine materials that cause the
deterioration of concrete.

2.3.1. In Accordance with Size

(a) Coarse aggregate: Aggregates predominately retained on the No.4 (4.75

mm) sieve.
(b) Fine aggregate (sand): Aggregates passing No.4 (4.75 mm) sieve and
predominately retained on the No.200 (75 µm) sieve.

2.3.2. In Accordance with Sources

Natural aggregates: This kind of aggregate is taken from natural deposits

without changing their nature during the process of production such as crushing and
grinding. Some examples in this category are sand, crushed limestone and gravel.
2.3.3. In Accordance with Unit Weight

(a) Light weight aggregate: The unit weight of aggregate is less than 1120
kg/m3. The corresponding concrete has a bulk density less than 1800kg/m3.
(b) Normal weight aggregate: The aggregate has unit weight of 1520-
1680kg/m³. The concrete made with this type of aggregate has a bulk
density of 2300-2400kg/m³.
(c) Heavy weight aggregate: The unit weight is greater than 2100kg/m³. The
bulk density of the corresponding concrete is greater than 3200kg/m³. A
typical example is magnesite limonite, a heavy iron ore. Heavy weight
concrete is used in special structures such as radiation shields.

2.3.4. Characteristics of Aggregate

The important characteristics of aggregates for concrete are:

(a) Resistance to abrasion and degradation
(b) Resistance to freezing and thawing
(c) Resistance to disintegration by sulfates
(d) Particle shape and surface texture
(e) Grading
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(f) Fine aggregate degradation

(g) Uncompacted void content of fine aggregate
(h) Bulk density (unit weight)
(i) Relative density (specific gravity)
(j) Absorption and surface moisture
(k) Compressive and flexural strength
(l) Resistance to alkali reactivity and volume change

2.3.5. Fine Aggregate

Fine aggregates generally consist of natural sand or crushed stone with most
particles smaller than 5 mm (0.2in).

2.3.6. Coarse Aggregate

Coarse aggregates are particulates that are greater than 4.75 mm. The usual
range employed is between 9.5 mm and 37.5 mm in diameter (3/8 in and 1 ½ in).

2.3.7. Shape and Surface Texture

Aggregate shape and surface texture influence the properties of freshly mixed
concrete more than the properties of hardened concrete. Rough-textured, angular and
elongated particles require more water to produce workable concrete than smooth,
rounded compact aggregate. Consequently, the cement content must also be increased
to maintain the water/cement ratio. However, with rough aggregates, there is better
mechanical bond in the hardened concrete, so strength is higher. Hence, when smooth
aggregates are replaced with rough aggregates, concrete of similar flow properties and
strength can be produced by adding a little bit more water.

2.3.8. Physical Properties of Aggregates

The physical properties of fine and coarse aggregates are:
(a) Specific gravity test
(b) Sieve analysis test and
(c) Water absorption test.

2.4. Water for Curing of Concrete

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Generally, quality of water for construction works are same as drinking water.
This is to ensure that the water is reasonably free from such impurities as suspended
solids, organic matter and dissolved salts, which may adversely affect the properties
of concrete, especially the setting, hardening, strength, durability, and pit value, etc.
Two important aspects about the role of water in concrete need to be discussed: the
hydration process and the water cementations materials ratio. Generally, water
suitable for mixing concrete, is also suitable for curing of concrete. However, the
following points should be noted regarding the use of water for curing of concrete.
Generally curing water should be free from following impurities.
(a) The presence of iron or organic matters may cause staining of concrete,
particularly if the water flows slowly over concrete and evaporates
rapidly.
(b) Water should be free from substances that attacks hardened concrete. For
example, concrete id attacked by water containing free carbon dioxide.
(c) Flowing pure water, formed by melting ice or by condensation, and
containing little CO2, dissolves Ca(OH)2 and cause surface erosion. Curing
with sea water may lead to attack of reinforced.

2.5. Admixtures
Admixtures are natural or manufactured chemicals which are added to the
concrete before or during mixing. The most often used admixtures are air-entraining
agents, water reducers, water reducing retarders and accelerators. Admixtures are
used to give special properties to fresh or hardened concrete. Admixtures may
enhance the durability, workability or strength characteristics of a given concrete
mixture. Admixtures are used to overcome difficult construction situations, such as
hot or cold weather placements, pumping requirements, early strength requirements,
or over very low water-cement ratio specifications.

2.5.1. Function of Admixtures

Admixtures are used for the following purposes.

(a) To accelerate the initial setting and hardening of concrete.

(b) To retard the initial setting of concrete.
(c) To increase the strength of concrete.
(d) To improve the workability of fresh concrete.
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(e) To improve the durability of concrete.

(f) To reduce the heat of evaluation.
(g) To control the alkali aggregate expansion.
(h) To promote pozzolanic properties in concrete.
(i) To aid in curing of concrete.
(j) To improve wear resistance to concrete.
(k) To reduce shrinkage during setting of concrete.
(l) To reduce bleeding of concrete.
(m)To impart colour to concrete.
(n) To create concrete or mortar to produce light weight concrete.
(o) To reduce segregation in grout mixes.
(p) To increase the bond between old and new concrete surfaces and also
between concrete and reinforcement.
(q) To produce fungal, insects etc. resistant concrete.
(r) To produce non- skid surface of concrete.
(s) To increase the resistance to chemical attack.
(t) To decrease the permeability of concrete.
(u) To check the corrosion of concrete reinforcement.

2.5.2. Classification of Admixtures

The admixtures can be broadly classified according to their characteristic
effect as follows:
(a) Accelerating admixtures
(b) Retarding admixtures
(c) Grouting admixtures
(d) Air entraining admixtures
(e) Pozzolanic or mineral admixtures
(f) Air detraining admixtures
(g) Gas forming admixtures
(h) Workability admixtures
(i) Alkali aggregate expansion inhibiting admixtures
(j) Damp proofing admixtures
(k) Corrosion inhibiting admixtures
(l) Bonding admixtures
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(m)Fungicidal, Germicidal, and insecticidal admixtures

(n) Colouring admixtures
(o) Plasticizers
(p) Superplasticizers

2.5.3. Superplasticizers

Superplasticizers are also called high range water reducers. They are of recent
origin and relatively are more effective type water reducing admixtures. They were
developed in Japan and Germany during 1960 and 1970 respectively. Chemically they
are different from normal plasticizers. The dosage levels of superplasticizers are
usually higher than that of (0.5 to 3.0%) conventional water reducers and (0.18 to
0.47) they have considerably less undesirables side effects on the properties of
concrete. As super plasticizers do not reduce the surface tension of water to a great
extent, they have not found to entrain significant amount of air in concrete.
The use of superplasticizers can permit the reduction of water in the concrete
mix up to 30% without producing any ill effect on the workability of the concrete i.e.
without reduction in the workability of concrete, where as normal plasticizers with
doses up to 0.1 to 0.4% by weight of cement can reduce water content from 5 to 15%.
Superplasticizers are used for producing flowing concrete to be used in
inaccessible locations, floor or where very quick placing is required. Superplasticizers
are also used for the production of high strength and high performance concrete. With
the use of superplasticizers, flowing concrete could be produced with the
water/cement ratio as low as 0.25 or even less. The strength of such concrete was
found 120 MPa (1200 kg/cm²) or more. The use of super plasticizers also made it
possible to use the fly ash, slag and silica fume to produce high quality concrete.
The superplasticizers are used for the following purposes:
(a) To produce more workable concrete than the concrete without the use of
superplasticizer at the same water/cement ratio.
(b) For the same workability, the use of superplasticizer permits the use of
lower water/cement ratio.
(c) The use of superplasticizer also permits the reduction in cement content
due to the increase in strength.
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(d) The use of plasticizers also produced a homogeneous and cohesive

concrete without any tendency of segregation and bleeding.

2.5.4. Classification of Superplasticizers

Following are a few polymers which are commonly used as base for
superplasticizers:
(a) Sulphonated melamine-formaldehyde condensate (SMF)
(b) Sulphonated naphthalene-formaldehyde condensate (SNE)
(c) Modified Lignosulphonates (MLS)
(d) Multi-carboxylatethers (MCE)
(e) Copolymer of carboxylic acrylic acid with acrylic ester (CAF)
(f) Polycarboxylate ester (PCE)
(g) Cross linked acrylic polymer (CLAP)
(h) Acrylic polymer based (AP)
The first-four superplasticizers differ from one another due to the base
component or due to different molecular weight. Probably the Sulphonated
naphthalene formaldehyde condensate (SNF) is more effective in dispersing the
cement. It is also found to have some retaining properties. The dispersing action
mainly is developed by the sulphonic acid. The sulphonic acid gets absorbed on the
surface of cement particles, making them negatively charged and mutually repulsive.
This action increases the workability at a given water/cement ratio, increasing the
slump from 75mm to 200mm. The resulting concrete is conhesive and not subjected
to excessive bleeding and segregation. The conhesiveness is found if fine aggregate is
increased by 4 to 5% and very angular and flaky coarse aggregate is avoide.
Each commercial product has been found to have different action on cements.
The dosage of conventional plasticizers did not exceed 0.25% by weight of cement in
case of lingo-sulphanates and 0.1% in case of carboxylic acids. The dosages of
superplasticizer like SMF and NSF are used as high as 0.5 to 0.3% as they do not
entrain air, but at the relatively high dosage they can produce undersirable effects as
acceleration or retardation in setting time. However, they increase the air entrainment
in concrete. Plasticizers and superplasticizers are water based. The solid contents may
vary to any extent in a product manufactured by different firms.

2.5.5. Effects of Superplasticizers in Fresh Concrete

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By nominal dosages of plasticizers or superplasticizers the improvement in

the workability of very stiff or zero slump concrete has not been observed. A mix
having 20mm to 30mm initial slump can only be fluidized by the use of plasticizers or
superplasticizers. To fluidity a no slump concrete a high dosage is required. An
improvement in slump may be obtained upto the extent of 250 mm depending upon
the initial slump of the mix, dosage and cement content. It has been observed that
slump increases with the dosage, but after a certain limit of the dosage, slump starts
decreasing. After about 1.0% dosage by weight of cement, slump starts decreasing.
The improved workability developed due to the use of superplasticizers lasts
only for a short duration. It has been observed that this improvement in workability
lasts only for 30 minutes to 90 minutes. Some researchers have found this period from
30 minutes to 120 minutes. Hence the rate of loss of slump is very steep. After this
period of 90 to 120 minutes the workability returns to normal. Hence it is
recommended that plasticizers or superplasticizers should be added to concrete just
prior to placing.

2.5.6. Factors Affecting the Workability of Superplasticizers

Following factors have been found affecting the workability of concrete.

(a) Type of superplasticizer
(b) Dosage
(c) Mix composition
(d) Variation in cement composition and properties
(e) Mixing procedure
(f) Equipment
(g) Others

2.6. Concrete
Concrete is composed of sand, gravel, crushed rock or other aggregates held
together by a hardened paste of hydraulic cement and water the thoroughly mixed
ingredients, when properly proportioned make a plastic mass which can be cast or
molded into a predetermined size and shape. Upon hydration of the cement by the
water, concrete becomes stone like in strength and hardness and has utility for many
purposes.

2.6.1. Advantages of Concrete

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Concrete is considered superior than the other constructional materials due to

the following reasons:

(a) Green or freshly prepared concrete can be moulded in any desired shape
easily.
(b) Concrete can be mixed at places many kilometers away from the actual
site of work and used without any loss of property of the good concrete.
(c) Concrete of any desired compressive strength can be prepared.
(d) Using steel along with concrete any type of structure can be built.
(e) Almost all types of structures can be built with R.C.C.
(f) As concrete has high compressive strength, it can be used economically.
(g) Light weight and fire resistant concrete can also be prepared. Light weight
concrete is useful for partition work.
(h) Materials used in the production of concrete are easily available.
(i) It can be pumped and placed even in very difficult locations.
(j) It can be sprayed and can be used to rectify small cracks and repair work
by gunitting or shotcreting.
(k) It provides quickness and ease in the construction of monolithic members
of the structures.
(l) It provides good architectural look to the structure.
(m)It is quite durable and not liable to be attacked by white ants or termite.
(n) The maintenance cost of structure made of concrete is less.
(o) It is fire resistant and can also be used as sound proof by replacing the
coarse aggregate either by light weight aggregate or using foam concrete.

2.6.2. Fresh Concrete

Fresh or plastic concrete is a freshly mixed material which can be moulded

into any shapes. The relative quantities of cement, aggregates, and water mixed
together, control the properties of concrete in the wet state as well as in the hardened
state. The properties of fresh concrete directly influence the handling, placing and
consolidation as well as the properties of hardened concrete.

2.6.3. Workability

Workability is a general term to describe the properties of fresh concrete.

Workability is often defined as the amount of mechanical work required for full
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compaction of the concrete without segregation. The final strength of the concrete is
largely influenced by the degree of compaction. A small increase in void content due
to insufficient compaction could lead to a large decrease in strength. The primary
characteristics of workability are consistency (or fluidity) and cohesiveness.
Consistency is used to measure the ease of flow of fresh concrete. And, cohesiveness
is used to describe the ability of fresh concrete to hold all ingredients together without
segregation and excessive bleeding.

2.6.4. Consistency

Consistency is very closed related to workability. It is a term which describes

the state of fresh concrete. It refers to the ease which the concrete flows. It is used to
indicate degree of wetness. Workability of concrete is mainly affected by consistency,
i.e, wetter mixes will be more workable than drier mixes, but concrete of the same
consistency may vary in workability. It can also be defined as the relative plasticity of
freshly mixed concrete as indicative of it’s workability.

2.6.5. Segregation
Segregation can be defined as the separation of the constituent materials of
concrete of a heterogeneous mixture so that their distribution is no longer uniform. In
a good concrete all the ingredients should be properly distributed to make it a
homogeneous mixture. The concrete which shows the tendency of separation say
coarse aggregate separates from rest of the ingredients, such a concrete is said to be
showing the tendency of segregation. The segregation of concrete will not only
produce weak, but also non homogeneous concrete which would develop undesirable
properties in the hardened concrete. The difference in the size of aggregate particles
and the specific gravity of the mix constituents are the main cause of segregation, but
the extent can be controlled by the choice of suitable grading and by careful handling.
A well- made concrete taking various parameters into consideration such as
grading, size, shape and surface texture of aggregate with optimum quantity of water
makes a cohesive mix. Such concrete will not show any tendency of segregation. The
cohesive and fatty characteristics of matrix do not allow the different constituents to
fall apart, causing segregation.

2.6.6. Bleeding
Bleeding is sometimes referred to as water gain. It is a form of segregation, in
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in which some of the water from the concrete comes out to the surface of the concrete,
being of the lowest specific gravity among all the ingredients of concrete. Bleeding is
predominantly observed in a highly wet mix, badly proportioned and insufficient mix
concrete. In thin members like slab or road slabs and when concrete is placed in sunny
weather show exceeding bleeding.

2.6.6.1. Causes of bleeding

Bleeding is observed under the following conditions:
(a) In highly wet mixes
(b) Badly proportioned mixes
(c) Insufficiently mixed concrete
(d) In thin members like roof slab or road slab etc.
(e) When concrete is placed in sunny weather.

2.6.6.2. Prevention of bleeding

The amount of bleeding depends largely on the properties of cement. It can be
decreased by the following measures:
(a) It can be reduced by increasing the fineness of cement.
(b) It can be reduced by adding high contents of C3A in the cement.
(c) It can also be reduced by adding calcium chloride to the cement.
(d) Rich mixes are less prone to bleeding than lean mixes.
(e) Addition of pozzolanic or air entrainment admixture reduces the bleeding
of concrete.

2.7. Properties of Hardened Concrete

The understanding of the properties of hardened concrete which change

continuously with time and prevailing conditions is of utmost importance. The
following important factors are the various properties which need consideration of the
concrete in hardened state;
(a) Strength
(b) Durability
(c) Permeability
(d) Elasticity
(e) Shrinkage
(f) Thermal expansion
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(g) Creep
(h) Fire resistance

It is desirable that the hardened concrete should have required strength,

durability and impermeability. It should have maximum elasticity and minimum
shrinkage, creep and thermal expansion.

2.7.1. Strength

Strength of concrete is commonly considered to be its most valuable property,

although in many practical cases other characteristics, such as durability,
impermeability and volume stability, may in fact be more important. Nevertheless,
strength usually gives an overall picture of the quality of concrete because it is
directly related to the structure of cement paste. The most common of all tests on
hardened concrete is the compressive strength test partly because it is an easy test to
make, and partly because many, though not all, of the desirable characteristics of
concrete are qualitatively related to its strength; but mainly because of the intrinsic
importance of the compressive strength of concrete in construction.
The strength test can be mainly classified into mechanical tests to destruction
and non-destructive tests. The tests to destruction have been in use for a great number
of years, but no universally accepted standard test is available. Tests can be made for
different purposes but the main two objective of tests are control of quality and
compliance with specifications. Three types of compression test specimens are used:
cubes, cylinders and prisms. Cubes are used in Great Britain, Germany and many
other countries in Europe Cylinders are the standard specimens used in the United
Stated, France, Canada, Australia, Zealand and Japan.

2.7.2. Compressive Strength

The compressive strength of hardened concrete is one of the most important
and useful properties of concrete. In most of the structural uses, the concrete is used
mainly to resist the compressive stresses. In situations where the shear or tension
strength is of importance, the compressive strength is usually used as a measure of
these properties. Thus the concrete making properties of ingredients of the mix are
usually measured in terms of the compressive strength. It is also used as a qualitative
measure of other properties of hardened concrete.
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The strength of concrete is the measure of its resistance to rupture. When

concrete fails under compressive load, the failure is essentially a mixture of crushing
and shear failure. For a given cement and aggregate the strength developed by
workable, properly placed mix of ingredients is affected by the following factors:
(a) Water-cement ratio
(b) Cement -aggregate ratio
(c) Maximum size of aggregate
(d) Surface texture, shape, grading, strength etc., of aggregate particles.
Out of the above factors, water cement ratio is the prime factor affecting the
strength of concrete. The other factors influence the water/cement ratio, thus
influencing the strength indirectly.

2.7.3. Water Cement Ratio

Water cement ratio can be expressed in terms of weight and volume too. In
terms of weight, the quantity of water to be used per unit weight of cement (1 kg) is
known as water/cement ratio. If 500 grams of water is used per kg of cement then the
water/cement ratio will be 0.5. Normally water/cement ratio more than 1.0 is not used.
In terms of volume water used in liters per bag of cement (50 kg) is taken as water/
cement ratio by volume. Suppose 25 liters of water is used per bag of cement, then
again water/cement ratio will be 0.5. Actually water/cement ratio is an index of the
strength of concrete. The strength of concrete mainly depends upon the strength of the
cement paste, and the cement paste strength depends upon the dilution of cement
paste. In other words, the strength of cement paste increases with cement content and
decreases with water and air content.

2.7.4. Durability
Essentially, durable concrete should withstand the conditions for which it has
been designed, without deterioration, over a period of years. A durable concrete is one
that will withstand to a satisfactory degree, the effects of service conditions to which
it will be subjected, such as weathering, chemical action, and wear. Numerous
laboratory tests have been devised for measurement of durability of concrete but it is
extremely difficult to obtain a direct correlation between service records and
laboratory findings.

2.7.5. Permeability
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Permeability of concrete is also of interest in relation to water–tightness of

liquid-retaining and some other structures, and also with reference to the problem of
hydrostatic pressure in the interior of concrete dams. It may be noted that movement
of water through a thickness of concrete can be caused not only by a head of water but
also by a humidity differential on the two sides of the concrete or by osmotic effects.
Since aggregate particles are enveloped by the cement paste, in fully compacted
concrete it is the permeability of the paste that has the greatest effect on the
permeability of the concrete. For pastes hydrated to the same degree the permeability
is lower the higher the cement content of the paste, i.e., the lower the water/cement
ratio. In lean mass concrete, age is a more important factor in permeability than
cement content.

2.7.6. Elasticity

Concrete is not truly an elastic material but it behaves as an elastic material

within the range of usual working stress.

2.7.7. Shrinkage

In it’s plastic state, concrete shrinks due to absorption of water by the

aggregates and bleeding of the free water to the top surface. This water dries rapidly
at the surface and causes shrinkage. At this stage, concrete being plastic no stresses
are produced due to shrinkage. Shrinkage of concrete is increased by water
consistencies, greater water cement ratios and higher cement content. It can however
be reduced by the use of saturated aggregates, low cement content, properly designed
mixes moist and cool condition of casting and shallow lifts on placing.

2.7.8. Thermal Expansion

Like other materials concrete expands as it’s temperature rises and contracts
when it falls. If the concrete is not free to expand and contract stresses will be
induced.

2.7.9. Creep

When a load is applied to a concrete structure, it produces deformations. The

deformation is elastic in general i.e., on the removal of load deformation will
disappear. If the load is sustained for longer periods deformation continues to take
place. This continued deformation with time due to applied load is called creep. The
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creep does not disappear completely on the removal of sustained load. Creep is more
than the elastic deformation. Creep is very important factor in the long-time
deformational performance of structures. The maximum specific creep was less for
high strength concrete.

2.7.10. Fire Resistance

When concrete is subjected to high temperatures, aggregates and steel expand.

The cementitious material on heating loses it’s water of crystallization and thus
shrinks. Aggregates and steel go on expanding. This causes the concrete to crack and
crumble.

2.8. Curing of Concrete

The process of hydration is not a momentary action, it continues for long. Of
course the rate of hydration is fast in the beginning, but its rate decreases as the time
passes. It is observed that about 90% hydration is complete within 28 days and the
rest 10% hydration takes years together. The quantity of the product known as gel
depends upon the degree of hydration.
In the actual work, though higher water\ cement is used, but the water used in
the concrete evaporates leaving insufficient water in the concrete for the effective
hydration to take place, particularly in the top layer. Thus to prevent the loss of water
from surface of the concrete some measures must be taken by way of provision of
impervious covering or by the application of curing compounds .Thus curing can be
defined as the process of maintaining a satisfactory moisture content and a favourable
temperature in concrete during the period immediately after the placement of
concrete, so that hydration of cement may continue till the desired properties are
developed sufficiently to meet the requirements of service.
It has been observed that the quality of concrete shows all round improvement
with efficient uninterrupted curing. If the curing is neglected in the early period of
hydration, the quality of concrete will suffer a irreparable loss. A concrete laid in the
afternoon of a hot summer day in a dry climate will dry out quickly. The combined
effect of hot sun and dry wind will produce a poorly hydrated cement concrete with
inferior gel structure, which will not give the desired bond and strength. The quick
surface drying of concrete results in the movement of moisture from the interior to the
surface. This steep moisture gradient develops high internal stresses. These internal
stresses also develop internal micro cracks in the semi plastic concrete.
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During hydration, concrete generates a high quantity of heat of hydration. The

generation of this heat is harmful for the stability of concrete. If the heat generated is
removed by any means, the adverse effect of this heat can be minimized. This can be
done by through curing.

2.8.1. Objects of Curing

Following are the objects of curing.

(a) The main object of curing is to keep the concrete saturated or as nearly
saturated as possible, until the originally water filled space in the fresh
cement paste has been filled to the desired extent by the product of
hydration of cement.
(b) To prevent the loss of water by evaporation and to maintain the process of
hydration. In case of site concrete the active curing stops long before the
maximum possible hydration has taken place. The influence of moist
curing on the strength of concrete has been.
(c) To reduce the shrinkage of concrete.
(d) To preserve the properties of concrete.

2.8.2. Necessity of Curing

The necessity of curing arises from the fact that hydration of cement can take

place only in water filled capillaries. For this reason, a loss of water by evaporation
from the capillaries must be prevented. Further water lost internally by self-
desication has to be replaced by water from outside.

Water required for chemical reaction with cement i.e. for hydration is about 25
to 30% of the water added to the cement, rest of the water is used for providing
workability and help to continue hydration. Thus hydration of sealed specimens can
proceed only if the amount of water present in the paste is at least twice that of water
already combined. Self- desiccation (drying up) is thus of importance in mixes with
water/cement ration less than 0.5. For higher water/cement ratios the rate of curing of
sealed specimens is same as that of saturated specimen. It has been observed that only
half the water present in the paste can be used for chemical combination, even if the
total amount of water present is less than the water required for combination.
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2.8.3. Methods of Curing

As the common object of all methods of curing are to prevent the loss of
moisture from the exposed surface of concrete. Actually the method of curing
depends upon the nature of work and atmospheric conditions. Usually following
methods may be adopted.
(a) Shading of concrete works.
(b) Converting concrete surfaces with gunny bags or Hession, burlaps etc.
(c) Sprinkling water on the concrete surface.
(d) Ponding of concrete surface.
(e) Membrane curing.
(f) Steam curing.