Flow of Fluids

UNIT 2 FLOW OF FLUIDS

Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Visualisation of the Flow Patterns
2.3 Types of Flow
2.4 Continuity Equation
2.5 Mean Velocity
2.6 General Energy Equation
2.7 Euler’s Equation
2.8 Derivation of Bernoulli’s Equation from Euler’s Equation
2.9 Bernoulli’s Equation as an Energy Equation
2.10 Bernoulli’s Equation for Real Fluids
2.11 Application of the Bernoulli’s Equation to Simple Problems
2.12 Horizontal Venturimeter
2.13 Inclined Venturimeter
2.14 Use of Differential Manometers in Venturimeter
2.15 Orifice Meter
2.16 Summary
2.17 Answers to SAQs

2.1 INTRODUCTION
This unit introduces you to the basic concepts of flow of fluids. Various methods
of the flow visualisation are given. The streamline and streamtubes are defined.
Different types of flow, depending upon the variation of space and time, are
described.
Two basic equations of fluid mechanics, viz. the continuity equation and the
Bernoulli’s equation are applied to various fluid flow problems.
Basic equations are introduced in this unit. Application of these equation to
flow-measuring devices are discussed.
Further applications of the basic equations shall be discussed in the subsequent
units.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• explain the various types of fluid flow,
• describe continuity, Euler’s and Bernoulli’s equation along with their
areas of applications in day-to-day life, and
• discuss the use and applications of orifice meter and different types of
venturimeter.
51
Fluid Mechanics
2.2 VISUALIZATION OF THE FLOW PATTERN
It is a matter of common experience to observe the path taken by smoke
emerging from a chimney on a windy day. The smoke gives a visual picture of the
movement of the wind. To observe the path taken by a fluid particle in a
laboratory, it is common practice to use droplets of oil or other shiny materials
such as aluminum. Sometimes a visible agent, such as soot, silt, is also used to
produce a visual picture of the flow phenomenon.
The motion of a fluid at any point is described in terms of velocity, which is
defined as the rate of change of distance per unit time. The velocity differs from
the speed in which no attention is paid to the change of direction. Velocity is a
vector quantity as it has both magnitude and direction. It is commonly
represented by an arrow. The length of the arrow is proportional to the magnitude
of the velocity and the orientation of the arrow indicates the direction. If ∆s is the
distance travelled by a particle along a path in time ∆t, the velocity ‘V’ is given
by (Refer Figure 2.1).
Δs
V = Lim . . . (2.1)
Δt → 0 Δt
The direction of velocity is along the tangent to the path of particle at that point.
Pathline
The path followed by a fluid particle is called the pathline. A pathline
shows the direction of a particular particle as it moves ahead. In general,
this is a curve in three-dimensional space. However, if the conditions are
such that the flow is two-dimensional, the curve becomes two-dimensional.
Figure 2.2 shows a pathline. Velocities at different points on the pathline
are also shown. At a particular instant, the velocity is V1 which changes to
V2 after sometime, and then to V3.
y

V3
V s V2

Δy
Δs

Δx V1

x
Figure 2.1 Figure 2.2
Streamline
The above method of representing flow phenomenon is not satisfactory as
the flow pattern becomes very confusing when pathlines are drawn for a
number of particles. A more satisfactory representation of flow as a whole
at any instant may be obtained by sketching a series of curves in such a way
that the velocity vectors for different points lying on the curves would meet
the curves tangentially. These curves are known as streamlines. Thus, a
streamline may be defined as an imaginary line within the flow such that
the tangent at any point on it indicates the velocity at that point. It may be
noted that a pathline gives the path of one particular particle at successive
52
 instants of time, whereas a streamline indicates the directions of a number Flow of Fluids
of particles at the same instant. Streamlines are shown in Figure 2.3(a).

(a) Stream Line (b) Stream Tube

Figure 2.3

In steady flow of real fluids where there are no velocity fluctuations, or in

an ideal frictionless fluid, a pathline also becomes a streamline because
particles move tangentially to streamlines. In unsteady flow, pathlines and
streamlines are different (for definitions of steady and unsteady flow, refer
Section 2.3).
Streakline
A streakline is a curve that gives an instantaneous picture of the location of
fluid particles which had passed through a given point some earlier time.
The path taken by smoke coming out of a chimney is an example of a
streakline.
Streamtube
As the direction of velocity is always tangential to the streamline, it is
obvious that there cannot be any movement of fluid across the streamline.
The same reasoning holds if we consider a number of streamlines. A
streamtube is a fluid mass bounded by a group of streamlines
(Figure 2.3(b)). Because a streamtube is completely bounded by streamlines
on all sides (except at ends), there can be no velocity normal to its sides.
The fluid can enter or leave the streamtube only at the ends. The concept of
streamlines and streamtubes is extremely useful in problems of fluid flow.

2.3 TYPES OF FLOW

There are different types of flow as explained below :
Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow
Laminar Flow
Flow is said to be laminar when the paths taken by the individual
particles do not cross one another. For example, in a pile flow, the
fluid moves in the form of concentric cylinders sliding one within the
other like the tubes of a telescope. These cylinders look like laminae
rolled up into tubes. That is the reason why it is called laminar flow.
In laminar flow the pathlines, which are also streamlines, are parallel.
The streamtube is of constant cross-section and has the sides parallel
to the walls of the conduit (Figure 2.4).
Laminar flow occurs in viscous fluids or in fluid phenomena in which
viscosity plays a predominant role. This is the case when the 53
Fluid Mechanics Reynold’s number (NR) of the flow is low. The flow of thick oil
through a small tube is an example of laminar flow.

Figure 2.4 : Laminar Flow

Turbulent Flow
Flow is said to be turbulent when its pathlines are irregular curves
crossing one another. The fluid particles occupy successively
different transverse positions. The paths are neither parallel nor fixed.
A particle may be at the centre of the conduit at an instant and near
the wall at the next instant. Figure 2.5(a) shows the erratic path
followed by a single particle during an interval of time. Figure 2.5(b)
shows the paths taken by a number of particles at any instant.

(a) (b)
Figure 2.5

In turbulent flow, there is an irregular, chaotic motion of fluid particles.

However, it has been observed in practice that at any fixed point in
turbulent flow, the instantaneous velocity fluctuates about a mean value. In
the study of turbulent Gflow, it is convenient to split the velocity into a
temporal mean value v which is the average velocity at that point over a
long period of time and a fluctuating component of the velocity v´ which
fluctuates about the mean value. The streamline concept, although not
strictly applicable in turbulent flow, can still be used. In turbulent flow, the
streamlines indicate the temporal mean velocity. The general fluid motion is
taken as the criterion of flow and the fluctuations of the velocity are
neglected.
The flow in rivers at the time of floods is turbulent. Turbulent flow is more
common of the two types of flow. Generally, the flow in nature is turbulent.
Steady and Unsteady Flow
Steady Flow
The flow is said to be steady when the flow characteristics, such as
velocity, density, pressure, temperature, do not change with time. A
flow is steady when the rate of change of these characteristics is zero.
For example, if V is the velocity at any point, the flow will be steady
if
dV
=0
dt
54
 Water flowing through a tap at a constant rate is an example of steady Flow of Fluids
flow.
Unsteady Flow
The flow is unsteady if the velocity and other hydraulic characteristics
dV
change with respect to time. Mathematically, ≠ 0.
dt
If the water is flowing at a changing rate, as is the case when the tap
is just opened, the flow is unsteady. Similarly, in the case of a canal
when the regulator is just opened, the flow is unsteady. After
sometime the flow in the canal becomes constant and the flow
becomes steady.
A truly steady flow is possible only when the flow is laminar.
However, even in the case of turbulent flow when mean velocity and
mean values of other characteristics do not change with time, the flow
is termed steady.
Uniform and Non-uniform Flow
Uniform Flow
The flow is said to be uniform when the velocity and other
characteristics are constant in a particular reach. In other words, a
flow will be uniform if the rate of change of these characteristics with
respect to distance along the path is zero. For example, if V is the
dV
velocity at any point, the flow will be uniform if = 0 ; where S is
dS
the distance measured from some fixed point on the path of flow. In
other words, the velocity is constant in the reach.
A liquid flowing through a long straight pipe of uniform diameter at
constant rate is an example of uniform flow, as the velocity is the
same at all sections in reach as shown in Figure 2.6(a).

v v v1 v2

(a) Uniform Flow (b) Non-uniform Flow

Figure 2.6
Non-uniform Flow
The flow is non-uniform when the flow characteristics change at
various points along the path. For example, if V is the velocity at any
dV
point, the flow will be non-uniform if ≠ 0.
dS
If the diameter of the pipe changes, i.e., the pipe is either converging
or diverging, the velocity at different sections in the reach is not
constant (Figure 2.6(b)) and the flow is non-uniform.
The reader should note that flow through a long uniform pipe, when
the flow (discharge) is constant, is an example of uniform steady
flow. If the pipe is non-uniform in diameter but the flow is constant,
the flow is non-uniform steady flow. The varying flow, through a long 55
Fluid Mechanics uniform pipe is unsteady uniform flow. This type of flow very rarely
occurs in practice. If the flow is changing with time and the pipe is
also non-uniform, the flow is unsteady non-uniform flow. Unless
otherwise mentioned, the flow will be assumed to be steady and
uniform.
Incompressible and Compressible Flow
Incompressible Flow
A fluid is said to be incompressible if it cannot be compressed easily.
The density of an incompressible fluid is almost constant.
Incompressible fluid flow is flow of incompressible fluids.
Compressible Flow
A fluid is compressible if it can be easily compressed. Compressible
fluids have variable density.
In reality, there is no fluid which can be classified as perfectly
incompressible. The term is used for the fluids in which the density
changes are negligibly small. Almost all the liquids at ordinary
temperature and pressure are incompressible. But when the pressure
variations are very large, as in the case of water hammer in pipes, the
liquids behave like compressible fluids.
Almost all the gases behave like compressible fluids. However, when
the pressure changes are very small, a gas may behave like an
incompressible fluid. For example, in the case of flow of air in a
ventilating system, the air is treated as an incompressible fluid. Thus
the same fluid may be considered as compressible in one phenomenon
and incompressible in another phenomenon. Unless otherwise
mentioned, the fluid shall be assumed to be incompressible.
Ideal and Real Fluids
Ideal Fluids
An ideal fluid is one which has zero viscosity. Since there is no
viscosity, there is no shear stress between adjacent fluid layers and
between the fluid layers and the boundary. Only normal stresses can
exist in an ideal fluid. In reality, there is no fluid which is ideal.
However, in certain cases the fluid is assumed to be ideal. The
assumption of an ideal fluid allows a fluid to be treated as an
aggregation of small particles which support forces normal to their
surfaces but slide over one another without any resistance. The
assumption simplifies the treatment of flow phenomena. This enables
mathematical or graphical methods to be adopted in the solution of
flow problems. In general terms, an ideal fluid has no viscosity, no
surface tension, no vaporization and it is incompressible.
Real Fluids
A real fluid is one which possesses viscosity. As soon as motion takes
place, shearing stresses come into existence in real fluids. These
stresses oppose the sliding of one layer over the other. Thus a real
fluid is characterized by its frictional resistance when it is in motion.
Irrotational and Rotational Flow
56
 Irrotational Flow Flow of Fluids

A flow is said to be irrotational if the fluid elements do not rotate

about their own mass centres.
Rotational Flow
In rotational flow, the fluid elements rotate about their mass centers.
Figure 2.7(a) shows the velocity distribution adjacent to the straight
boundary. As the velocity distribution is uniform, the fluid element
shown does not rotate about its mass centre. Figure 2.7(b) shows the
velocity distribution which is non-uniform. The velocity reduces as
the boundary is approached. The fluid element shown suffers an
angular deformation, and rotation occurs about an axis which passes
through the mass centre and is normal to the plane of paper.

(a) Irrotational Flow (b) Rotational Flow

Figure 2.7
The flow is also irrotational if the average of the angular velocities of
two mutually perpendicular axes of the element is zero. In this case,
the element deforms in such a way that the clockwise rotation of the
horizontal line is equal to the counter-clockwise rotation of the
vertical line (Figure 2.8(a)). It may be noted that the velocity
decreases as the distance from the centre of curvature increases as
shown by the dotted line. On the other hand, if the velocity increases
with the distance from the centre of curvature, the flow is rotational.
In this case, the element rotates in such a manner that both the
horizontal line and vertical lines rotate in the same direction as shown
in Figure 2.8(b).

+ +

(a) Irrotational Flow (b) Rotational Flow

Figure 2.8
One-dimensional, Two-dimensional and Three-dimensional Flow
One-dimensional Flow
One-dimensional flow is represented by one dimension. Since a
streamline has only one dimension (i.e., length), the flow along a
streamline is one-dimensional. The flow is also called
one-dimensional if there is no variation of pressure, velocity, etc., in
the direction normal to the direction of flow.
57
Fluid Mechanics Two-dimensional Flow
If the flow is such that all streamlines are plane curves and are
identical in parallel planes, it is called a two-dimensional flow. In
this type of flow, the velocity vector has components in two
directions, the component in the third direction is zero. Figure 2.9(a)
shows the flow over a long weir. This is an example of a two-
dimensional flow.
Three-dimensional Flow
In three-dimensional flow, the streamlines are space curves. The
velocity at any point has components in three dimensions.
Figure 2.9(b) shows an example of three-dimensional flow through a
converging pipe. The streamlines are in fact stream surfaces. The
streamtubes are of annular cross section. This type of flow is very
difficult to analyze.

(a) Two-dimensional Flow (b) Three-dimensional Flow

Figure 2.9
Representation of Actual Flow as One-dimensional Flow
If a three-dimensional flow is axisymmetric, it may be treated as
one-dimensional flow. In this case, one dimension is taken along the central
streamline of the flow. The velocity, pressure and elevation along the
streamline are taken as the average values on the section normal to the
streamline. For example, the flow in a pipe is actually three-dimensional,
but it may be considered as one-dimensional taking the length of the pipe as
one dimension. The velocity, pressure, etc., along the length are taken as the
average values at various section. For correct representation of a
three-dimensional flow by a one-dimensional flow, it is essential that the
streamlines be straight and parallel. This method of considering a
three-dimensional flow as a one-dimensional flow is very useful in flow
problems. Because only one dimension is considered, the analysis is greatly
simplified.

2.4 CONTINUITY EQUATION

The continuity equation is based on the principle of conservation of mass. Let us
consider a small streamtube shown in Figure 2.10(a). If the cross-sectional area of
the tube is small, the velocity at the centre of the tube will be the average velocity
over the section. Let dA1 and dA2 be the cross-sectional areas of the tube at
sections 1 and 2, respectively. If v1 and v2 are the average velocities and ρ1 and ρ2
are the mass densities at these two sections, then
Volume of fluid passing at section 1 per unit time = v1dA1
58
 Mass of fluid passing at section 1 per unit time = ρ1 v1 dA1 Flow of Fluids

Similarly, mass of fluid passing at section 2 per unit time = ρ 2 v2 dA2

V2

(2)

V1 V2
A1 A2
(2)
(1) (1)
V1

(a) (b)
Figure 2.10
According to the law of conservation of mass, the mass of fluid entering section 1
must be equal to mass of fluid leaving section 2, if there is no storage of mass in
the tube between sections 1 and 2. No storage of mass is possible in steady flow.
If any mass were stored in the tube, the mass would go on changing with time,
which is impossible in steady flow. Therefore,
ρ1 v1 dA1 = ρ 2 v2 dA2 = constant . . . (a)
In words, the mass of fluid per unit time passing through any section of a
streamtube is constant.
It may be noted that velocities v1 and v2 are normal to the respective area dA1
and dA2.
Let us now consider a conduit shown in Figure 2.10(b). The conduit may be
considered as an assemblage of a number of small streamtubes. The mass flow
rate in the conduit may be obtained by integration of Eq. (a),

∫ ρ1 v1 dA1 = ∫ ρ2 v2 dA2 . . . (b)

A1 A2

where v1 and v2 are the velocities normal to the small areas dA1 and dA2 .
If the mass density is constant over cross-sections, Eq. (b) becomes
ρ1 ∫ v1 dA1 = ρ 2 ∫ v2 dA2
A1 A2

or ρ1 V1 A1 = ρ2 V2 A2 . . . (2.1)
in which V1 and V2 are the mean velocities over the entire sections 1 and 2,
respectively, and A1 and A2 are the cross-sectional areas of the conduit at these
sections. The quantity ρVA is known as mass rate of flow or mass flow rate (M). It
is measured in kg/s.
If the fluid is incompressible, the mass density is constant, and ρ1 = ρ2. Therefore,
V1 A1 = V2 A2 . . . (2.2)
The product V × A is known as discharge. Discharge is the volume rate of flow at
any section. It is expressed in cubic metres per second (cumecs) or litres per
second.
1 cumec = 1 m3/s = 1000 litres per second
Discharge is usually represented by the letter Q.
59
Fluid Mechanics Eq. (2.2) indicates that for a steady incompressible flow, velocity is inversely
proportional to area of cross-section. In other words, where the cross-sectional
area decreases, the velocity increases and vice-versa.
For compressible fluids, Eq. (2.1) is sometimes written in a slightly modified
form. Multiplying both sides of Eq. (2.1) by ‘g’
ρ1 g V1 A1 = ρ2 g V2 A2 or γ1 V1 A1 = γ 2 V2 A2
The quantity γVA is known as the weight rate of flow or weight flow rate (G). It is
measured in N/s or kN/s.

2.5 MEAN VELOCITY

Mean velocity is the average velocity over the section. It is also defined as the
ratio of discharge Q to the cross-sectional area A of the conduit. If the velocity
distribution over the cross-section is uniform, mean velocity is also equal to the
velocity at any point. If the velocity distribution is non-uniform, mean velocity
may be computed as follows.
Let us consider an elementary area dA in the cross-section of the pipe
(Figure 2.11). Discharge dQ through this area is given by
dQ = vdA

where v is the velocity over the elementary area and is normal to it. Total
discharge Q may be obtained by integration,

Q = ∫ vdA . . . (a)

From the definition of mean velocity, the discharge must be equal to the product
of the mean velocity (V) and the cross-sectional area A, i.e.
Q = VA . . . (b)

From Eqs. (a) and (b),

VA = ∫ vdA

1
A∫
or V = vdA . . . (2.4)

dA v

Figure 2.11

The mean velocity may be obtained from Eq. (2.4) if the velocity distribution
over the section is known.
The concept of mean velocity is quite useful in flow problems.

Example 2.1
60
 Two and a half cumecs of water (2500 litres/second) flows through a 50 cm Flow of Fluids
diameter pipe. Calculate the mean velocity. If the diameter is reduced to
25 cm, what would be the mean velocity?
Solution
Q 2.50
V = = = 12.73 m / s
A (π / 4) × (0.50) 2

2.50
In the second case, V = = 50.93 m / s = 50.93 m/s
(π / 4) × (0.25) 2

Example 2.2

The velocity distribution in a circular pipe of radius R is given by

⎛ r2 ⎞
v = Vmax ⎜1 − 2 ⎟
⎜ R ⎟⎠
⎝
where v is the velocity at radius r and Vmax is the velocity at the centre.
Calculate the mean velocity.
Solution
From Eq. (2.4),
1
A∫
V = vdA . . . (a)

Let us consider a small annular ring of thickness dr at a radius ‘r’.

Therefore,
dA = 2π r dr
Substituting the values of v and dA in Eq.(a),
R
1 ⎡ r2 ⎤
V =
π R2 ∫ Vmax ⎢1 − 2 ⎥ 2π r dr
⎢⎣ R ⎥⎦
0

R
2π Vmax ⎡ r 2 r4 ⎤
or V = ⎢ − ⎥
π R 2 ⎣⎢ 2 4 R 2 ⎦⎥ 0

2π Vmax ⎡ R 2 ⎤ Vmax
= ⎢ ⎥=
π R 2 ⎣⎢ 4 ⎦⎥ 2

The mean velocity is one-half of the maximum velocity. This type of

velocity distribution occurs in laminar flow.

Example 2.3

Oil flows through a pipe of 45 cm diameter at point A to 30 cm diameter at

point B. At point B, it bifurcates into two branches consisting of pipes of
20 cm and 15 cm diameters (Figure 2.12). If the velocity at A is 2 m/sec,
calculate the discharge at A and the velocities at B and C. The velocity at D
is 4 m/sec.
Solution
(Refer Figure 2.12) 61
C
15 cm Dia.

A
Fluid Mechanics

Figure 2.12

Discharge at A = A × V = π/4 × (0.45)2 × 2 = 0.318 cumecs.

From the continuity of flow,
Discharge at B = Discharge at A = 0.318 cumecs
0.318
Velocity at B = = 4.5 m/sec
(π / 4) (0.30) 2

Discharge at A = Discharge at C + Discharge at D

If V1 is the velocity at C,
0.318 = ( π / 4) (0.15) 2 V1 + ( π / 4) (0.20) 2 × 4

= 0.0177 V + 0.126
or V1 = 0.192 / 0.0177 = 10.85 m/s.

SAQ 1

(a) A pipe of 20 cm diameters carries water with a mean velocity of

3 m/s. Calculate the discharge.
(b) If the pipe is bifurcated into two pipes of 10 cm diameter each, find
the velocity in each pipe.

2.6 GENERAL ENERGY EQUATION

A dynamic equation describing fluid motion may be obtained by applying
Newton’s second law to a fluid particle. Applying the law in x-direction,
∑ Fx = ma x . . . (a)

where Σ Fx is the resultant net force acting on the particle, m is the mass and ax is
the acceleration.
The forces may be due to gravity (Fg)x, pressure (Fp)x, viscosity (Fv)x, turbulence
(Ft)x, and compressibility (elasticity) (Fe)x. However, when the volume changes
are small, the last force may be neglected. Thus
( Fg ) x + ( F p ) x + ( Fv ) x + ( Ft ) x = ma x . . . (b)

Similar equations can be written for y and z directions.

When the values of various quantities are substituted in Eq. (b), the equations
obtained are known as Reynolds equations. For low Reynolds number, the force
due to turbulence can be neglected. Thus,
( Fg ) x + ( F p ) x + ( Fv ) x = ma x . . . (c)
62
If the flow is assumed to be ideal, the force due to viscosity is omitted. Thus, Flow of Fluids

( Fg ) x + ( F p ) x = ma x . . . (d)

The energy equations which take into account only the gravity forces and the
pressure forces are known as Euler’s equations. The Euler equation for
one-dimensional flow is derived in the following section.

2.7 EULER’S EQUATION

Let us consider a streamtube of differential cross-section dA shown in
Figure 2.13(a). The external forces acting on the free body of the fluid element,
shown in Figure 2.13(b), are :
⎛ dp ⎞
(i) The pressure force due to pressure ‘p’ at one end and ⎜ p + ds ⎟ at
⎝ ds ⎠
the other end.
(ii) The component of the fluid weight in the direction of flow.
Weight of the fluid element = ρ g ds dA
Stream Line

dp 2 ⎛ dp ⎞
P+ ds ⎜P + ds ⎟dA
ds ds ⎝ ds ⎠

θ
P
z p dA dw = ρ g ds dA
1
Datum Line

(a) (b)
Figure 2.13
Component of the weight in the direction of flow − (ρ g ds dA) cos θ .
Applying Newton’s second law of motion to the element,
∑ F = Mass × Acceleration

⎛ ∂p ⎞
or p dA − ⎜ p + ds ⎟ dA − (ρ g ds dA) cos θ = (ρ ds dA) at
⎝ ∂s ⎠
where at is tangential acceleration given by
dV
at = V
ds
dz
Taking cos θ = ,
ds
∂p ⎛ dz ⎞ ⎛ dV ⎞
− ds dA − ρ g ds dA ⎜ ⎟ = ρ ds dA ⎜ V ⎟
∂s ⎝ ds ⎠ ⎝ ds ⎠
Dividing both sides by ρ ds dA ,
1 ∂p ⎛ dz ⎞ ⎛ dV ⎞
+ g ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜V ⎟=0 . . . (a)
ρ ρ ∂s ⎝ ds ⎠ ⎝ ds ⎠
63
Fluid Mechanics
dV d ⎛⎜ V 2 ⎞⎟
Putting V = , Eq. (a) can be written as
ds ds ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠

⎛ dz ⎞ d ⎛ V ⎞
2
1 ∂p
+g⎜ ⎟+ ⎜⎜ ⎟=0 . . . (2.5)
ρ ρ ∂s ⎝ ds ⎠ ds ⎝ 2 ⎠⎟
Eq. (2.5) is the Euler’s equation for one-dimensional flow.

2.8 DERIVATION OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

FROM EULER’S EQUATION
Integrating Eq. (2.5),
p V2
+ gz + = constant . . . (b)
ρ 2
Each term of Eq. (b) represents energy per unit mass (N-m/kg).
For incompressible fluids, Eq. (2.5) is written in a slightly modified form which is
obtained by dividing both sides of Eq. (2.5) by g
dp dz d ⎛⎜ V 2 ⎞⎟
+ + =0 . . . (c)
γ ds ds ds ⎜⎝ 2 g ⎟⎠

Integrating Eq. (c) with respect to ‘s’,

p V2
+z+ = constant . . . (2.6)
γ 2g

Each term of Eq. (2.6) represents the energy per unit weight (N-m/N).
Eq. (2.6) is the well-known Bernoulli equation. It may be mentioned that the
following assumptions have been made in the derivation of Bernoulli’s equation :
(a) The fluid is ideal and incompressible.
(b) The flow is steady and continuous.
(c) The flow is along the streamline, i.e. it is one-dimensional.
(d) The velocity is uniform over the section and is equal to the mean
velocity.
(e) The only forces acting on the fluid are the gravity forces and the
pressure forces.
The accuracy of the results obtained by the application of the Bernoulli equation
to a particular problem will depend upon the extent to which these assumptions
are justified.
In Bernoulli’s equation, the terms p / γ, z and V 2 / 2 g are respectively the pressure
head, elevation (or datum) head and velocity head. All these terms have the
dimension of length [L] and may be expressed in metres of the fluid. Hence the
Bernoulli equation states that in an ideal, incompressible fluid when the flow is
steady and continuous, the sum of the pressure head, elevation head and velocity
head is constant along a streamline. The Bernoulli equation may be visualized by
means of an apparatus shown in Figure 2.14. It is a conduit, which first converges
and then diverges. As the liquid flows from A to B, the velocity head increases
64
and the pressure head decreases. The velocity head at B may be calculated if the Flow of Fluids
diameter at B is known. The pressure head can be measured by means of a
piezometer. As the liquid flows from B to C, the velocity head decreases and the
pressure head increases. It is observed that the total head remains practically
constant.

VB2
2g Total Head

VA2 Vc2
2g 2g
PA Pressure Head
PC
PB γ
γ γ
Elevation Head
A B C

zA

Datum Line

Figure 2.14

2.9 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION AS AN ENERGY

EQUATION
In the foregoing section, the Bernoulli equation was derived from Euler’s
equation. The Bernoulli equation may also be derived from the energy
consideration. The reader is familiar with the kinetic energy and potential energy.
The kinetic energy of the unit weight of liquid is V2 / 2g and the potential energy
is z where V is the velocity of the fluid and z is the vertical distance of the point
above the datum line.
Free Surface

Piston
H

P
ds

Figure 2.15
The pressure energy differs from kinetic energy and potential energy. An
independent fluid mass can have kinetic energy and potential energy, but it will
have pressure energy only when it is in contact with other masses of fluid. For
getting insight into the pressure energy, let us consider the vessel shown in
Figure 2.15. On one side of the vessel, there is a very small horizontal cylinder
with a piston. Because the pressure intensity (p) at the piston is γ H, where H is
the head and γ is the specific weight, a force P = pa must be applied to the piston
to hold it in position where a is the cross-sectional area of the piston. If the piston
is now permitted to move through a small ds, the work done against the force P is
P.ds. To do this work, the liquid of weight (γ.a.ds) has entered the cylinder. The
energy given up by this liquid must be equal to the work done. Hence the energy

65
Fluid Mechanics P ds p a ds p
lost per unit weight of the liquid is = = . The energy per unit
γ a ds γ a ds γ
weight expressed as p/γ is termed the pressure energy of the liquid.
Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
Let us consider the flow through the streamtube shown in Figure 2.16. The
fluid enters the tube at the end A and leaves at the end B in a small interval
dt of time, the weight of the fluid entering the tube at A is equal to
( γ ds1 dA1 ) where dA1 is the differential area of the tube at A. In the same
interval of time, the weight of the liquid leaving the tube at B is ( γ ds2 dA2 )
where dA2 is the differential area of the tube at B. The movement of the
fluid between AA to B ′B ′ is equivalent to moving the fluid between AA
and A′A′ to the new position between BB and B ′B ′ . The remainder of the
fluid (between A′A′ and BB) may be looked upon as stationary.
The work done associated with the displacement of the fluid mentioned
above may be computed from the products of the forces p1 dA1 and p2 dA2
and the displacements ds1 and ds2.
p1 dA1 ds1 p1
Work done per unit weight at A = =
γ ds1 dA1 γ

p2 dA2 ds2 p
Work done per unit weight at B = = 2
γ ds2 dA2 γ

The law of conservation of energy states that energy entering the control
volume + work done = energy leaving the control volume.
⎛ V12 ⎞ ⎛p p ⎞ ⎡V22 ⎤
or ⎜ + z1 ⎟ + ⎜⎜ 1 − 2 ⎟⎟ = ⎢ + z2 ⎥
⎜ 2g ⎟ ⎝ γ γ ⎠ ⎢⎣ 2 g ⎥⎦
⎝ ⎠
where subscripts 1 and 2 refer to ends A and B respectively.
p1 V12 p V2
Simplifying, + + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2
γ 2g γ 2g

p V2
or + + z = constant [same as Eq. (2.6)]
γ 2g
B B′

A A′ B′
B

ds2
Z2

Z1 A A′
ds1
Datum Line

Figure 2.16
This is the Bernoulli equation as derived before. The equation states that
the sum of the pressure, potential and kinetic energy per unit weight
remains constant. Energy has the dimension of [FL]. The energy per unit
66
 weight has the dimension [L]. Therefore, the energy per unit weight has the Flow of Fluids
unit of N-m per N or simply metre.

2.10 BERNOULLI’S EQUATIONS FOR REAL FLUIDS

The Bernoulli equation was derived on the assumption that the fluid is ideal.
However, the equation may be used even for real fluids, provided it is modified to
take into account the frictional resistance caused due to viscosity. The modified
equation for real fluid is given below

p1 V12 p V2
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 + H L . . . (2.7)
γ 2g γ 2g

where HL is the loss of energy (or head) from section 1 to 2.

Further, in real fluids, the velocity is not uniform over the cross-section, and
consequently the velocity head expressed in terms of the mean velocity is not
correct. To take into account the non-uniformity of velocity, the velocity head
calculated on the basis of the mean velocity must be multiplied by a correction
factor known as the kinetic energy correction factor.
Let us consider an element of fluid of differential area dA (Figure 2.11). Let the
velocity of flow at the element be v. The discharge through the element is given
by dQ = v dA.

v2
Kinetic energy of the fluid = ( γ v dA)
2g

γ
∫v
3
Total kinetic energy at the section = dA . . . (a)
2g

V2
Total kinetic energy on the basis of mean velocity = α ( γ AV ) . . . (b)
2g

∫v
3 3
dA 1 ⎛v⎞
From Eqs. (a) and (b), α=
V3 A
=
A ∫ ⎜ ⎟ dA
⎝V ⎠
. . . (2.8)

The value of the energy correction factor α may be obtained from Eq. (2.8) if the
expression for the velocity distribution across the section is known. The value of
α is always greater than unity. For laminar flow in pipes, its value is 2, whereas
for turbulent flow in pipes, its value ranges from 1.01 to 1.10, depending upon the
velocity distribution. The value of α is usually assumed to be unity, unless
mentioned otherwise.
The modified form of the Bernoulli equation, taking into account the energy
correction factor α, is

p1 V2 p V2
+ α1 1 + z1 = 2 + α 2 2 + z 2 + H L . . . (2.9)
γ 2g γ 2g

67
Fluid Mechanics
2.11 APPLICATION OF THE BERNOULLI
EQUATION TO SIMPLE PROBLEMS
Figure 2.17 shows a typical example of steady flow of an ideal fluid from a large
reservoir through a system of pipes varying in size and terminating in a nozzle.
As the fluid is assumed to be ideal, there is no loss of head due to friction and
Eq. (2.6) is, therefore, applicable. In dealing with problems based on the
application of the Bernoulli equation, it is convenient to plot the energy gradient
line and the hydraulic gradient line.
The energy gradient line (EGL) [also known as the total energy line (TEL)] is the
line which represents the total head above the datum line. The energy gradient
line shows the variation of the total energy along the axis of the conduit. It is,
therefore, a graphical representation of the total head or total energy with respect
to the datum line.
The hydraulic gradient line (also known as the pressure gradient line) shows the
variation of pressure head in the conduit. The hydraulic gradient line joins the
points to which the liquid would rise in the piezometers inserted at these points. It
is also known as piezometric head line. This line is a graphical representation of
the piezometric head (i.e., the sum of the pressure and elevation head) with
respect to any selected datum. The hydraulic gradient line is always below the
total energy line, the vertical distance between the two being equal to the velocity
head at that point.
In Figure 2.17, the energy gradient line is horizontal, as there is no loss of energy.
Because the surface area of the reservoir is very large, the velocity in reservoir
will be very small and the velocity head may be neglected. Thus, the energy
gradient line and the hydraulic gradient line coincide with the free surface of
liquid in reservoir. If the discharge is known, velocities at various sections may
be obtained from the continuity equation and the velocity head calculated. The
hydraulic gradient line is plotted below the energy gradient, keeping the vertical
intercept between the two equal to the corresponding velocity head.
The vertical intercept between the hydraulic gradient line and the centerline of the
pipe is the pressure head at that section. When the hydraulic gradient line is above
the centerline of the pipe, the pressure head is positive. On the other hand, if the
hydraulic gradient line is below the centerline of the pipe, the pressure head is
negative. The pipeline in which the hydraulic gradient line is below the centerline
of the pipe is known as a siphon or syphon.
V12
V22
2g 2g Energy Gradient Line
Hydraulic
Gradient V32
P1 P2 Line
2g
γ γ

1 V1 2 V2 3 V3
Nozzle

Z1 Z2 Z3

Datum Line

Figure 2.17
68
At the end point 3, there is a nozzle with a very small cross-sectional area. The Flow of Fluids
velocity and hence the velocity head is very large at point 3. The pressure at this
point reduces to the atmospheric pressure.
(Note : Vertical scale in Figure 2.17 is exaggerated.)
The foregoing treatment is based on the assumption that the fluid is ideal, and
there is no loss of energy (or head) due to friction. In real fluids, there will be a
loss of head due to friction, and the energy gradient line will slope downward
from the reservoir to the nozzle. In addition to the frictional loss, there will be
losses due to sudden changes in cross-section of the pipe. These losses would
cause sudden drops in the energy gradient line at those points.

Example 2.4

Oil of specific gravity 0.75 flows through a 15 cm diameter pipe under a

pressure of 98.1 kN/m2. If the datum is 3 m below the centre of the pipe and
the total energy with respect to the datum is 20N-m/N, calculate the
discharge.
Solution
Total energy per N of oil with respect to the datum
= Pressure Energy + Kinetic Energy + Elevation Energy
p V2
or H = + +z
γ 2g

98.1 V2 V2
or 20 = + + 3 = 13.33 + +3
9.81 × 0.75 2 g 2g
or V = 8.48 m/sec
Discharge Q = VA
= 8.48 × π/4 × 0.15 × 0.15 = 0.15 cumecs.

Example 2.5

In the pipe shown in Figure 2.18, 0.5 cumecs of water flows from point A to
B. The diameters of the pipe at A and B are respectively 30 cm and 60 cm.

E.G.L.
V12 V22
2g H.G.L. 2g
P2
γ
B
P1
γ

8m
A

3m
Datum Line

Figure 2.18
69
Fluid Mechanics If the pressure head at A is 7 m of water, find the pressure head at B.
Neglect losses.
Solution
The energy gradient line (abbreviated as EGL) is horizontal. The hydraulic
gradient line (HGL) slopes upward as the velocity head decreases from
A to B.
Q 0.50
V1 = velocity at A = = = 7.07 m/ sec
A π / 4 × 0.30 2

Q 0.50
V2 = velocity at B = = = 1.77 m/ sec
A π / 4 × 0.60 2

Applying Bernoulli’s equation to points A and B

p1 V12 p V2
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2
γ 2g γ 2g

(7.07) 2 p (1.77) 2
or 7+ +3= 2 + +8
19.62 γ 19.62
p2
7 + 2.55 + 3 = + 0.16 + 8
γ
p2
or = 4.39 m of water
γ
or = 4.39 × 9.81 = 43.07 kN/m2

Example 2.6

Figure 2.19 shows a pipe of 8 cm diameter working as a syphon.

B

2m
A

4m

Datum Line
C
Figure 2.19
Find the velocity of flow, discharge, and the absolute pressure at B if the
atmospheric pressure is equivalent to 10 m of water. Neglect losses.
Solution
Taking the datum line at the level of point C, and applying Bernoulli’s
equation to points A and C,
p A V A2 p V2
+ + z A = C + C + zC
γ 2g γ 2g

The pressure at points A and C is atmospheric, which is taken as zero. Since

the area of the vessel is very large, the velocity VA may be taken as zero.
70
 VC2 Flow of Fluids
Thus 0+0+4 = 0+ +0
2g
or VC = 4 × 2 × 9.81 = 8.86 m / sec
Discharge Q = AV
π
= × 0.08 × 0.08 × 8.86 = 0.0445 cumecs
4
Pressure at B can be obtained by applying Bernoulli’s equation to points A
and B, taking VB = VC.
B

p A V A2 p V2
zA + + = zB + B + B
γ 2g γ 2g

p B (8.86) 2
4+0+0=6+ +
γ 19.62
pB
or = − 6 m ( vacuum)
γ
Absolute pressure at B = Atmospheric pressure – Vacuum pressure
= 10 – 6 = 4 m of water
= 4 × 9.81 = 39.24 kN/m2 absolute.

SAQ 2

An inclined pipe carrying water gradually changes in diameter from 15 cm

at A to 40 cm at B at a height of 4.5 m above A. If the pressures at A and B
are respectively 68.67 kN/m2 and 49.05 kN/m2 and the discharge is
0.150 m3 /s, determine
(a) the direction of flow, and
(b) the head loss between A and B.

2.12 HORIZONTAL VENTURIMETER

The venturimeter was invented by Herschel in 1887, but he named it in honour of
Venturi who did pioneering work in flow through convergent tubes. A
venturimeter consists of a converging cone, a throat section and a diverging cone,
all combined in one unit (Figure 2.20). As the flow takes place in the converging
cone, the velocity increases, and there is a fall in the pressure, according to the
Bernoulli equation. The velocity and hence discharge can be calculated from the
measurement of difference of pressure at the two ends of the converging cone, i.e.
at the inlet and the throat.
1 1
2 d 7 d
2 2

d1=d d2

Figure 2.20 : Venturimeter 71

Fluid Mechanics In the converging cone, as the fluid is being accelerated, there is no appreciable
loss of energy. Therefore, the converging cone may have a sharp angle of
convergence (upto 20°). In the diverging cone, there is deceleration of flow with
considerable loss of energy due to formation of eddies. In order to avoid
separation and consequent excessive energy loss, it is essential to keep the angle
of divergence very small. The most efficient conversion of the kinetic energy to
the pressure energy occurs when the angle of divergence is about 7°. The usual
lengths of the converging and diverging cones are 2.5 d and 7.5 d respectively
where d is the diameter of the pipe.
When the pressure difference at the inlet and the throat is small and the fluid
flowing in the venturimeter is a liquid, piezometers may be used to measure the
difference of pressure. Usually the difference of pressure is measured by means of
a differential manometer. Pressure chambers, which are hollow rings, are
generally fitted at the inlet and the throat. The pressure chambers are also called
the piezometric rings. These chambers communicate with the manometer through
a number of holes in the periphery of pipe. The pressure connections are taken
from the pressure chambers for accurate measurement of pressure.
For satisfactory working of the venturimeter, the flow must be fully established
before it enters the converging cone. The flow is fully established if the meter is
preceded by a straight and uniform length of pipe equal to 30 d or more.
Rotational motion occurs in curved pipes. Straightening vanes are placed in the
curved pipe to reduce the rotational motion of the fluid before it enters the meter.
Working Principle
As the fluid passes from point 1 (inlet) to point 2 (throat), there is an
increase in the velocity and corresponding fall in pressure (Figure 2.21).

D
hf E
h H h f′
F
hf h′
G

d1

d2

Figure 2.21
Applying Bernoulli’s equation to points 1 and 2, with datum at the axis,
considering horizontal venturimeter (for inclined venturimeter, ref.
Section 2.13)
p1 V12 p V2
+ +0= 2 + 2 +0
γ 2g γ 2g

p1 − p2 V22 − V12
or =
γ 2g

Representing the theoretical pressure difference by H,

V22 − V12
=H . . . (a)
2g

From the continuity equation, a1 V1 = a2 V2 , where a1 is the area at inlet and

a2 at throat.
72
 ⎛a ⎞ Flow of Fluids
or V1 = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ V2
⎝ a1 ⎠

Substituting this value of V1 in Eq. (a),

2
⎛a ⎞
V22 − ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ V22
⎝ a1 ⎠ =H
2g

2g H
or V2 = 2
⎛a ⎞
1 − ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ a1 ⎠
Because of the loss of head from section 1 to 2, the actual measured
difference of head (h) will be greater than the thoeretical difference (H).
Thus
2g h
V2 = C 2
. . . (b)
⎛a ⎞
1 − ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ a1 ⎠
where C is the coefficient of the meter.
Discharge, Q = a2 V2

2g h
or Q = Ca 2 2
. . . (2.10)
⎛a ⎞
1 − ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ a1 ⎠

2g h
= Ca1
2
⎛ a1 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1
⎝ a2 ⎠

a1 2g
or Q=C h . . . (2.11)
2
⎛ a1 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1
⎝ a2 ⎠
For a given venturimeter, the quantity
a1 2g
2
⎛ a1 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1
⎝ a2 ⎠
is constant and may be represented by k. Thus, Eq. (2.11) may be written as
Q = Ck h . . . (2.12)
The coefficient C may be omitted if we make allowance for the loss of head
(hf) due to friction.
2 g (h − h f )
Thus V2 = C 2
. . . (c)
⎛a ⎞
1 − ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ a1 ⎠
73
Fluid Mechanics Equating two values of V2 from Eqs. (b) and (c),
2g h 2 g (h − h f )
C 2
= 2
⎛a ⎞ ⎛a ⎞
1 − ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ 1 − ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ a1 ⎠ ⎝ a1 ⎠

or C2 h = h − hf

or h f = h (1 − C 2 ) . . . (2.13)

Eq. (2.13) gives the loss of head in the converging cone.

Substituting the value of h from Eq. (b),

⎞ ⎡⎢ ⎛ a2 ⎞ ⎤⎥ V2
2 2
⎛ 1
⎜
h f = ⎜ 2 − 1⎟ 1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ . . . (2.14)
⎝C ⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎝ a1 ⎠ ⎥⎦ 2 g

The ratio of the throat diameter (d2) to the diameter of the pipe (d1) ranges
from 1/4 to 3/4, usually the ratio is kept 1/2. The smaller the ratio, the
greater would be the difference of pressure, and hence the more accurate
would be the measurement.
But the large pressure difference produces a very low pressure at the throat
which may cause separation of gases and cavitation. The lowest pressure,
for water flowing in the venturimeter, is about 20.6 kN/m2 (2.1 m of water).
This fixes the limit of reduction of the throat diameter.
1.00
500 × 250 cm
0.99 5 × 2.5 cm
0.98
0.97
0.96
0.95
0.94 4
10 2 5 105 2 5 106 2 5 107
ρ 2 v2 d 2
NR =
μ2
Figure 2.22
The value of the coefficient C varies from 0.97 to 0.99 provided the flow is
occurring at a high Reynold number. Increased roughening of the surface,
with the passage of time, reduces the coefficient. Figure 2.22 shows the
variation of C with the Reynold number (NR) and the size of the
venturimeter. The diagram is valid for ratio d 2 / d1 = 1 / 2 , but is reasonably
valid for smaller ratios as well. For larger ratios, however, the value of C
decreases slightly. As is evident, the coefficient increases with the size, for
the same d1 / d 2 ratio.

Example 2.7

Water flows through a horizontal venturimeter, 30 cm × 15 cm diameter, at

the rate of 0.039 cumecs. If the difference of pressure is 0.25 m of water,
calculate the coefficient of the venturimeter.
74
Solution Flow of Fluids

From Eq. (2.11),

a1
Q=C 2g h
2
⎛ a1 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1
⎝ a2 ⎠

a1 0.30 2
Now = =4
a2 0.15 2

Substituting these values in equation,

C × π × 0.30 2
0.039 = 2 × 9.81 × 0.25
4 16 − 1

or C = 0.965.

2.13 INCLINED VENTURIMETER

Upward Flow
Figure 2.23 shows a venturimeter with its axis inclined. Let us first consider
the case when the flow is upward. In this case the throat is at a higher level
than the inlet.

2
1 Z
Datum Line

Figure 2.23 : Inclined Venturimeter

Applying Bernoulli’s equation to points 1 and 2,
p1 V12 p V2
+ +0= 2 + 2 +Z
γ 2g γ 2g

V22 − V12 ⎛ p1 − p2 ⎞
or = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − Z . . . (a)
2g ⎝ γ ⎠
From the continuity equation,
⎛a ⎞
a1 V1 = a2 V2 or V1 = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ V2
⎝ a1 ⎠
Substituting the value of V1 in Eq. (a),

V22 ⎡ ⎛ a2 ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ p1 − p2 ⎞
2
⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − Z
2 g ⎢ ⎜⎝ a1 ⎟⎠ ⎥ ⎝ γ ⎠
⎣ ⎦
⎛ p1 − p2 ⎞
where ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ is the difference of pressure head at the inlet and the
⎝ γ ⎠
throat. Representing this head by H,
75
 V22 ⎡ ⎛ a2 ⎞ ⎤
Fluid Mechanics 2
⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = H − Z
2 g ⎢ ⎜⎝ a1 ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
2g (H − Z )
or V2 = 2
⎛a ⎞
1 − ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ a1 ⎠
Taking the losses in the converging cone into account,
2 g (h − Z )
V2 = C 2
⎛a ⎞
1 − ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ a1 ⎠
where ‘h’ is the actual measured difference of head and C is a coefficient
less than unity.
Now discharge Q = a 2V2

2 g (h − Z )
Q = Ca 2 2
⎛a ⎞
1−⎜ 2⎟
⎝ a1 ⎠
a1
=C 2 g ( h − Z) . . . (2.15)
2
⎛ a1 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1
⎝ a2 ⎠

or Q = Ck h−Z . . . (2.16)
where k is the constant of the venturimeter, given by
a1 2g
k=
2
⎛ a1 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1
⎝ a2 ⎠
Downward Flow
Likewise, it can be proved that when the throat is at a level lower than the
inlet, i.e. flow is downward,
Q = Ck h+Z . . . (2.17)
Vertical Venturimeter
The equation derived for the inclined venturimeter may also be used for the
vertical venturimeter.

2.14 USE OF DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETERS IN

VENTURIMETERS
The difference of pressure between the inlet and throat is usually measured with a
differential manometer. The difference of head can be easily calculated if the
deflection of the liquid in the manometer is known. We shall consider separately
the manometers for the horizontal and the inclined venturimeter.
76
Horizontal Venturimeter Flow of Fluids

Figure 2.24(a) shows a differential manometer used for a horizontal

venturimeter. In this case, points 1 to 2 are at the same level. From the
principle of manometer, the pressures at the same level AA in a continuous
liquid are equal.
Thus p1 + ( y + x ) s γ w = x s1 γ w + ys γ w + p2

where s is the specific gravity of the fluid in venturimeter, s1 is the specific

gravity of the liquid in manometer and x is the deflection of the liquid in the
manometer.
P2
P1 P2
z
y

P1
x y
A A
x

Figure 2.24

⎡⎛ s ⎞ ⎤
Simplifying, p1 − p2 = x ⎢⎜ 1 ⎟ − 1⎥ γ w s
⎣⎝ s ⎠ ⎦
The difference of head h between the inlet and the throat can be expressed
as
p1 − p2 ⎛s ⎞
h= = x ⎜ 1 − 1⎟
s γw ⎝s ⎠
Therefore, h = x ( r − 1) . . . (2.18)
where r is the ratio of the specific gravity of the liquid in the manometer to
s1
that in the venturimeter, i.e. r = .
s
Substituting the value of h in Eq. (2.12),
Q = Ck x ( r − 1) . . . (2.19)
Inclined Venturimeter
Figure 2.24(b) shows the differential manometer which is connected to an
inclined venturimeter with the direction of flow upward. Thus, point 2 is at
a higher level. Using the principle of manometer,
p1 + ( y + x ) s γ w = xs1 γ w + ys γ w + zs γ w + p2

or p1 + ys γ w + xs γ w − xs1 γ w − ys γ w − zs γ w = p2

or p1 − p2 = xs1 γ w − xs γ w + zs γ w

p1 − p2 ⎛s ⎞
or = x ⎜ 1 − 1⎟ + z
s γw ⎝s ⎠
Thus, the difference of head h between the inlet and the throat is given by,
h = x (r − 1) + z
77
Fluid Mechanics or h − z = x (r − 1)
Substituting this value of (h – z) in Eq. (2.14)
Q = Ck x ( r − 1) (same as Eq. (2.19))
Hence Eq. (2.19) is a general equation which can be used for both the
horizontal and inclined venturimeter.

Example 2.8

A liquid, with a specific gravity 1.25, flows upward through a vertical

venturimeter 50 cm × 25 cm. If the mercury manometer (S = 13.6) shows a
deflection of 0.1m, find the discharge. Assume C = 0.98.
Solution
a1 2g
k=
2
⎛ a1 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1
⎝ a2 ⎠

(π / 4) × 0.50 2 × 4.43
k= = 0.224
16 − 1

From Eq. (2.18), Q = Ck x ( r − 1)

= 0.98 × 0.224 × 0.1 (13.6 / 1.25 − 1)

= 0.218 m3/s

SAQ 3

(a) Gasolene flows through an inclined venturimeter in the upward

direction at the rate of 0.22 m3/s. The venturimeter is inclined at 30º
to the horizontal and has the inlet and throat of diameters 30 cm and
15 cm, respectively. If the throat is 0.60 m above the inlet and the
pressure gauges at the entrance and throat show pressures of
141.26 kN/m2 and 75.54 kN/m2, respectively, calculate the coefficient
C of the venturimeter. Take specific gravity of gasoline as 0.82.

(b) A venturimeter having a throat diameter of 100 mm is fitted in a pipe

of diameter 250 mm through which oil of specific gravity 0.85 is
flowing. The pressure difference between the entry is measured by a
U-tuble manometer containing mercury (S = 13.6) and the deflection
of the manometer is 0.60 m. Calculate the discharge. Assume
coefficient C = 0.97.

2.15 ORIFICE METER

An orifice meter consists of a thin plate with a central hole. The plate is clamped
between pipe flanges. The fluid flows through the hole (orifice). The orifice
causes the flow to accelerate, as does the throat in a venturimeter. The orifice
meter, like a venturimeter, is used to measure discharge in a pipe.
78
Horizontal Orifice Meter Flow of Fluids

Figure 2.25 shows an orifice plate inserted in a pipe line. As the fluid passes
through the orifice, it contracts in area. The section of the stream where the
cross-sectional area is minimum is called the venacontracta. The
venacontracta forms at a distance of about d1/2 from the plane of the plate,
where d1 is the diameter of pipe. Pressure connections are made at sections
1 and 2; section 1 is at a distance of 1.5 d1 from the orifice and section 2 is
at the venacontracta. At the venacontracta, the cross-sectional area is
minimum and velocity is maximum and hence the pressure is minimum. By
measuring the pressure difference between points 1 and 2, discharge may be
calculated, as in the case of a venturimeter.

h
1
1 d1
2

1
d1 d 2

d1
2

Figure 2.25 : Orifice Meter

Applying the Bernoulli equation to points 1 and 2 assuming that the meter
is horizontal.
p1 V12 p V2
+ = 2 + 2
γ 2g γ 2g

V22 − V12 p − p2
or = 1
2g γ
From the continuity equation,
a1 V1 = a2 V2
⎛a ⎞
or V1 = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ V2
⎝ a1 ⎠

V22 ⎡ ⎛ a2 ⎞ ⎤
2
Thus ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = H
2 g ⎢ ⎜⎝ a1 ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
where H is the theoretical difference of head between points 1 and 2 .
Because of loss of head due to friction, the measured difference of head ‘h’
will be more than H.
2 gh
Thus V2 = C ' 2
⎛a ⎞
1 − ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ a1 ⎠
where C' is a coefficient.
Now Q = a2 V2

2 gh
= C ' a2 2
. . . (2.20)
⎛a ⎞
1 − ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ a1 ⎠
79
Fluid Mechanics It will be noted that Eq. (2.20) is similar to Eq. (2.10) of the venturimeter.
The jet contracts to a minimum area a 2 at the venacontracta. The area a 2 is
less than the area of orifice a.
a2 = C 2 a

where C c = coefficient of contraction, less than unity. Because it is more

convenient to measure the area of the orifice than the area at the
venacontracta, Eq.(2.20) is generally written in a modified form
Cc a
Q = C′ 2 gh . . . (2.21a)
2
⎛C a⎞
1 − ⎜⎜ c ⎟⎟
⎝ a1 ⎠
a
or Q=C 2 gh . . . (2.21b)
2
⎛a⎞
1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ a1 ⎠
where the coefficient C is such that
a C ′ Cc a
C =
2 2
⎛a⎞ ⎛ a⎞
1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 1 − ⎜⎜ Cc ⎟
⎝ a1 ⎠ ⎝ a1 ⎟⎠

Eq. (2.21b) may also be written as

a1
Q=C 2 gh
2
⎛ a1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ −1
⎝a⎠

or Q = Ck h . . . (2.22)

a1 2g
where, k=
2
⎛ a1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ −1
⎝a⎠
If the manometer deflection x is known,
Q = Ck x (r − 1) . . . (2.22a)
Eq. (2.22a) is the same as Eq. (2.19) of the venturimeter.
Inclined Orifice Meter
If the orifice meter is inclined, use Eq. (2.16) for the upward flow and
Eq. (2.17) for the downward flow. Alternatively, use Eq. (2.22a).
Eq. (2.21b) is similar to Eq. (2.10) of the venturimeter. However, it must be
noted that the expression for k contains ‘a’ and not a 2 . The coefficient C
for the orifice meter has much lower value than that for the venturimeter. Its
value ranges from 0.60 to 0.75, depending upon the ratio (d/d1) and the
Reynolds number. The value of C also depends upon the shape of the
orifice and the location of the pressure connections. Figure 2.26 shows the
variation of C with the ratio (d/d1) and the Reynolds number.
80
 0.85 Flow of Fluids
0.80 d
= 0.70
0.75 d1
0.70 d
0.65 = 0.50
d1
0.60
0.55 4
10 105 106 107
ρ1 v1 d1
NR =
μ1
Figure 2.26
Comparison of Orifice Meter with Venturimeter
As stated above, the coefficient of an orifice meter is lower than that of a
venturimeter. Another drawback of the orifice meter is that, because of
excessive eddies, it is not suitable for measuring high rate of flow in large
size pipes.
However, the orifice meter is cheaper than a venturimeter and is very
convenient to use. An orifice plate can be inserted between two flanges of
the pipe without any difficulty.
The comparison may be summarized as under :
Orifice Meter
Merits
(i) It requires less space.
(ii) It is cheaper.
Demerits
(i) Head loss is large ; C is low.
(ii) Not suitable for large discharges.
Venturimeter
Merits
(i) Head loss is small; The value of coefficient C is high.
(ii) It can be used for large size pipes and for large discharges.
Demerits
(i) It is very long and inconvenient to use.
(ii) It is costly.

Example 2.9

An orifice meter is fixed in a pipe 25 cm diameter conveying oil of specific

gravity 0.90. If the diameter of the orifice is 10 cm, calculate the discharge
when a mercury differential manometer shows a deflection of 80 cm.
C = 0.65.
Solution
From Eq. (2.22a),
Q = Ck x (r − 1)
81
Fluid Mechanics π
a1 2g × 0.252 × 4.43
where k= = 4 = 0.0352
2
⎛ a1 ⎞ (2.5) 4 − 1
⎜ ⎟ −1
⎝a⎠

⎛ 13.60 ⎞
Therefore, Q = 0.65 × 0.0352 0.8 ⎜ − 1⎟ = 0.077 m 3 / s.
⎝ 0 .90 ⎠

SAQ 4

Water flows through a 200 mm diameter pipe fitted with a 100 mm

diameter horizontal orifice meter at the rate of 0.015 m3/s. Determine the
difference of pressure head between the upstream and the venacontracta.
Take coefficient C = 0.61.

2.16 SUMMARY
• Different lines of the flow pattern are defined. Generally, streamlines are
used in practice. A streamline is an imaginary line such that the tangent at
any point on it indicates the velocity at that point.
• Different types of flow are defined. In practice, generally the flow is
assumed to be steady and uniform.
• The continuity equation is derived from the principle of conservation of
mass.
• The mean velocity of flow (V) and discharge (Q) are explained.
• The Bernoulli equation is derived from the principle of conservation of
energy. The assumptions made in the derivation are discussed. The
modified Bernoulli equation for real fluids is given.
• The energy gradient line, also called total energy line, and the hydraulic
gradient line are plotted from simple flow problems.
• The equation for discharge through a venturimeter is derived using the
continuity equation and the energy equation.
• The use of differential manometers for the measurement of the difference of
pressure is explained.
• The discharge equation for an orifice meter is derived.
• The relative advantages and disadvantages of venturimeters and orifice
meters are discussed. Although a venturimeter is more accurate, it is not as
convenient as an orifice meter.

2.17 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
(a) Q=A×V
π
= × (0.20) 2 × 3 = 0.094 m 3 /s
4
82
 0.094 3 Flow of Fluids
(b) Discharge in each pipe = m /s
2
0.094
Q 2
V = = = 5.98 m/s
A π 2
× (0.1)
4
SAQ 2
68.67
(a) Pressure head at A = = 7.0 m
9.81
0.150
Velocity at A= = 8.49 m/s
π
× (0.15) 2
4
49.05
Pressure head at B = = 5.0 m
9.81
0.150
Velocity at B= = 1.19 m/s
π
× (0.4) 2
4
Total head at A, assuming datum at A
p v2
= + +0
γ 2g

(8.49) 2
= 7. 0 + = 7.0 + 3.67
2 × 9.81
= 10.67 m
(1.19) 2
Total head at B = 5 .0 + + 4.50
2 × 9.81
= 9.57 m
Since the total head A is greater than that at B, the flow is from A
to B.
(b) Loss of head = 10.67 – 9.57 = 1.10 m
SAQ 3
(a) For an inclined venturimeter with upward flow,
Q = Ck (h − z)

a1
where k= 2g
2
⎛ a1 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1
⎝ a2 ⎠
π
× (0.30) 2
= 4 × 2 × 9.81
4
⎛ 0.30 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ −1
⎝ 0.15 ⎠
or k = 0.0808
p1 − p2 141.26 − 75.54
h= =
sγ 0.82 × 9.81 83
Fluid Mechanics = 8.17 m of gasoline
Since Z = 0.60 m,
Q = C × 0.0809 × 8.17 − 0.60

Substituting Q = 0.220,
0.220 = C × 0.0808 × 2.751
or C = 0.989
(b) Q = Ck x (r − 1)

a1
where k= 2g
2
⎛ a1 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1
⎝ a2 ⎠
π
× (0.25) 2
= 4 × 19.62
4
⎛ 0.25 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ −1
⎝ 0.10 ⎠
or k = 0.0352
s1 13.6
or r= = = 16.0
s 0.85
∴ Q = 0.97 × 0.0352 × 0.60 (16 − 1)

= 0.1024 m3/s.
SAQ 4
Q = Ck h
a1
where k= 2g
2
⎛ a1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ −1
⎝a⎠
π
× (0.2) 2
= 4 × 2 × 9.81
4
⎛ 0.2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ −1
⎝ 0.1 ⎠
or k = 0.036
Therefore, 0.015 = 0.61 × 0.036 h
or h = 0. 467 m of water.

84