Soil Mechanics Laboratory Manual

Table of Contents

Laboratory test and Preparation of Report ........................................................................... 1

Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 1
Use of Equipment................................................................................................................... 1
Recording the Data ................................................................................................................ 1
Report Preparation ................................................................................................................. 2
Figure 1-1 ....................................................................................................................... 2

Graphs and Tables Prepared for the Report ......................................................................... 3

Table 1-1 (Conversion Factors) ..................................................................................... 3

Units ........................................................................................................................................ 4
Standard Test Procedures ..................................................................................................... 4
Table 1-2 (Some Important AASHTO and ASTM Soil Test Designations) ................... 4

Determination of Water Content………………………………………………………………….5

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..6

Table 2-1……………………………………………………………………………………...6

Equipments………………………………………………………………………………………..6

Procedures...………………………………………………………………………………………6

Calculation…………………………………………………………………………………………7

General Comment………………………………………………………………………………...7

Table 2-2……………………………………………………………………………………...7

Sample Data & Conclusion………………………………………………………………………8

Data Sheet……………………………………………………………………………………….9

Specific Gravity ...................................................................................................................... 10

Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 11
Table 3-1 ...................................................................................................................... 11

Equipment ............................................................................................................................ 11
Procedure ............................................................................................................................. 12
Calculation ............................................................................................................................ 13
Sample Data and Conclusion .............................................................................................. 14

Data Sheet ............................................................................................................................ 15

Sieve Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 16
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 17
Sieve Sizes ........................................................................................................................... 17
Table 4-1 ...................................................................................................................... 17

Figure 4-1 ..................................................................................................................... 17

Equipment ............................................................................................................................ 18
Procedure ............................................................................................................................. 18
Figure 4-2 ..................................................................................................................... 18

Figure 4-3 ..................................................................................................................... 19

Calculation ............................................................................................................................ 19
Sample Calculation .............................................................................................................. 20
Table 4-2 ...................................................................................................................... 20

Graph .................................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 4-4 ..................................................................................................................... 20

Other Calculation ................................................................................................................. 21

General Comments .............................................................................................................. 21
Sample Data & Conclusion ................................................................................................. 22
Data Sheet ........................................................................................................................... 23

Liquid Limit Test ..................................................................................................................... 24

Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 25
Equipment ............................................................................................................................ 25
Figure 5-1 ..................................................................................................................... 25

Procedure ............................................................................................................................. 26
Figure 5-2 ..................................................................................................................... 26

Figure 5-3 ..................................................................................................................... 26

Figure 5-4 ..................................................................................................................... 27

Calculation ............................................................................................................................ 28
Graph .................................................................................................................................... 28
Sample Data & Conclusion ................................................................................................. 29
Data Sheet ........................................................................................................................... 31
Plastic Limit Test .................................................................................................................... 32
Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 33
Equipment ............................................................................................................................ 33
Procedure ............................................................................................................................. 33
Figure 6-1 ..................................................................................................................... 34

Calculation ............................................................................................................................ 35
Table 6-1 ...................................................................................................................... 36
General Comments .............................................................................................................. 36
Sample Data & Conclusion ................................................................................................. 37
Data Sheet ........................................................................................................................... 38
Laboratory Test and Preparation of Report

Introduction

Proper laboratory testing of soils to determine their physical properties is an integral part in the
design and construction of structural foundations, the placement and improvement of soil
properties, and the specification and quality control of soil compaction works. It needs to be
kept in mind that natural soil deposits often exhibit a high degree of nonhomogenity. The
physical properties of a soil deposit can change to a great extent even within a few hundred
feet. The fundamental theoretical and empirical equations that are developed in soil mechanics
can be properly used in practice if, and only if, the physical parameters used in those equations
are properly evaluated in the laboratory. So, learning to perform laboratory tests of soils plays
an important role in the geotechnical engineering profession.

Use of Equipment

Laboratory equipment is never cheap, but the cost may vary widely. For accurate experimental
results, the equipment should be properly maintained. The calibration of certain equipment,
such as balances and proving rings, should be checked from time to time. It is always
necessary to see that all equipment is clean both before and after use. Better results will be
obtained when the equipment being used is clean, so always maintain the equipment as if it
were your own.

Recording the Data

In any experiment, it is always a good habit to record all data in the proper table immediately
after it has been taken. Oftentimes, scribbles on scratch paper may later be illegible or even
misplaced, which may result in having to conduct the experiment over, or in obtaining
inaccurate results.

1
Report Preparation

In the classroom laboratory, most experiments described herein will probably be conducted
in small groups. However, the laboratory report should be written by each. Student individually.
This is one way for students to improve their technical writing skills. Each report should contain:
1. Cover page-This page should include the title of the experiment, name, and date on
which the experiment was performed.
2. Following the cover page, the items listed below should be included in the body of the
report:
a. Purpose of the experiment
b. Equipment used
c. A schematic diagram of the main equipment used
d. A brief description of the test procedure

3. Results-- This should include the data sheet(s), sample calculations(s), and the
required graph(s).
4. Conclusion-- A discussion of the accuracy of the test procedure should be included in
the conclusion, along with any possible sources of error.

Figure 1-1
(a) A poorly drawn graph for (b) The results given in (a),
dry unit weight of soil vs. drawn in a more presentable
moisture content manner

2
Graphs and Tables Prepared for the Report

Graphs and tables should be prepared as neatly as possible. Always give the units. Graphs
should be made as large as possible, and they should be properly labeled. Examples of a
poorly-drawn graph and an acceptable graph are shown in Fig. 1-1. When necessary, French
curves and a straight edge should be used in preparing graphs.

Table 1-1. Conversion Factors

English to SI Units SI to English Units

Quantity
English SI SI English
Length 1in. 25.4mm 1 mm 3.937x10-2 in.
1 ft 0.3048 m 3.218 x 10-3 ft
304.8 mm 1 mm 39.37 in
3.218 ft
Area 1 in2 6.4513 x 10-4m2 1 cm 2
0.155 in2
6.4516 cm2 1.076 x 10-3 ft2
645.16 mm2 1 m2 1550 in2
1 ft2 929 x 10-4 m2 10.76 ft2
929.03 cm2
92903 mm2
Volume 1 in3 16.387 cm3 1 cm3 0.061 in3
1 ft3 0.02831681m3 3.531 x 10-5 ft3
1 ft3 28.31681 1 m3 61023.74 in3
35.315 ft3
Velocity 1 ft/s 304.8 mm/s 1 cm/s 1.969 ft/min
0.3048 m/s 1034643.6 ft/year
1 ft/min 5.08 mm/s
0.00508 m/s
Force 1 lb 4.448 N 1N 0.22482 lb
1 kN 0.22482 kip
Stress 1 lb/in2 6.9 kN/m2 1 kN/m2 0.145 lb/in2
1 lb/ft2 47.88 N/m2 2.089 x 10-2lb/ft2
Unit Weight 1 lb/ft3 157.06 N/m3 1 kN/m3 6.367 lb/ft3
Coefficient of 1 in2/s 6.452 cm2/s 1 cm2/s 0.155 in2/s
Consolidation 1 ft2/s 929.03 cm2/s 2.883 x 103 ft2/ month
Mass 1 kg 2.2046 lb
2.2046 x 10-3 kip

3
Units

It may be necessary to express the results of laboratory tests in a given system of units. At this
time in the United States, both the English and the SI system of units are used. Conversion of
units may be necessary in preparing reports. Some selected conversion factors from the
English to the SI units and from SI to English units are given in Table 1-1.

Standard Test Procedures

In the United States, most laboratories conducting tests on soils for engineering purposes
follow the procedures outline by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and
the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). The
procedures and equipment for soil tests may vary slightly from laboratory to laboratory, but the
basic concepts remain the same. The test procedures described in this manual may not be
exactly the same as specified by ASTM or AASHTO; however, for the students, it is beneficial
to know the standard test designations and compare them with the laboratory work actually
done. For this reason, some selected AASHTO and ASTM standard test designations are given
in Table 1-2.

Table 1-2. Some Important AASHTO and ASTM Soil Test Designations

AASHTO Test ASTM Test

Name of Test
Designation Designation
Water content T-265 D-2216
Specific gravity T-100 D-854
Sieve analysis T-87, T-88 D-421
Hydrometer analysis T-87, T-88 D-422
Liquid limit T-89 D-4318
Plastic limit T-90 D-4318
Shrinkage limit T-92 D-427
Standard Proctor compaction T-99 D-698
Modified Proctor Compaction T-180 D-1557
Field density by sand cone T-191 D-1556
Permeability of granular soil T-215 D-2434
Consolidation T-216 D-2435
Direct shear (granular soil) T-236 D-3080
Unconfined compression T-208 D-2166
Triaxial T-234 D-2850
AASHTO Soil Classification System M-145 D-3282
Unified Soil Classification System - D-2487

4
 Determination of Water Content
(ASTM D-2216)
Water content of a soil is very important in Civil engineering; one of the most important uses is
in construction of embankment, where density of the compacted embankment is dependent
upon the water content.

5
Determination of Water Content

Introduction

Most laboratory tests in soil mechanics require the determination of water content.
Water content is defined as:

Weight of water present in a given soil mass

W=
Weight of dry soil
Water content is usually expressed in percent.
For better results, the minimum size of the most soil specimens should be
approximately as given in Table 2-1. These values are consistent with ASTM
Test Designation D-2216.

Table 2-1: Minimum Size of Moist Soil Samples to Determine Water Content

Maximum particle size U.S. Minimum Mass of Soil

in the soil (mm) Sieve no, Sample (g)

0,425 40 20
2.0 10 50
4.75 4 100
9.5 3/8 in. 500
19.0 3/4 in. 2500

Equipment

1. Moisture can(s).
Moisture cans are available in various sizes [for example, 2-in. (50.8 mm) diameter and 7/8 in.
(22.2 mm) high, 3.5 in. (88.9 mm) diameter and 2 in. (50.8 mm) high].
2. Oven with temperature control.
For drying, the temperature of oven is generally kept between 105°C to 110°C. A
higher temperature should be avoided to prevent the burning of organic matter in the
soil.
3. Balance.
The balance should have a readability of 0.01 g for specimens having a mass of
200g or less. If the specimen has a mass of over 200 g, the readability should be
0.1.

Procedure

1. Determine the mass (g) of the empty moisture can plus its cap (W1), and also record the
number.
2. Place a sample of representative moist soil in the can. Close the can with its cap to avoid
loss of moisture.
3. Determine the combined mass (g) of the closed can and moist soil (W2).
4. Remove the cap from the top of the can and place it on the bottom (of the can.)
5. Put the can (Step 4) in the oven to dry the soil to a constant weight. In most cases,24
hours of drying is enough.
6. Determine the combined mass (g) of the dry soil sample plus the can and its cap
(W3)

6
Calculation

1. Calculate the mass of moisture = W 2– W 3

2. Calculate the mass of dry soil = W 3– W 1
3. Calculate the water content

W 2– W 3
W( % )=
W 3– W 1
Report the water content to the nearest 1% or 0.1% as appropriate based on the size of the
specimen.

A sample calculation of water content is given above.

General Comments

a.) Most natural soils, which are sandy and gravelly in nature, may have contents up to about
15 to 20%. In natural fine-grained (silty or clayey) soils, water contents up to about 50 to 80%
can be found. However, peat and highly organic soils with water contents up to about
500% are not uncommon.
Typical values of water content for various types of natural soils in a saturated state are shown
in Table 2 – 2.

b.) Some organic soils may decompose during oven drying at 110°C. An oven drying
temperature of 110° may be too high for soils containing gypsum, as this material
slowly dehydrates. According to ASTM, a drying temperature of 60°C is more appropriate for
such soils.

c.) Cooling the dry soil after oven drying (Step 5) in a desiccators is recommended. It
prevents absorption of moisture from the atmosphere.

Table 2-2: Typical values of water content for various types of natural soils in a saturated state

SOIL NATURAL WATER CONTENT IN SATURATED

STATE
Loose uniform sand 25-30
Dense uniform sand 12-16
Loose angular-grained silty sand 25
Dense angular-grained silty sand 15
Stiff clay 20
Soft clay 30-50
Soft organic clay 80-130
Glacial till 10

7
 Determination of Water Content
(Sample data)

Clay soil (backyard soil)

Description of Soil: _______________________________ 1
Test No.: ________
Location: _______________________________________
University of Makati
Group 2
Tested by: _______________________________________ Date: ___________
July 09, 2019

Test No.
Item
1 2 3
Can No. A B C
Mass of can, W1 (g) 45.86 46.10 37.43

Mass of can + wet soil, W2 (g) 95.86 96.90 87.69

Mass of can + dry soil, W3 (g) 86.66 87.47 80.58

Mass of moisture, W2 – W3 (g) 9.20 9.43 7.11

Mass of dry soil, W3 – W1 (g) 40.80 41.37 43.15

𝑊2−𝑊3
Moisture content, 𝑊(%) = 𝑋100 22.55% 22.80% 16.48%
𝑊3−𝑊1

20.61
Average moisture content, W ________%

Observation

We observe that our soil barely passed the Sieve 0.425 mm and a bit wet and when
we oven-dried it we got a bit big difference in terms of weight loss compared to other groups,
Almost ¼ of its natural states was decreased during oven-drying.

Conclusion

The average moisture content of our soil is 20.61 % and base on table 2-2; we got a
stiff clay type of soil.

8
 Determination of Water Content

Description of Soil: _______________________________ Test No.: ________

Location: _______________________________________
Tested by: _______________________________________ Date: _________

Test No.
Item
1 2 3
Can No.
Mass of can, W1 (g)

Mass of can + wet soil, W2 (g)

Mass of can + dry soil, W3 (g)

Mass of moisture, W2 – W3 (g)

Mass of dry soil, W3 – W1 (g)

𝑊2−𝑊3
Moisture content, 𝑊(%) = 𝑋100
𝑊3−𝑊1

Average moisture content, W ________%

Observation

Conclusion

9
 Specific Gravity
(ASTM D-854)
The test covers the specific gravity of the soil. It is a unitless ratio of the specific weight of the
soil from the specific weight of the water. Normally, the specific weight of soil is greater than
1.

10
Introduction

The specific gravity of a given material is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume
of the material to the weight of an equal volume of distilled water. In soil mechanics, the
specific gravity of soil solids (which is often referred to as the specific gravity of soil) is an
important parameter for calculation of the weight-volume relationship. Thus specific gravity,
Gs, is defined as

𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦)𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦

𝐺𝑠 =
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦)𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Or
𝑊𝑠/𝑉𝑠 𝑊𝑠
𝐺𝑠 = =
𝑃2 𝑉𝑠𝑃𝑤
Where:
Ws = mass of soil solids (g)
Vs = volume of soil solids (cm3)
Pw = density of water (g/cm3)

The general ranges of the values of Gs for various soils are given in Table 3-1. The procedure
for determination of specific gravity, Gs, described here is applicable for soils composed of
particles smaller than 4.75 mm (No. 4 U.S. sieve) in size.

Table 3-1. General Ranges of Gs for Various Soils

Soil Type Ranges of Gs

Sand 2.63-2.67
Silt 2.65-2.7
Clay and Silty Clay 2.67-2.9
Organic Soil Less than 2

Equipment

1. Volumetric Flask (500ml)

2. Thermometer graduated in 0.5°C
division scale
3. Balance sensitive up to 0.01g
4. Distilled water
5. Bunsen burner and a stand (and/or
vacuum pump or aspirator)
6. Evaporating dishes
7. Spatula
8. Plastic squeeze bottle
9. Drying oven

11
Procedure:

1. Clean the volumetric flask well and dry it.

2. Carefully filled the flask with de-aired, distilled water up to the 500 ml mark (bottom of
the meniscus should be at the 500 ml mark.
3. Determine the mass of the flask and water filled to the 500 ml mark (W 1)
4. Insert the thermometer into the flask with the water and determine the temperature of
the water T=T1°C
5. Put approximately 100 grams of dry soil into an evaporating dish.
6. If the soil is cohesive, add water (de-aired and distilled) to the soil and mix it to the
form of smooth paste. Keep it soaked for about one and a half hour in the evaporating
dish. (Note: This step is not necessary for granular i.e., noncohesive soils)
7. Transfer the soil (if granular) or the soil paste (if cohesive) into the volumetric flask.
8. Add distilled water to the volumetric flask containing the soil (or the soil paste) to make
it about two-thirds full.
9. Remove the air from the soil-water mixture. This can be done by:
a. Gently boil the flask containing the soil-water mixture for about 15-20
minutes. Accompany the boiling with continuous agitation of the flask.
(If too much heat is applied, the soil may boil over.) or
b. Apply vacuum by a vacuum pump or aspirator until all of the entrapped
air is out.
This is an extremely important step. Most of the errors in the result of this
test are due to entrapped air which is not removed.
10. Bring the temperature of the soil-water mixture in the volumetric flask down to room
temperature i.e., T1°C- see step 4. (This temperature of the water is at room
temperature.)
11. Add de-aired, distilled water to the volumetric flask until the bottom of the meniscus
touches the 500ml mark. Also dry the outside of the flask and the inside of the neck
above the meniscus.
12. Determine the combined mass of the battle plus soil plus water (W2)
13. Just as a precaution, check the temperature of the soil and water in the flask to see if
it is T1° ±1°C or not.
14. Pour the soil and water into an evaporating dish. Use a plastic squeeze bottle and
wash the inside of the flask. Make sure that no soil is left inside.
15. Put the evaporating dish in an oven to dry to a constant weight.
16. Determine the mass of the dry soil in the evaporating dish (Ws).

12
Calculations:

1. Calculate the specific gravity

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙, 𝑊𝑠
𝐺𝑠 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
Where:
Mass of soil = Ws
Mass of equal volume of water, Ww = (W1 + Ws) - W2

So
𝑊𝑠
𝐺𝑠(𝑎𝑡 𝑇1˚) =
𝑊𝑤
Specific gravity is generally reported on the value of the density of water at 20˚C. So
ƿ𝑤(𝑎𝑡𝑇1˚𝐶)
𝐺𝑠 (𝑎𝑡20˚𝐶) = 𝐺𝑠 (𝑎𝑡𝑇1˚𝐶)[
ƿ𝑤 (𝑎𝑡20˚𝐶)
= Gs (atT1˚C) A

ƿ𝑤(𝑎𝑡𝑇1˚𝐶)
Where A =
ƿ𝑤 (𝑎𝑡20˚𝐶)

Ƿw = density of water

The values of A are given in:

Values of A

Temperature A Temperature A
(T1˚C) (T1˚C)
16 1.0007 24 0.9991
17 1.0006 25 0.9988
18 1.0004 26 0.9986
19 1.0002 27 0.9983
20 1.0000 28 0.9980
21 0.9998 29 0.9977
22 0.9996 30 0.9974
23 0.9993

At least three specific gravity tests should be conducted. For correct results, these values
should not vary by more than 2 to 3%.

13
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOIL SOLIDS
(Sample data)

Description of soil: Organic Soil Sample No. 1

Location: Bldg 1. Room 104
Tested by: Group 3 Date __________

ITEM TEST NO.

1 2
Mass of flask + water filled to mark, 295.13 295.13
W1 (g)
Mass of flask +soil + water filled to 302.84 302.84
mark, W2 (g)
Mass of dry soil, Ws (g) 20 16.39

Mass of equal volume of water as the 12.29 8.68

soil solids,
Ww (g)=( W1 + Ws) - W2
Gs(T1˚C) = Ws / Ww 1.63 1.89

Average Gs = 1.76

Observation

We have observed that the soil we used has a lower value than the typical specific
gravity of soil that is usually used in embankment and/or as aggregates for concrete mix.
Normally the value for the specific gravity of a good soil is 2.5 and above.

Conclusion

Therefore, we conclude that the soil we used is not good for embankment and/or as
aggregates for concrete mixture because the soil we used has a value of 1.76 which is
classified as an organic soil and we all know that an organic soil is not good for embankment
and is only used for gardening.

14
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOIL SOLIDS

Description of soil: _____________ Sample No. _____

Location: ____________________
Tested by: ____________________ Date __________

ITEM TEST NO.

1 2
Mass of flask + water filled to mark,
W1 (g)
Mass of flask +soil + water filled to
mark, W2 (g)
Mass of dry soil, Ws (g)

Mass of equal volume of water as the

soil solids,
Ww (g)=( W1 + Ws) - W2
Gs(T1˚C) = Ws / Ww

Average Gs = _______

Observation

Conclusion

15
 Sieve Analysis
(ASTM D6913 / D6913M - 17)
Soils consist of particles with various shapes and sizes. This test method is used to separate
particles into size ranges and to determine quantitatively the mass of particles in each range.
These data are combined to determine the particle-size distribution (gradation). This test
method uses a square opening sieve criterion in determining the gradation of soil between
the No.4 and No. 200 sieves.

16
Sieve Analysis

Introduction

In order to classify a soil for engineering purposes, one needs to know the distribution of the
size of grains in a given soil mass. Sieve analysis is a method used to deter mine the grainsize
distribution of soils. Sieves are made of woven wires with square openings. Note that. as the
sieve number increases the size of the openings decreases. Table 4-1 gives a list of the U.S.
standard sieve numbers with their corresponding size of openings. For all practical purposes,
the No. 200 sieve is the sieve with the smallest opening that should be used for the test. The
sieves that are most commonly used for soil tests have a diameter of 8 in. (203 mm). A stack
of sieves is shown in Fig. 4.-1.

The method of sieve analysis described here is applicable for soils that are mostly granular
with some or no fines. Sieve analysis does not provide information as to shape of particles.

Table 4-1. U.S. Sieve Sizes

Sieve No. Opening (mm) Sieve No. Opening (mm)
4 4.75 35 0.500
5 4.00 40 0.425
6 3.25 45 0.355
7 2.80 50 0.300
8 2.36 60 0.250
10 2.00 70 0.212
12 1.70 80 0.180
14 1.40 100 0.150
16 1.18 120 0.125
18 1.00 140 0.106
20 0.85 200 0.075
25 0.71 270 0.053
30 0.60 400 0.038

Figure 4-1. A stack of Sieve with a pan at the bottom and cover on the top.

17
Equipment

1. Sieves, a bottom pan, and a cover

Note: Sieve numbers 4, 10, 20, 40, 60, 140, and 200 are generally used for most
standard sieve analysis work.
2. A balance sensitive up to 0.1g
3. Mortar and rubber-tipped pestle
4. Oven
5. Mechanical sieve shaker

Procedure

1. Collect a representative oven dry soil sample. Samples having largest particles of the
size of No. 4 sieve openings (4.75 mm) should be about 500 grams. For soils having
largest particles of size greater than 4.75 mm, larger weights are needed.
2. Break the soil sample into individual particles using a mortar and a rubber-tipped
pestle. (Note: The idea is to break up the soil into individual particles, not to break the
particles themselves.)
3. Determine the mass of the sample accurately to 0.1 g CW).

Figure 4-2. Washing of the soil retained on No. 200 Sieve.

4. Prepare a stack of sieves. A sieve with larger openings is placed above a sieve with
smaller openings. The sieve at the bottom should be No. 200. A bottom pan should
be placed under sieve No. 200. As mentioned before, the sieves that are generally
used in a stack are Nos. 4, 10,20,40,60, 140, and 200; however, more sieves can be
placed in between.
5. Pour the soil prepared in Step 2 into the stack of sieves from the top.
6. Place the cover on the top of the stack of sieves.
7. Run the stack of sieves through a sieve shaker for about 10 to 15 minutes.
8. Stop the sieve shaker and remove the stack of sieves.
9. Weigh the amount of soil retained on each sieve and the bottom pan.
10. If a considerable amount of soil with silty and clayey fractions is retained on the No.
200 sieve, it has to be washed. Washing is done by taking the No. 200 sieve with the
soil retained on it and pouring water through the sieve from a tap in the laboratory
(Fig. 4-2).

18
 When the water passing through the sieve is clean, stop the flow of water. Transfer the
soil retained on the sieve at the end of washing to a porcelain evaporating dish by back
washing (Fig. 4-3). Put it in the oven to dry to a constant weight. (Note: This step is not
necessary if the amount of soil retained on the No. 200 sieve is small.)

Determine the mass of the dry soil retained on No. 200 sieve. The difference between this
mass and that retained on No. 200 sieve determined in Step 9 is the mass of soil that has
washed through.

Figure 4-3. Back washing to transfer the soil retained on No. 200 Sieve to an evaporating
dish.

Calculation

1. Calculate the percent of soil retained on the 𝑛𝑡ℎ sieve ( counting from the top)

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑, 𝑊𝑛
= 𝑥 100 = 𝑅𝑛
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑊 (𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 3)

2. Calculate the cumulative percent of soil retained on the 𝑛𝑡ℎ sieve

𝑖=𝑛

= ∑ 𝑅𝑛
𝑖=1

3. Calculate the cumulative percent passing through the 𝑛𝑡ℎ sieve

𝑖=𝑛

= 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟 = 100 − ∑ 𝑅𝑛

𝑖=1

Note: If soil retained on No.200 sieve is washed, the dry unit weight determined after washing
(Step 10) should be used to calculate percent finer (than No. 200 sieve). The weight lost due
to washing should be added to the weight of the soil retained on the pan.

A sample calculation of sieve analysis is shown in table 4-2.

19
 Table 4-2. Sieve Analysis
Sand with some fines
Description of soil:__________________________________________ 2
Sample no.:_________
500 g
Location: ___________________________________ Mass of oven dry specimen, W _______

Tested by: _______________________________________ Date: __________________________

Sieve Mass of Soil Percent of mass Cumulative Percent

Sieve
Opening retained on each retained on each percent retained finer 100
No.
(mm) sieve 𝑊𝑛 (g) Sieve 𝑅𝑛 ∑ 𝑅𝑛 ∑ 𝑅𝑛
4 4.750 0 0 0 100.0
10 2.000 40.2 8.0 8.0 92.0
20 0.850 84.6 16.9 24.9 75.1
30 0.600 50.2 10.0 34.9 65.1
40 0.425 40.0 8.0 42.9 57.1
60 0.250 106.4 21.3 64.2 35.8
140 0.106 108.8 21.8 86.0 14.0
200 0.075 59.4 11.9 97.9 2.1
Pan - 8.7

498.3 = 𝑊1
∑ _________

Mass loss during sieve analysis =

𝑊−𝑊1 0.34 (ok if less than 2%)
𝑥 100 = _______%
𝑊

Graphs

The grain-size distribution obtained from the sieve analysis is plotted in a semi-logarithmic
graph paper with grain size plotted on the log scale and percent finer plotted on the natural
scale. Figure ~ is a grain-size distribution plot for the calculation shown in Table 4--2.

Figure 4-4. Plot of percent fiber vs. grain size from the calculation shown in table 4-2.

The grain-size distribution plot helps to estimate the percent finer than a given sieve size
which might not have been used during the test.

20
Other Calculation

1. Determine 𝐷10 , 𝐷30 , and 𝐷60 (from Fig. 4-4), which are, respectively, the diameters
corresponding to percent finer of 10%, 30%, and 60%.
2. Calculate the uniformity coefficient (Cu) and the coefficient of gradation (Cc) using
The following eqution:
𝐷60
𝐶𝑢 = (4,4)
𝐷10

2
𝐷30
𝐶𝑐 = (4,5)
(𝐷60 )( 𝐷10 )

As an example, from fig. 4-4, 𝐷60 = 0.46𝑚𝑚, 𝐷30 = 0.21𝑚𝑚, 𝐷10 = 0.098𝑚𝑚.
So.
0.46
𝐶𝑢 = = 4.69
0.098
And
(0.21)2
𝐶𝑐 = = 0.98
(0.46)(0.098)
General Comments
The diameter, 𝐷10 is generally referred to as effective size. The effective size is used
for several empirical correlations, such as coefficient of permeability. The coefficient
of gradation, Cu, is a parameter which indicates the range of distribution of grain sizes
in a given soil specimen. If Cu is relatively large, it indicates a well graded soil. If Cu is
nearly equal to one, it means that the soil grains are of approximately equal size, and
the soil may be referred to as a poorly graded soil.
Figure 4-5 shows the general nature of the grain-size distribution curves for a
well graded and a poorly graded soil. In some instances, a soil may have a
combination of two or more uniformly graded fractions, and this soil is referred to as
gap graded. The grain-size distribution curve for a gap graded soil is also shown in
Fig. 4-5.
The parameter Cc is also referred to as the coefficient of curvature. For sand,
if Cu is greater than 6 and Cc is between I and 3, it is considered well graded.
However, for a gravel to be well-graded, Cu should be greater than 4 and Cc must be
between 1 and 3.
The 𝐷15 and 𝐷85 sizes are used for design of filters. The 𝐷50 size is used for
correlation of the liquefaction potential of saturated granular soil during earthquakes.

Figure 4-5. General nature of grain-size distribution of well graded, poorly graded and gap
graded soil

21
 Sieve Analysis
Clay soil (Plant box soil)
Description of soil:__________________________________________ 3
Sample no.:_________
Location: __________________________________
University of Makati Mass of oven dry specimen, W _______
500 g
Group 4 July 16, 2019
Tested by: _______________________________________ Date: __________________________

Sieve Mass of Soil Percent of mass Cumulative Percent

Sieve
Opening retained on each retained on each percent retained finer 100
No.
(mm) sieve 𝑊𝑛 (g) Sieve 𝑅𝑛 ∑ 𝑅𝑛 ∑ 𝑅𝑛
4 4.75 35.82 7.164% 7.164 92.836
10 2.00 25.31 5.062 12.226 87.774
20 0.850 218.23 43.646% 55.872 44.128
40 0.425 185.57 37.114 92.986 7.014
60 0.250 29.72 5.944 98.93 1.07
PAN - 0.86 0.172 99.102 0.898

495.51 = 𝑊1
∑ _________

Mass loss during sieve analysis =

𝑊−𝑊1 0.898
𝑥 100 = _________% (ok if less than 2%)
𝑊

Other Calculation

Uniformity Coefficient
𝐷60
𝐶𝑢 =
𝐷10
1.268
𝐶𝑢 = = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟔𝟑
0.459
Coefficient of Gradation
2
𝐷30
𝐶𝑐 =
(𝐷60 )( 𝐷10 )

(0.688)2
𝐶𝑐 = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝟑
(1.268)(0.459)

Observation

It is observed that Cu depends on the values of D60 and D10. When D60 is higher than the
value of D10, this generate high value Cu which mean that the sample soil is comprised by
particles with different size ranges.

Conclusion

The particle sizes in mixed natural soils varies depending on D60 and D10. Wherein higher
values of Cu mean higher distribution of particle with larger grain size, while lower values
mean lower distribution of particle with smaller grain size.

22
 Sieve Analysis

Description of soil:__________________________________________ Sample no.:_________

Location: __________________________________ Mass of oven dry specimen, W _______ g
Tested by: _______________________________________ Date: __________________________

Sieve Mass of Soil Percent of mass Cumulative Percent

Sieve
Opening retained on each retained on each percent retained finer 100
No.
(mm) sieve 𝑊𝑛 (g) Sieve 𝑅𝑛 ∑ 𝑅𝑛 ∑ 𝑅𝑛

4 4.75

10 2.00

20 0.850

40 0.425

60 0.250

PAN -

∑ _________ = 𝑊1

𝑊−𝑊1
Mass loss during sieve analysis = 𝑥 100 = _________% (ok if less than 2%)
𝑊

Other Calculation

Uniformity Coefficient
𝐷60
𝐶𝑢 =
𝐷10

Coefficient of Gradation
2
𝐷30
𝐶𝑐 =
(𝐷60 )( 𝐷10 )

Observation

Conclusion

23
 Liquid Limit Test
(ASTM D4318 – 17e1)
The Liquid Limit (LL) is defined as the percentage moisture content at which a soil
changes with decreasing wetness from liquid to plastic consistency or with increasing
wetness from plastic to liquid consistency. It is the water content at which a soil changes from
plastic to liquid behavior.

24
Liquid Limit Test

Introduction

When a cohesive soil is mixed with an excessive amount of water, it will be in a

somewhat liquid state and flow like a viscous liquid. However, when this viscous liquid is
gradually dried, with the loss of moisture it will pass into a plastic state. With further reduction
of moisture, the soil will pass into a semisolid and then into a solid state. This is shown in Fig.
6-L The moisture content (in percent) at which the cohesive soil will pass from a liquid state
to a plastic state is called the liquid limit of the soil. Similarly, the moisture contents (in
percent) at which the soil changes from a plastic to a semisolid state and from a semisolid
state to a solid state are referred to as the plastic limit and the shrinkage limit, respectively.
These limits are referred to as the Atterberg limits (1911). In this chapter, the procedure to
determine the liquid limit of a cohesive soH will be discussed.

Equipment

1. Casagrande liquid limit device

2. Grooving tool

3. Moisture cans

4. Porcelain evaporating dish Solid Semisolid Plastic.

Figure 5-1. Atterberg Limits.

5. Spatula

6. Oven

7. Balance sensitive up to 0.01 g

8. Plastic squeeze bottle

9. Paper towels

The equipment (except the balance and the oven) is shown in Fig. 6-2.

The Casagrande liquid limit device essentially consists of a brass cup that can be
raised and dropped through a distance of 10 mth on a hard rubber base by a cam operated
by a crank (see Fig. 6-3a). Fig. 6-3b shows a schematic diagram of a grooving tool. ,

25
Procedure

1. Determine the mass of three moisture cans (W1).

2. Put about 250 g of air dry soil, passed through No. 40 sieve, into an evaporating
dish. Add water from the plastic squeeze bottle and mix the soil to the form of a
uniform paste.
3. Place a portion of the paste in the brass cup of the liquid limit device. Using the
spatula, smooth the surface of the soil in the cup such that the maximum depth of
the soil is about 8 mm.
4. Using the grooving tool, cut a groove along the center line of the soil pat in the cup
(Fig. 6-4a).
Turn the crank of the liquid limit device at the rate of about 2 revolutions per second.
By this, the liquid limit cup will rise and drop through a vertical distance of 10 mm
once for each revolution. The soil from two sides of the cup will begin to flow toward
the center. Count the number of blows, N, for the groove in the soil to close through
a distance of ½ in. (12.7 mm) as shown in Fig. 6-4b.
5. Turn the crank of the liquid limit device at the rate of about 2 revolutions per second.
By this, the liquid limit cup will rise and drop through a vertical distance of 10 mm
once for each revolution. The soil from two sides of the cup will begin to flow toward
the center. Count the number of blows, N, for the groove in the soil to close through
a distance of Yz in. (12.7 mm) as shown in Fig. 6-4b.

Figure 5-2. Equipment for liquid limit test.

Figure 5-3. Schematic Diagram of: (a) liquid limit device; (b) grooving tool 26
 Figure 5-4. Schematic diagram of soil pat in the cup of the liquid limit device at
(a) beginning of test, (b) end of test.

If N = about 25 to 35, collect a moisture sample from the soil in the cup in a moisture
can. Close the cover of the can, and determine the mass of the can plus the moist
soil (W2) ·
Remove the rest of the soil paste from the cup to the evaporating dish. Use paper
towels to thoroughly clean the cup.
If the soil is too dry, N will be more than about 35. In that case, remove the soil with
the spatula to the evaporating dish. Clean the liquid limit cup thoroughly with paper
towels. Mix the soil in the evaporating dish with more water, and try again.
If the soil is too wet, N will be less than about 25. In that case, remove the soil in the
cup to the evaporating dish. , Clean the liquid limit cup carefully with paper towels.
Stir the soil paste with the spatula for some time to dry it up. The evaporating dish
may be placed in the oven for a few minutes for drying also. Do not add dry soil to
the wet-soil paste to reduce the moisture content for bringing it to the proper
consistency. Now try again in the liquid limit
device to get the groove closure of ½ in. (12.7 mm) between 25 and 35 blows.
6. Add more water to the soil paste in the evaporating dish and mix thoroughly. Repeat
Steps 3, 4 and 5 to get a groove closure of ½ in. (12.7 mm) in the liquid limit device
at a blow count N = 20 to 25. Take a moisture sample from the cup. Remove the
rest of the soil paste to the. evaporating dish. Clean the cup with paper towels.
7. Add more water to the soil paste in the evaporating dish and mix well. Repeat Steps.
3, 4 and 5 to get a blow count N between 15 and 20 for a groove closure of 1/2 in.
(12.7 mm) in the liquid limit device. Take a moisture sample from the cup.
8. Put the three moisture cans in the oven to dry to constant masses (W3). (The caps
of the moisture cans should be removed from the top and placed at the bottom of
the respective cans in the oven.)

27
Calculation

Determine the moisture content for each of the three trials (Steps 5, 6 and 7) as

Graph

Plot a semi-log graph between moisture content (arithmetic scale) versus number of blows,
N (log scale). This will approximate a straight line, which is called the flow curve. From the
straight line, determine the moisture content w (%) corresponding to 25 blows. This is the
liquid limit of the soil.

The magnitude of the slope of the flow line is called the flow index, F], or

28
 Liquid Limit Test

Clay soil (Plant box soil)

Description of Soil: ________________________________________ Sample No.: ___________
4
Location: _______________________________________________________________________
University of Makati
Tested by: Group
________________________________________________
5 July 23, 2019
Date: ________________

Test No. 1 2 3

Can No. A B C

Mass of Can, 𝑊1 (g) 29.74 g 30. 01g 29.65 g

Mass of Can, + Moist Soil, 𝑊2 (g) 53.37 g 56.67 g 58.44 g

Mass of Can, + Dry Soil, 𝑊3 (g) 47.56 g 51.63 g 52.95 g

𝑊2 −𝑊3
Moisture Content, w(%) = 𝑥100 32.604% 23.312% 23.562%
𝑊3 −𝑊1

Number of blows, N 19 26 23

By Interpolation:

23.395
Liquid Limit = ________________________

𝑅𝐼𝑆𝐸 23.562−23.312
Flow index = =
𝑅𝑈𝑁 𝑙𝑜𝑔23−𝑙𝑜𝑔26

-4.69
Flow index = _________________________

29
Observation

Based from our observation, as we do some multiple trials, soil with low water
content would yield more blows in the Casagrande but the soil with a higher water content
would yield less blows. The blows resemble the cohesive strength of the soil.

Conclusion

Based on the data and results, we therefore conclude that the liquid limit of
our soil sample is 23.395 and the flow index is -4.69. The average number of blows in the
three trials is 22.6667 or 23 blows which indicates that the soil sample is too wet. To get
accurate results we therefore recommend to use proper tools and equipment, follow the
procedure very well, this is to avoid error in the data.

30
 Liquid Limit Test

Description of Soil: ________________________________________ Sample No.: ___________

Location: _______________________________________________________________________
Tested by: ________________________________________________ Date: ________________

Test No. 1 2 3

Can No. A B C

Mass of Can, 𝑊1 (g)

Mass of Can, + Moist Soil, 𝑊2 (g)

Mass of Can, + Dry Soil, 𝑊3 (g)

𝑊 −𝑊
Moisture Content, w(%) = 𝑊2−𝑊3 𝑥100
3 1

Number of blows, N

Liquid Limit = ________________________

Flow index = _________________________

Observation

Conclusion

31
 Plastic Limit Test
(ASTM D4318)
Plastic Limit is very important property of fine-grained soil and its value is used to classify fine
grained soil and calculate activity of clays and toughness index of soil. Moreover, it also gives
us information regarding the state of consistency of soil onsite. In addition, it also can be used
to predict the consolidation properties of soil while calculating allowable bearing capacity &
settlement of foundation.

32
Plastic Limit Test

Introduction

The fundamental concept of plastic limit was introduced in the introductory section of the
preceding chapter (see Fig. 5-1). Plastic limit is defined as the moisture content, in percent,
at which a cohesive soil will change from a plastic state to a semisolid state. In the laboratory,
the plastic limit is defined as the moisture content (%) at which at thread of soil will just
crumble when rolled to a diameter of%-in. (3.18 mm). This test might be seen as somewhat
arbitrary and, to some extent, the result may depend on the person performing the test. With
practice, however, fairly consistent results may be obtained.

Equipment

1. Porcelain evaporating dish

2. Spatula

3. Plastic squeeze bottle with water

4. Moisture can

5. Ground glass plate

6. Balance sensitive up to 0.01 g

Procedure

1. Put approximately 20 grams of a representative, air-dry soil sample, passed through No.
40 sieve, into a porcelain evaporating dish.

2. Add water from the plastic squeeze bottle to the soil and mix thoroughly.

3. Determine the mass of a moisture can in grams and record it on the data sheet (WI).

4. From the moist soil prepared in Step 2, prepare several ellipsoidal-shaped soil masses by
squeezing the soil with your fingers.

5. Take one of the ellipsoidal-shaped soil masses (Step 4) and roll it on a ground glass plate
using the palm of your hand (Fig. 6-1). The rolling should be done at the rate of about 80
strokes per minute. Note that one complete backward and one complete forward motion of
the palm constitute a stroke.

33
 Figure 6-1. An ellipsoidal soil mass is being rolled into a thread on a glass plate.

6. When the thread is being rolled in Step 5 reaches 1/8-in. (3.18 mm) in diameter, break it
up into several small pieces and squeeze it with your fingers to form an ellipsoidal mass
again.

7. Repeat Steps 5 and 6 until the thread crumbles into several pieces when it reaches a
diameter of 1/8-in. (3.18 mm).It is possible that a thread may crumble at a diameter larger
than 1/8-in. (3.18 mm) during a given rolling process, whereas it did not crumble at the same
diameter during the immediately previous rolling.

8. Collect the small crumbled pieces in the moisture can put the cover on the can.

9. Take the other ellipsoidal soil masses formed in Step 4 and repeat Steps 5 through 8.

10. Determine the mass of the moisture can plus the wet soil (W2) in grams. Remove the cap
from the top of the can and place the can in the oven (with the cap at the bottom of the can).

11. After about 24 hours, remove the can from the oven and determine the mass of the can
plus the dry soil (W3) in grams.

34
Calculations:

mass of moisture W −W
Plastic Limit =
mass of dry soil
= W2 −W3 (100)
3 1

The results may be presented in a tabular form as shown in Table 6-1. If the liquid limit of
the soil is known, calculate the plasticity index, PI, as

PI=LL – PL

35
 Table 6 – 1. Plastic Limit Test

Gray Clayey Silt

Description of soil __________________________________ 3
Sample No. _____________

Location __________________________________________________________________

Tested by __________________________________________ Date _________________

Can no. 103

Mass of can, W1 (g) 13.33
Mass of can + moist soil, W2 (g) 23.86
Mass of can + dry soil, W3 (g) 22.27
𝑊 −𝑊
PL= 2 3 ×100
𝑊3 −𝑊1 17.78

Plasticity index, PI = LL- PL = __________=_______

34-17.78 16.28

General Comments

The liquid limit and the plasticity index of cohesive soils are important parameters for
classification purposes. The engineering soil classification systems are described in
Chapter 9. The plasticity index is also used to determine the activity, A, of a clayey soil
which is defined as

PI
A=
(% of clay−size fraction by weight)

Following are the typical values of PI of several clay minerals

Clay Minerals PI
Kaolinite 20-40
Illite 35-50
Montmorillonite 50-100

36
 Plastic Limit Test

Gray Clayey Silt

Description of Soil: __________________________________ Sample No.: _________
1
Location: University of Makati
_______________________________________________________________
Tested by: _________________________________________
Group 1 Date: ________________

Can No.
Mass of can, 𝑊1 (g) 23.93

Mass of can + moist soil, 𝑊2 (g) 31.27

Mass of can + dry soil, 𝑊3 (g) 30.88

𝑊2 −𝑊3
PL = 𝑥100 5.6115%
𝑊3 −𝑊1

Plastic Index

PI = LL – PL

PI = 38.844 – 5.6115

PI = 34.2325%

Observation:

We observed that when the soil becomes too dry, it breaks easily. Whenever we add
more water to the soil, the smaller the diameter of the soil we rolled before it develops cracks
and breaks. When the soil has lost most of its water the soil will also loose its plasticity. The
plastic limit that we obtained with our sample is 5.6115.

Conclusion:

We therefor conclude that the soil we have tested has high plasticity. The plasticity
index of the soil was obtained by subtracting the Plastic Limit with Liquid Limit which is
34.2325%. Soils with Plasticity Index of 20-40 is identified to have High Plasticity.

37
 Plastic Limit Test

Description of Soil: __________________________________ Sample No.: _________

Location: ___________________________________________________________
Tested by: _________________________________________ Date: ________________

Can No.
Mass of can, 𝑊1 (g)

Mass of can + moist soil, 𝑊2 (g)

Mass of can + dry soil, 𝑊3 (g)

𝑊2 −𝑊3
PL = 𝑥100
𝑊3 −𝑊1

Plastic Index

PI = LL – PL

PI= ______

Observation:

Conclusion:

38