Republic of the Philippines

PRESIDENT RAMON MAGSAYSAY STATE UNIVERSITY

(Formerly Ramon Magsaysay Technological University)
Iba, Zambales, Philippines
Course: SS 302- SELECTED TOPICS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES FOR SOCIAL
STUDIES TEACHERS
Topic: CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Objectives: 1. Trace and discuss the practices and customs on Marriage and Reproduction as
well as related sources
2. Make an analysis on the rules on Kinship, its purposes and significance to the modern world
Professor: Marie Fe D. De Guzman, Ed.D. (Professor V)
Presenter: Judy Anne S. Dumalasa, Joanna Marie Reblando
______________________________________________________________________________

REPRODUCTION AND KINSHIP, SEXUALITY, AND MARRIAGE

Reproduction and Kinship

✘ Anthropologists study kinship because it is the relationship between people through
marriage, family, or other cultural arrangements. The two types of kinship which exist
are:
✘ Consanguineal (related by blood) or affinal (related by law/marriage).
✘ Through kinship, there is a transmission of goods, ideas and behavior. Kinship is defined
as a sense of being related to a person or people through descent, sharing or marriage.
This provides the base for an examination of different styles of partnership, community
and reproduction across the globe.

SEXUALITY
✘ Sexual Orientation
✘ Sexual orientation is the pattern of sexual and emotional attraction based on the
gender of one's partner.

• Heterosexuality
- refers to the emotional and sexual attraction betweenmen and women.
Homosexuality
- Being emotionally and sexually attracted to those of the same sex.
- "Lesbian” is used to refer to a woman being attracted to other women; "Gay"
is used to refer to a man being attracted to other men.
• Bisexuality
- Being both emotionally and sexually attracted to both males and females.
• Pansexuality
-The potential for attraction to people, regardless of their biological sex or gender. This
includes a possibility for attraction to those who fall outside the gender binary of male/female.
• Asexual
- One without sex-linked features, lacking any apparent sex or sex organs or one that does
not experience or represses any sexual attraction.
• Transgender
- Not a sexual orientation, but the state of one's own gender identity not matching their
assigned sex. Transgender people may identify as any sexual orientation listed above.

There is also the term “queer”, which is a term reclaimed by the LGBT
community.
Queer is an umbrella term which refers to anyone who is outside of the
heteronormative society. Questioning is also used to refer to those who are not
sure about their sexuality but wish to examine it further. Although these terms are
used to describe one’s sexual orientation, they may be offensive depending on the
person. One person may identify.

Cultural Examples of LGBT Relationships

In other parts of the world, some cultures regard various sexual orientations very highly.
Transsexuals and same-sex relationships are seen in some cultures as acceptable, normal, and
even preferable and honored.
TWO-SPIRIT
✘ In many North American indigenous tribes, a person could be two-spirit. They were
generally viewed to have two spirits within them: both masculine and feminine. They
dress using both the male and female garments, and filled an essential and respected role
in society. They generally took on this role around puberty. Male-bodied two-spirits
could be gravediggers, conductors of rituals, nurses during war, craftspeople, storytellers,
and other roles. Female-bodied two-spirits could be traders, warriors, chiefs, hunters,
guides, and other roles. Both could be diviners or medicine people. It was generally
accepted that two-spirits had special power. They could have relationships with people of
any sex, and the relationship was viewed more as "hetero-gender" than specifically
homosexual or heterosexual. In today's world, the role is being reclaimed by Native
Americans who identify as such.

✘ Homosexuality in Brazil
As a country, Brazil has been home to probably just as many homosexuals as any
other country. What sets them apart however is the promenience with which same-sex
rights has been fought for in their culture. The first organized Homosexual group was
called SOMOS, and they formed in 1979. Today there are over 70 groups that are
interested in gay rights operating within the country. The São Paulo Gay Pride Parade is
also one of the largest in the world, with over 2 million participants a year. Even the
Brazilian President Luiz Lula, has been fighting to pass a 'homophobia law' which would
count criticizing homosexual behavior as a crime.
✘ Ancient Greece
In Ancient Greece, same-sex relationships between men were considered the
highest form of love; they were just as common and accepted as heterosexual
relationships in America today. This male-male relationship was based on love and
reciprocity, and typically called for the older man to initiate the relationship. He would
give gifts to the younger man as a promise of love. The relationship between the lover
 (the older man) and the beloved (the younger boy) was thought to be of the highest form
of love.
✘ Homosexuality in Nicaragua
In Nicaragua, the ideal for masculinity is "machismo", and it is described as a
man who is dominant, active, and violent. In the U.S., this is often viewed as a man
dominating his female partner. However, in Nicaragua, this can also be applied to the
sexual relationship between men. It is viewed as normal that men would have sexual
attraction to another and the act itself is not stigmatized. The "macho" dominates the
other man, and he is therefore called a "cochón". This role is made fun of, and is typically
seen as passive and weak. Though the cochón is made fun of, he is never attacked for his
role. There are no hate crimes against homosexual men, unlike in the U.S., probably
because homosexual tendencies are seen as normal.
✘ Lesbianism in Mombasa
Anthropologist Gill Shepherd explored female sexual relationships among
Swahili Muslims in Mombasa, Kenya, and found that relationships between females were
perfectly acceptable, as were relationships between men. Women are allowed to choose
other women as sexual partners after they are married; so many such women also have a
husband at home, or are widowed or divorced. Both sexes are open about their
homosexual relationships, and it is considered normal.

✘ Conflicting Views on Sexuality

Views on sexuality differ from culture to culture. Some cultures embrace
sexuality, while others completely avoid it. This can even range considerably among
industrial nations. A popular example is that breastfeeding in public in America is
generally despised, whereas in Europe, it is accepted.

Inis Beag
Inis Beag was a sexually inexperienced community off the coast of Ireland. In
1960, anthropologists visited this society to collect information on their customs. Inis
Beag was considered to be people of the land. They grew potatoes, owned horses, sheep,
cattle, and goats. Members of Inis Beag knew practically nothing about sex. Anything
sexual was considered a sin except in the case of post-marital reproduction. Children
were never allowed to see anyone naked and the genders were usually kept separate.
They were sponged-bathed and at an early age only their face, legs, neck, and arms were
cleansed. Sex was never discussed so most girls did not know what to do when their first
menstrual cycle occurred and they did not know what to expect on their wedding night.
Although the men were not experienced either, they learned of intercourse through the
teachings of older men and by viewing animals. Nudity was so abhorred that even clothes
were not removed during sex. The women were expected to endure intercourse with the
largest reluctance and it was considered a mortal sin to enjoy it by having an orgasm.
Trobriand Islands
 Unlike Inis Beag, the inhabitants of Trobriand Islands are very open to sex. These
Melanesians live on a group of 22 islands part of Papua New Guinea and they are not
nearly as conservative when it comes to everyday dress. Premarital intercourse is
universal in their culture and even children as young as three years old are permitted to
explore their sexuality.

✘ Reproduction
- Reproduction is the biological process that produces new organisms.
Reproduction is a basic function of every organism on Earth and passes on the
building blocks of life from one generation to another. Every culture in the world
has traditions, rules, and ceremonies which preside around reproduction.
✘ Control of pregnancy
Women are thought to have control over fertility. Due to paternity uncertainty, men often
construct cultures that inhibit the open transmission of this knowledge. In different
environments, and depending on cultural factors, individuals control pregnancy in
different ways.
✘ Foragers: To reduce the chances of a pregnancy foragers will have a low fat diet,
increase physical work, breastfeed (which increases the chances of lactational
amenorrhea) and use induced abortion infanticide if previous methods do not work. For
foragers, children are not seen as much of a positive contribution to the family, because it
often just means more mouths to feed. However foragers also understand that the new
generation of children, who may not at first be able to help much, will not only be able to
help hunt and forage in the future but the weight of that particular tribe will one day rest
on their shoulders.)
✘ Agricultural: Women will use pro-natal techniques and herbs (although usually in
agricultural societies more children are preferable, as it means more workers).
✘ Industrial: Women use hormonal and chemical types of birth control. The pill, IUD and
vaginal ring are common examples. The orthoevra patch was a widely used form of birth
control until the FDA announced higher risk of heart attack and stroke associated with
this form of birth control. Condoms are also used as a barrier method to prevent
pregnancy as well as transmission of STI's.

Childbirth
Childbirth varies for women in all different kinds of cultures. More industrialized
societies, such as America, make such a big “to-do” when a woman has a baby, as
opposed to many other cultures that handle it very differently. Agricultural societies
usually handle childbirth with midwives and foraging cultures usually give birth
individually.
Abortion
Abortion is the action of terminating a pregnancy. To do this one must remove
the embryo or fetus from a woman's uterus after conception. There are several different
ways to perform an abortion. Induced abortions are different from spontaneous abortions
(also defined as a miscarriage), because an induced abortion is usually done on purpose,
where as a spontaneous abortion is usually unexpected.

Birthing Practices

• Complete birth- entire separation of the infant from the maternal body (after cutting of
the umbilical cord)
• Multiple birth- the birth of two or more offspring produced in the same gestation period
• Post-term birth- birth of an infant at or after 42 completed weeks (294 days) of
gestation
• Premature birth- birth of an infant before 37 completed weeks (259 days) of gestation

The best position for the baby to be born is head first. The head first position
poses the least amount of danger for both baby and mother. When a baby is breech (feet
or buttocks first) it can cause many complications for both the baby and the mother. It
should also be noted that there are three main methods of giving birth.

1. Vaginal birth- the natural emergence of the baby from the mother's birth canal. This is
the most preferred method of birth because of the personal connection the mother feels
with her baby. This process starts with the onset of labor which consists of uterine
contractions which starts the natural “pushing” of the baby down in the vagina for
delivery. The natural pushing is the painful part of birth but it can be controlled with
breathing exercises. The birthing process is also practiced in many different types of pain
management. While pain management is often medical, there are types of natural birth
that give women the choice to have a birth in a controlled and comfortable environment
without the distraction or stress of the hospital.

• Types of Natural Birth:

1. Hypnobirthing- In hypnobirthing, the mother undergoes self-hypnosis as a method of
pain control. Hypnosis is defined as a naturally induced state of concentration, a place
where mind and body can communicate with the subconscious mind. When in this state,
communicating with the subconscious can help to control pain.
2. Assisted birth- the use of medical technologies, such as forceps to assist in delivering
the baby from the mother's birth canal.
3. Caesarean birth- Is a method that uses a surgical incision made in the mother’s
abdomen and uterus for the delivery of an infant. This method is often referred to as a C-
Section. Although a vaginal birth is the most preferred, a Caesarean birth may be
necessary if there are complications in the pregnancy, for example if the baby is not
receiving enough oxygen (emergency c-section) or if the mother chooses the option
(elective c-section). The elective C-Section is performed a week or two before the actual
due date. If the expectant mother is HIV-positive and blood tests done near the end of
pregnancy show that you have a high viral load, and then a planned c-section would be
the recommended birth plan by the doctor. It is equally important to have a planned c-
section if the baby is expected to be extremely large and difficult to pass through the
vaginal opening, (a condition known as macrosomia). This is particularly true
if the expectant mother is diabetic or has had a previous baby of the same size or smaller
who suffered serious trauma during a vaginal birth. Most maternity units in the UK
deliver between 10 and 20 per cent of babies by Caesarean section.

Multiple Births- If the woman were to have multiple births then it is possible she would
have to get a C-Section to prevent permanent damage to herself.
Labor Stops - Over one third of all C-Sections performed are a result of Labor
stopping.
Concern for the Baby - Complications concerning the baby such as the umbilical
cord being pinched or the baby not receiving proper blood flow might result in the
necessity of a C-Section
Medical Conditions - Preexisting medical conditions in the mother such as
diabetes or high blood pressure may also cause need for a caesarian section.
Sexually Transmitted Diseases- If the mother has a disease such as HIV, then it is
possible for the child to also get the disease as it passes through the vagina. In this case, a
C-Section is needed.

Birth in Japanese Culture

• In Japan, mothers are encouraged to eat traditional foods that will nourish the mother
and baby during the labor. Mochi and eggs are high in protein and carbohydrates which
Reproduction give the Japanese mothers strength and energy in the birthing process.
Traditionally, the feelings of pain expressed through noises and verbal expression were
considered acceptable but such extreme expressions were considered shameful. Mothers
are expected to remain stoic throughout the delivery process. These traditional beliefs are
still widely held in Japanese culture concerning birth.

• Tradition also states that fathers would not present during the birth. Midwives and
female relative were however allowed to be in the room with the mother in labor.

Differences in Birthing Practices

Foraging Societies: In many foraging (assist women giving birth. Midwives are specially
trained to deliver babies. hunting/gathering) cultures, such as in the Ache tribe, women
give birth by themselves. When a woman goes into labor and starts having contractions,
she quietly goes off by herself into the forest to deliver her baby. She will squat down,
hold her hands out to grab her newborn, and usually, she will bite off the umbilical cord.
After that, she will nurse her baby, and return to the village with the child.

Agricultural Societies: In agricultural societies, midwives usually assist women giving

birth. Midwives are specially trained to deliver babies.

Industrial Societies: In many industrial societies, women in labor are given medication to
help with the pain. Also, Caesarean births (C-Sections) are common. In parts of the U.S.
and Brazil, 50% or more of births are C-Section births.

Marriage

Anthropologists recognize marriage as a way to “describe how different societies

organize and understand mating and its consequences”. The Anthropological definition of
a prototypical marriage highlights the general expectations and facets that form this social
construct. Within various cultures marriage is symbolically represented through a range
of very simple to elaborate weddings. A marriage generally transforms the roles and
responsibilities of two individuals within society. For example, an individual’s
expectation of personal finance may be transformed to support both him/herself and their
spouse. Marriage also sets the implications of permitted sexual access, setting boundaries
for what is acceptable and when. However, these implications are also set based on
personal preference.

Marriage as well as cultural norms. Marriage is also a method in which cultural tradition
is passed on to the children of the participants. Although the marriage relationship is a
‘traditional’ means for shaping a child’s standing and position in society, non traditional
roles also serve as a valid means of raising children within cultural context. Marriage also
serves as a means of creating extended families linking the Kin of the individuals.

Monogamy and Polygamy

Monogamy
Monogamy is the practice of having only one spouse at one time. In some cases,
monogamy means having only one spouse for an entire life span. Out of the different
types of marriages, monogamy is the only one that is legal in the United States and in
most industrial nations.
There are several types of monogamy that are practiced throughout the world.
They include social, sexual, genetic, martial, and serial monogamy.
• Social monogamy: Two persons/creatures that live together, have sex with one another,
and cooperate in acquiring basic resources such as food, clothes, and money.
• Sexual monogamy: Two persons/creatures that remain sexually exclusive with one
another and have no outside sex partners.
• Genetic monogamy: Two partners that only have offspring with one another.
• Marital monogamy: Marriages of only two people.
• Serial monogamy: A series of relationships. One person has only one partner at a time,
and then moves on to another partner after severing the relationship with the first.

Polygamy
The term Polygamy is a Greek word meaning "The practice of multiple Marriage". It is
a marriage pattern in which an individual is married to more than one person at a time.

There are two different types of Polygamy:

 Polygyny and Polyandry
- Polygyny is the practice of one man having more than one wife or sexual
partner at a time. There is a specified difference between having multiple wives and
sexual partners and the practice of having a sexual partner outside of the marriage, such
as a concubine. Polygyny is the most common form of polygamy. There are religions that
have historically allowed polygyny, for instance Mormonism Polygamy began in this
culture when its founder, Joseph Smith, had a revelation from God that some Mormon
men would be allowed to take multiple wives.

- Polyandry is the less common of the two forms of Polygamy. Polyandry involves one
woman having multiple husbands, within Polyandry there are many variations on the
marriage style. One of the more common forms of polyandry is fraternal polyandry; this
form has been known to be practiced among groups of Tibet and Nepal and occurs when
a group of brothers marries one woman. In this practice the oldest brother usually serves
as the groom during the wedding but all brothers are recognized as married through this
ceremony and all have sexual access to the woman.

Serial Monogamy vs. Serial Polygamy

Monogamy is when a person is only with one person at a time. To be a serial
monogamist is a lifestyle consisting of repeated relationships with one partner. More
specifically, it’s described as going from being in a sexual relationship with one person to
another. This is an example of modern day dating. Many relationships involve being with
one person, and then when that relationship ends, moving on. Serial monogamy also
applies to people who get married and divorced more than once. Conservative Christians
sometimes refer to those who frequently get married and divorced as serial polygamists,
because they see them as people who have many sexual partners. Anthropologist don’t
use this term because it’s a series of one person relationships. They aren’t with different
people at once.

Polygynous Families
Polygynous families are families with husbands who have multiple wives. All of the
wives interact with the husband at different times individually and as a whole. The wives
also have relationships with one another as individuals and as a group.

Same Sex Marriage

In the United States, LGBTQ (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transsexual, and
Questioning) individuals have only just begun to be recognized as a legitimate part of
society. There is still great prejudice against members of the LGBTQ community, and
hate crimes are continuously prevalent. Even though the LGBTQ community has lived
under this harassment for so many years they are still making huge strides in the United
States to better the lives of everyone who identifies as part of the community. This is
usually done through making same sex marriage legal on the state level.

Ghost Marriage
Ghost marriages take place when a wealthy or influential male member of a
village dies without any living children. A woman will then marry his "ghost" at a
ceremony, usually with the brother of the deceased as a stand-in. The wife is then said to
be married to the ghost of the man, and can then have his children, using the brother to
facilitate this. These children, although not biological children to the deceased, serve as
heirs to his heritage and can inherit both his property and his status in a society. However,
this means that the brother is usually left without any children of his own before he dies,
and then he must have his children through a ghost marriage, creating a circle. These
practices are most common in Sudan but is also practiced in China, where partnership has
great value. In China, ghost marriages also mean when a man is married to a deceased
female, more likely currently due to the growing shortage of females, so that he maintains
his status in this world. This can also help the deceased brides family from feeling the
shame of an unwed daughter.

Arranged Marriage
Arranged marriage is a relationship established by the parents or other interested
parties often without consent from the couple involved.
There are 4 different types or levels of arranged marriages:
• Forced: Parents dictate whom their children will marry and the children have no say in
the matter.
• Traditional-Limited : Traditional-Limited choice type. However, in this level
individuals are given slightly more choice and this is therefore seen as more "modern"
method.
• Modern with Courtship: Parents will say whom their child should marry, but the child is
allowed a period of courtship to get to know their intended spouse.
• Introduction Only: Parents only introduce those involved to each other, and do not force
their children to marry if they do not want to. This is seen as more of a "nudge" than an
arrangement.

Often an arranged marriage is seen not as a bond between a couple but as a

promise/approval of a union between two families. Arranged marriages usually benefit
the families more than the couple, as it strengthens economic and social ties between the
two. A marriage to a cousin makes sure that wealth and rank stay within the family.
Parents can make sure that the arranged marriage goes through in several ways.

Residence Pattern

After getting married the couple needs to live somewhere. And where the couple ends up
varies, depending on their culture. There are four major residence patterns, Neolocal,
Patrilocal, Matrilocal, and Avunculocal.

1. Neolocal Residence is most common with North American couples. This is where the
couple finds their own house, independent from all family members.

2. Patrilocal Residence is most commonly used with herding and farming societies. It’s
where the married couple lives with the husband’s father’s family. By living with the
husband’s family, it lets all the men, (the father, brothers, and sons) continue to work
together on the land.
 3. Matrilocal Residence is most familiar among horticultural groups. It’s where thecouple
moves to live where the wife grew up; usually found with matrilineal kinship systems.
4. Avunculocal Residence is also related in matrilineal societies however in this case the
couple moves to live with the husband’s mother’s brother. They live with the most
significant man, his uncle, because it’s who they will later inherit everything from.

✘ There are two other forms of residence however they aren't as common. There's
Ambilocal residence where the couple lives with one family for awhile and then moves to
live with the other spouse's family. Eventually they have to decide who to live with
permanently. And then there's Duolocal residence where lineage membership is so
important to both the husband and wife that even though the couple is married they still
live apart from one another and with their families. The division of labor by sex largely
determines where a couple resides after marriage. If the male predominates in the
division of labor than the couple's residence tends to be an Avunculocal and Patrilocal
residence. However if the females predominates than they tend to live in matrilocal
residence. And if neither sex predominates in the division of labor than their residence
tends to be more ambilocal or neolocal residence. In the mountains of the Hindu Kush
Himalayan region the domination of society by males is prevalent throughout the region.
And because the males are so dominate in this region, the main pattern of living is
Patrilocal Residence. Once couples are married the women are forced to live with the
husband and the rest of his family, in unfamiliar surroundings. Marriages are generally
arranged by the parents, so the women have to learn to live with strangers, without any
family support that she once enjoyed at home.

MARRIAGE AND ECONOMIC EXCHANGE

Often paired with marriage in many cultures, is a trade of symbolic or economic goods.
These types of exchanges can mainly be fit into two distinct camps, dowry and bridewealth.

Dowry is a transfer of wealth, usually flowing from a woman’s parents or family when she is to
be married in the form of money, land or other goods. Dowry can also be viewed as inheritance
for the woman, though this is usually in cultures where both men and women are heirs. In other
cases, such as in socially stratified societies, a dowry gives a woman the security of knowing that
after she is married she can still enjoy her usual lifestyle and in the case of divorce, avoid
poverty and discomfort. If the husband and wife are to be divorced, the wife is able to get back
the dowry that her parents had given.

Bridewealth

Bridewealth is the transfer of symbolic goods from the husband’s family to the bride’s family.
This form of economic exchange is most often found in agricultural and pastoral patrilineal
societies, though it is not limited those lifestyles. Usually, bridewealth represents some form of
compensation to the bride’s family from the husband’s family, for their loss of her labor and
ability to bear them children. This is because when a woman marries, she goes to live, produce
children, and work with her husband’s family, leaving her own. In many cases, bridewealth also
serves to create a positive relationship between the families of the husband and wife. When the
wife's family receives the bridewealth, they use the goods they receive for their daughter to find
her brother a wife.

Different Cultural Reference Rules for Marriage

Endogamy
Endogamy is the practice of marriage within a specific cultural group or social group based on
custom or law. An example of endogamy is the marriage between those who are of the same
faith or belief system.

Exogamy
Exogamy is the practice of marriage outside of a specific cultural group or social group.
Exogamy was said to have arisen as a way of avoiding kinship marriage or incest. Examples of
exogamy groups include, but are not limited to, people from the immediate family, people whom
are considered kin, and those of the same sex. A lot of times exogamy is less likely to occur in
places where different races are of higher classes than others are.

Hypergamy

Hypergamy is the practice of marrying into a social or cultural group that is equal to or higher
than the caste that one was born into. Hypergamy deals with women marrying into a higher class.
Hypergamy includes but is not limited to marring a person of higher education, financial status,
as well as social status. Usually cultures that practice hypergamy have a very strong focus on
class, finances to live a good life. Hypergamy involves a person of a higher class to be willing to
marry someone of a lower class.
Hypergamy is visible in all societies where wealth or status is important, such as in the
United States women are encouraged to marry “up”. To marry someone who is older, more
stable in life, as well as more financial stability. The story of Cinderella put into a real life
context would be scenario of hypergamy. A poor peasant woman who has no wealth to her name
marries into a very wealthy royal family.

Hypogamy
Hypogamy is the practice of a man marrying a woman of a higher class or of higher social status
than himself. This happens a lot more in countries where women have an equal opportunity to
make more money, or be better educated than men are. Hypogamy is less commonly found in
cultures where women have less rights then men. Some examples of this are the Islamic and
early American cultures.
 DIVORCE, KINSHIP, GENEOLOGY, AND FRIENDSHIP

Divorce
 is a legal process in which a judge legally ends a marriage. The result leaves the two
individuals status as “single”.

A divorce does not declare a marriage null and void, as in an annulment, but instead states
that the marriage was unsuccessful for any of a variety of reasons and declares the two
individuals as single.

Divorce and Children

The many possible reasons behind such a high rate of divorce is independence of women,
declining earnings among men without college degrees, rising expectations for personal
fulfilment from marriage, and greater social acceptance of divorce. (Amato R. P, 2000)

There are many recommend things that parents are advised do in order for the adjustment
of the divorce to go smoothly with the child/and or children involved. It is very important to be
open to discussion with your child, reassurance is key in the adjustment of a new divorce. Assure
the parties involved that it is not their fault and making sure continuous contact with the other
parent is available. Sometimes allowing the option for counseling is very important; it allows the
child and/or children involved to talk with someone else in a safe space, where they can express
their emotions and not feel obligated to take sides with a parent but just allow them to talk open
and honest about how they are feeling.

Divorce in Islam

The Islamic world has accepted divorce reluctantly. Divorce in Islam is used only in the
most “necessary” situations. Islamic societies do not want private affairs to become public in the
court except in extreme circumstances. It is for this reason that court comes in as a last resort in
the Islamic method for separation of husband and wife. Islam does not like or recommend
divorce, the Prophet of Islam has said: "Among lawful things, divorce is most disliked by Allah"
(narrated in the book of tradition of Abu Daud). Divorce in Islam is focused on the reconciliation
of the married couple whenever possible. Before the Divorce can be finalized there is a period of
time, called the waiting time, where the husband is still in control of his wife (still married). This
waiting time is used to reconcile the couple.
During this time the wife must not be menstruating. If however the waiting period passes without
reconciliation, they stand fully divorced. A Muslim male is allowed to change his mind up to
three times. The male can divorce his wife three times and each time take her back, but when the
third strike is in, the man can no longer have any contact with his ex-wife, she’s prohibited to
him.

Divorce/Separation among the Inuit

For the northwestern Iniut all relationships are permanent. A husband and wife can move
away from one another, but then they become "separated" not divorced. If they ever reunite, then
their marriage is reactivated. If, however, the man and women both get remarried, then the two
husbands become "cohusbands" of the wife, the two women would become "cowives," and
children from both families would become "cosiblings." This is interesting because in this case
divorces don't sever family ties, they increase them. Therefore the Inuit's relationships are often
complicated and intricate.

Divorce and The Catholic Church

Christianity as a general whole frowns upon divorce shading it as very negative.

However, toleration among the different Christian domination's differs. The Roman Catholic
Church for example expressly forbids divorce for any sacramental consummated marriage
defining a couple as wed until the death of one or both of the spouses or unless an annulment is
granted. If there is no annulment, then even if separated, they may not remarry and are not
considered "single" as defined by the term divorce. The topic of divorce can be found
bibliographically in the gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and the epistles of Paul. Paul addresses
this issue forwardly in "his First Epistle to the Corinthians chapter 7: "Let not the wife depart
from her husband...let not the husband put away his wife" (1 Corinthians 7:10-11)" and in "his
Epistle to the Romans stating:"For the woman which hath an husband is bound by the law to her
husband so long as he liveth...So then if, while her husband liveth, she be married to another
man, she shall be called an adulteress" (Romans 7:2-3).

Divorce and American Society

If the family is the building block of society, then marriage is the foundation of the
family(Fagan). The effects of so many divorces have tremendous long-term impacts on both the
divorcees and any children involved. And divorce will affect not only the current generation but
is suggested by mounting social evidence to even affect future generations. This has severe
impacts on the society as a whole, with so many divorces occurring. For example, it is estimated
that families with children that were not poor before see their income drop by about fifty percent
after a divorce; this then affects society as a whole when that family seeks financial assistance
from the government. In addition many families who experience divorce do not maintain the
same religious practices they had while married, this can be for several reasons. However,
religious practice of any kind has been linked to better health, longer marriages and a healthier
overall family, thus the reduction in practice can worsen the effects of the divorce on the children
and parents. Marriage is an important aspect of any society, and the US government should
realize this and re-focus spending to help sustain this vital aspect to increase the health of its
current people and those to come (Fagan).

Kinship
-refers to the culturally distinct relationships between individuals who are most likely thought
of having family ties.
Societies use kinship as a basis for forming social groups or for classifying people into
roles and categories. In anthropology, kinship includes people who are related by lineage and
marriage. In many societies, kinship provides a way for transmitting status and property from
one generation to the next. An ethnographic example of kinship would be in today's American
culture, where the way in which kinship works can be seen when it comes to inheritance and the
wills of the deceased. The closest in kin, such as the spouse or the children, tend to receive the
inheritance before other, more distant, relatives do. An example of kinship in the Hindu religion
is after the death of a family member, the rest of the family doesn't bath for sometimes ten or
eleven days. After that period is up the family then meets for a ceremonial meal and many times
will offer gifts to charity.

Types of Kinship
There are different ways kinship can be recognized.
Affinity is a relationship created by marriage. For example, two close friends could
become siblings, through the marriage of their parents.
Ambilocal and avunculocal refer to types of residential affinity: where the married
couple lives.
o Ambilocal means the newly married couple lives with the parents of
the husband or wife.
o Avunculocal means the couple matrilineal brother of the wife.
o Bilocal is another residential affinity term referring to the couple alternating
between the houses of the parents of the husband and the parents of the wife;
o Patrilocal is when the couple resides in the home of the husband's father.
o Matrilocal in the wife's mother's home.
o Uxorilocal refers to living with the wife's kin.
o Virilocal with the husband's.

All of these terms describe the aspect of affinity that creates a new type of kin; by living
with the parents or kin of ones husband or wife, it creates a new bond between the spouse and the
parents.
This is generally a positive experience, though the couples may end up living neolocally,
or away from their parents. Typically, ones kin is thought of as their nuclear family or the family
consisting of a husband, wife, and children (this is sometimes referred to as 'immediate family').
The biological father in this family is the genitor, and the mother the genetrix; usually, a nuclear
family consists of those who are related biologically, or consanguine. This belief of ones nuclear
family being their kin is due to the fact that there is a more intimate and comfortable
environment among those with whom one lives. One develops habits and ways of acting that
they would only exhibit in their home environment--eating habits, clothing, diction, etc. Within
this environment, however, the relationships formed also form the general habits and behaviors
of the individual. The family creates expectations for the way the individuals act toward their
'extended family'--aunts, uncles, grandparents--who are also members of their kin.

The Japanese Family

An ethnographic example of how a "family" is defined is the family structure in contemporary
Japan. The contemporary Japanese family is much like that of the contemporary American
family, usually consisting of a mother, father, and children living in the same household (nuclear
family). Present family forms were developed from the traditional Japanese family, also known
as the Ie ( 家 ) (pronounced 'e-ay'). This traditional system is unfamiliar to most Americans
because it is more complex than what we are used to. The system consists of multigenerational
households in which extended families, sometimes all the way up to great grandparents, all live
together. The line of descent is patrilineal, or traced through the father. The children are expected
to eventually leave the family to join another family and find their own way in the world with
regard to a household, career, and the like. Rural families with more than one son typically send
their second or third sons into the city to begin finding work in the more contemporary and
industrial society. However, the concept of primogeniture is a distinct aspect of the Japanese
kinship system, but not unique to just Japan. Primogeniture is passing the entire estate of the
family, social role, financial assets, occupation from father to usually the eldest son. This way,
the family name and social status is passed patrilinially, as it is traditionally, and kept for the
coming generations. Historically, there was a different social cultural dynamic when it came to
family roles. Presently, the family roles are, again, very much like those of the contemporary
American family. The father generally goes to a job outside of the home, but there are many
family owned businesses in Japan where family lives in the same building as the location of their
business (in this case, there is not such a separation between the father’s home life and work
life). Because the father is away for long hours nearly every day of the week at work, this creates
Japanese family dynamic: the father has less time to spend with the children. This puts stress on
the mother, who oversees children’s education, and manages finances. Because she must be in
charge of all of this, and keeping the household in order, the intimate relationship that usually
exists between a mother and her children is essentially non-existent; rather, the relationship is
very strained. With all kinship, the behaviors and closeness of relationships, the traditions
created within families, the way we refer to our relatives, and the rules of residency all depend
on familial descent.

Different Types of Descent

Unilineal Descent
- groups can be found in many different places around the world. This principle is based on
the fact that people believe that they are related to their kin through either their mother
OR father, not both.
They base this descent of the belief that the parent-child relationships are more important
than any other type of relationship. Unilineal descent groups that are made up of links from the
father's side of the family are patrilineal; and descent groups that are made through links of the
mother's side are matrilineal.

Patrilineal Descent
- the child is linked with the group through male sex links only;the lineage of his/her
father.
This is found among 44% of all cultures. Within this type of descent it is the men who own
the property, have political power, and hold status even though their livelihood depends on the
women of their society for children. Daughters are often discriminated against within their own
families because any investment made in them by the family will be lost when she is married. In
most cases the daughters of a lineage will marry into another lineage and be exchanged for a
Bride price. The Nuer are a good example of patrilinear descent: the clans are linked and
separated by patrilineal ties which determined their "ancestors and symbols, corporate rights in
territory, and common interests in cattle"

Matrilineal Descent
 - is linked to the group through the lineage of their mother.
This is found among 15% of all cultures. Contrary to Patrilineal descent, Matrilineal descent is
not a monarchy. Within this type of descent it is the women who own the property and hold
social power however it is men who work with the land by farming or animal husbandry. It is the
husbands who marry into the wives lineage and work her land. Matrilineal decent is common
within a horticulturally based mode of production and less common within an agriculturally
based one; it does not work with increased wealth, differentiation, or inequality.
Markumakkathayam is an example of matrilineal descent: "It was one of the few traditional
systems that gave women some liberty, and the right to property... the family lived together in a
Tharavadu, which comprised a mother, her brothers and younger sisters, and her children. The
oldest male member was known as the karanavar and was the head of the household and
managed the family estate. Lineage was traced through the mother, and the children "belonged"
to the mother's family. All family property was jointly owned. An example is the former princely
state of Tiruvitankoor, where the royal lineage passes from the king to his nephew, rather than
his son."

Bilineal Descent
- this particular group links individuals with the lineage of both the mother and father
(relatives).
Anthropologists also refer to bilineal descent as bilateral descent, which is the principle
that a descent group is formed by people who believe they are related to each other by
connections made through their mothers and fathers equally. Another form of bilineal descent is
the bilateral kindred. This group is much more common and consists of the relatives of one
person or group of siblings and is the kinship group that most European and North Americans are
familiar with. This type of group forms around a particular individual and includes all the people
linked to that individual through kin of both sexes. These people refer to themselves as relatives
to one another.

Ambilineal descent
Individuals are descended from both parents, but are able to choose from which group
they would like more affiliation. For example, in Jewish culture, it is said that the children
are Jewish if their mother is Jewish; on the other hand, if the father (only) is Jewish, the
children can make a choice as to whether or not they want to belong to the Jewish faith
as well.

Household Forms

The Definition of a Family

A family is a primary social group, a small community, in any society, typically

consisting of a man and a woman, or any two individuals who wish to share their lives together
in a long-term committed relationship with one another, raising offspring and usually resides in
the same dwelling. However, anthropologist and feminist have debated whether or not an adult
male has to be presence to be considered a family. Because of this anthropologist have come up
with different terms to distinguish between these different types of families.
 o A conjugal family is one where a family is based on a marriage, a husband and
wife, and their children. In most societies in the conjugal family, the spouse lives
in the same dwelling, along with their children, though there are still some where
the husband does not live with the wife and kids, but frequently visit them.
o A non-conjugal family also known as matrifocal family consists of just a woman
and her children where the husband/father may be occasionally present or even
completely absent. When a woman is left with minimal resources, in most cases, these
resources are spent on the children.
o An extended family refers to a consanguineal family and also kindred who do not
belong to the conjugal family. A kindred family is an egocentric network of relatives that
extends beyond the domestic group. Therefore, an extended family are people such as
grandparents, great aunts/uncles, 2nd&3rd cousins etc.
Family is the main building block of a community or any given society and it is where
one develops values and traits necessary to live an honorable life.

Single Parent
- there is only one parent caring for the children of the house without the help of the other
parent in the home setting.
This single parent style of parenting can happen as a result of a several reasons. In many
instances, single parenthood happens by choice of the parents. Two parents can choose to
divorce. Or a single person can choose to adopt a child, or use artificial insemination. Women
can also choose to be surrogate mothers or have an extramarital pregnancy. Single parenting can
also happen by the death of a parent or abandonment by one of the parents.

Single Person
- consists of only one person living by themselves.
Nuclear
- is used to refer to a family and household setting that consists of a father, a mother, and
their children. Nuclear families can be any size as long as long as the family can support
itself and there are only 2 parents.

Extended Polygamous
- is one where there is one father and multiple wives. In this type of family, the first or
oldest wife is typically the head of the household when the husband is away.
Her children are usually the heirs of the man's wealth. If, however, the first wife
dies, then the children must fight the next oldest wife for their right as heirs. An extended
family is where there is a nuclear family with added family members such as grandparents or
relatives. The Polygamous household form is most preferred by 80-85% of world societies. This
type of living situation is most common in places where women do most of the work or there is a
shortage of males.

Genealogy which stems from the Greek words logos and genea meaning descent knowledge is
the study of family’s lineages through history. Genealogists strive to learn when, where, and how
certain people lived. Their subjects are usually their ancestors, particular small groups, or an
important or famous person. Genealogy was traditionally used in Western societies to determine
the blood rights of nobles and kings. The ruling class used genealogy and recorded their lineage
because being a noble or royalty gave them certain privileges. Genealogy is now mainly used by
hobbyists, who easily use resources on the internet to track their family history. One site
commonly used for this is. Genealogy is not the same as kinship. Genealogy is the study of
tracing a family's lineage all the way back to the earliest ancestor, whereas kinship is based
around the feeling of relatedness to people through descent, sharing, or marriage.

Friendship
A dictionary definition of friendship is "one joined to another in intimacy and mutual
benevolence independent of sexual or family love." Friendship is the "unofficial" bonds
that people construct for others. As ties to kinship transform the importance of friendship
increases. This brings about the emergence of new forms of friendship.

Examples of Friendship
 Friendship within the Family
This is best seen in husbands and wives consider themselves "best friends" or
siblings considering each other their best friends.
 The Bangwa
The Bangwa of Cameroon value friendship above kinship. Friendship is valued
more because within kinship there are the inequalities of age and status, whereas friends
spend long hours together and rely on one another in politics. Friendship aids in balance
out the defects and limitations of kinship.
 American College Students
In college friends are chosen companions free of outside influences. In these
friendships you express your true self. The downfall of this friendship is that it is
invisible and there is no clear declaration of the friendship.
 Roman Friendship
The Romans believe that, for a friendship to exist, the two people must be
completely and entirely honest and truthful with each other. It is not considered a true
friendship if this is not the case. To an extent this is a rather universal belief but at least in
American culture it is not always the case. Romans also believe that a friend should be
able to do something for the other without any thought whatsoever of a sort of repayment.
If a friend is going to do something against your morals, it is your obligation as their
friend to talk them out of it and show them the error of their ways.

REFERENCES:
Cultural Anthropology, (2013)
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Cultural_Anthropology/Marriage,_Reproduction_and_Kinship