SDG 2 END

31

HUNGER,
GOAL #7  AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY

ACHIEVE FOOD
SECURITY AND
IMPROVED
NUTRITION
AND PROMOTE
SUSTAINABLE
AGRICULTURE
Ludovic Mollier
Frédérique Seyler
Jean-Luc Chotte
Claudia Ringler
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER 32
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER 33
34
INTRODUCTION

sdg 2 integrates and links food security,

nutrition and a sustainable and climate-
resilient agriculture. A focus on the role of
small producers in the agriculture sectors
is an important element. This multi-dimen-
sional goal encompasses several specific
targets, and these can be subdivided into
three interrelated components: ending
hunger and improving nutrition (social
dimension: 2.1, 2.2), achieving food security
through productivity improvement and
income increase (economic dimension: 2.3,
2.a, and to a certain extent 2.b and 2.c),
and promoting sustainable agriculture (envi-
ronment dimension: 2.4, 2.5).
This brief description of sdg 2 – the
‘entry level goal’ for this assessment –
is followed by an overview of interactions
at goal level between sdg 2 and the
other 16 sdgs. Taking into account all the
underlying targets of this entry goal,
a set of key interactions is then identified
between the sdg 2 targets and those
of other sdgs, focusing on interactions
with high magnitude or strong impacts
based on available scientific literature
and expert knowledge. The typology and
seven-point scale for characterising the
range of positive and negative interactions
described in the opening chapter to
this report is used to assess the selected
target-level interactions and the context in
which they typically occur. Illustrative
examples from different world regions show
how these linkages manifest in practice.
Policy options that can enhance positive
and reduce negative interactions between
now and 2030, and beyond are also
described. The chapter concludes with a list
of key knowledge gaps related to the inter-
actions studied.
35
KEY INTERACTIONS AT
GOAL LEVEL

2  +  1 Africa (World Bank, 2016), South Asia

Ensuring that all people have access to remains home to the largest concentration
safe, nutritious and sufficient food all of undernourished people.
year round is inextricably linked to poverty
eradication and, as such, addressing 2  +  2
undernutrition is indivisible from Synergies and trade-offs can also occur
addressing poverty. According to the World between the five targets and three
Bank (2007), growth in agriculture is at implementation mechanisms of sdg 2.
least twice as effective in reducing poverty Generally the targets of ending
as growth in any other sector. There hunger and achieving food security
are multiple pathways through which benefit from achievements on the
increases in agricultural productivity can economic (productivity improvement)
reduce poverty; key among these are and environmental front (sustainable
increased incomes and associated agriculture) and are supported by
multiplier effects stimulating employment investments in agricultural research,
in the rural and urban non-farm sectors trade and market development. However,
through forward and backward linkages. trade-offs can occur between the agri-
However, success in agriculture does cultural economy versus sustainability
not always reduce poverty and not for focused targets. For example, yield
everyone. This is the case in Brazil where gaps are particularly high in sub-Saharan
agricultural growth in some regions has Africa for some of the region’s major
been concentrated in a dynamic export- staple crops (World Bank, 2007). Closing
oriented sector of large capital-intensive these gaps through agricultural produc-
farms. As a result, agricultural employment tivity improvement can, however,
declined with few poverty reduction constrain the sustainability of agriculture.
effects. Moreover, in pursuing some of the As an example, Duflo et al. (2008) found
sdg2 means of implementation, such as that in the short term, productivity
trade liberalisation, poverty levels might increases in Kenya may be achieved
increase for some strata of society, at most cost-effectively through the use of
least in the short term and if no safety inorganic fertilisers, but this can adversely
nets are established (Winters et al., 2004). affect ecosystems and, in the long-term,
Furthermore, some policies developed the sustainability of the agricultural sector
to improve food security for the poor, and its productive capacity. Based on
such as price controls, may have perverse a comprehensive meta-analysis, Ponisio
impacts, such as depressing farm income. et al. (2015) found a large heterogeneity
Although some evidence indicates a shift in the performance of all types of
in the concentration of poverty levels from production system and that diversification
rural to urban areas, rural people continue practices appear to be key in enhancing
to represent the largest segment of the yields and profit. In this sense, solu-
world’s extreme poor. However, while tions that support both productivity
a large proportion of the world’s extreme enhancements and sustainable agro-
poor are concentrated in sub-Saharan ecosystems do exist. Examples are context-
 36 specific and can include crop rotation to of a lifetime is also key to ensure a healthy
enhance soil health, permanent soil and balanced diet and can be influenced
protection by cover crops or residues, no- by the diversity of foods grown. However,
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER

till agriculture, increased nutrient use while improving agricultural production is

efficiency, low- or high-tech precision agri essential for nutrition outcome, there are
cultural methods, integrated soil many complementary pathways including
fertility and integrated land and water nutrition education, enhanced childcare
management approaches (Rosegrant practices, and empowerment of women in
et al., 2014). Trade-offs can also occur the household that are important to achieve
between targets for agricultural production nutritional outcomes (Ruel et al., 2013).
and nutrition, because increase in the
agricultural production and affordability 2  +  4
of low-nutrient and energy-rich foods Chronic undernutrition, such as stunting,
can contribute to macro and micronutrient reduces intellectual capacity with possibly
deficiencies (Johnston et al., 2014). In lifelong, irreversible consequences and
addition, trade-offs may arise if rural might also affect subsequent generations
infrastructure development does not pay (Victora et al., 2008). Undernutrition thus
attention to the needs of smallholder food acts as a drag on education: compounding
producers as well as biodiversity pro- the negative effects of many other char-
tection. Lastly, international trade patterns acteristics of poverty, it is associated with
may enhance or constrain the economic delayed school enrolment, impaired
situation of small-scale food producers. concentration, more schooling lost to ill-
ness, and drop-out before completion.
2  +  3 Just as health outcomes and nutritional
Malnutrition remains one of the main con- status are inextricably linked, the ability
tributors to the global burden of disease. to learn and the nutrition of a child are
Globally, 45% of child deaths under the age mutually supportive. Moreover, a mother’s
of five are linked to malnutrition – prom- educational level is an important deter-
inently in sub-Saharan Africa (who, 2016). minant of the nutritional status of her chil-
In other words, being malnourished in any dren. Micronutrient deficiencies also
form carries significant risks to health and affect learning ability. Almost 2 billion
well-being. Agriculture influences mental, people worldwide are believed to be lacking
emotional and physical health directly in dietary iodine, including around
through its ability to provide a sufficient 240 million children, and this is correlated
quantity of nutritious foods for direct with up to a 15-point reduction in iq
household consumption or in the market- levels (who, 2013; Webb, 2014). Tackling
place. Quality food and nutrition status is a undernutrition can reinforce educa-
fundamental and crucial driver for health tional efforts because children can concen-
and well-being. However, unsustainable trate and perform better in school with
agricultural practices can constrain or even potentially lifelong positive impacts
counteract healthy lives as a result of soil on earning capacity and well-being. Equal
degradation and water pollution due to access to education for sustainable
excessive use of chemicals (fertilisers, pes- development and sustainable lifestyles
ticides) and poor crop and livestock man- interacts positively with food and nutrition
agement practices; health risks associated security and also more sustainable agri-
with air pollution (e.g. sugar cane burning, culture. Such education can play a key role
or swamp drainage and clearing for agri- in helping people move towards more
culture), zoonotic diseases and poor food sustainable farming methods, and for under
safety practices. Adequate consumption of standing nutrition information. Similarly,
a range of micronutrients over the course in countries with high obesity rates,
 37 nutrition education can reduce the risk sdg2 is also enabling gender equality and
of non-communicable diseases such women’s empowerment.
as heart disease, stroke, diabetes and
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER

cancer. Not addressing food security and 2  +  6

nutrition and associated agricultural Progress in working towards ‘zero
production practices also affects education hunger’ is highly dependent on progress
outcomes negatively when children are in ensuring availability and sustain-
kept out of school because they need to able management of water and sanitation.
work on farms for subsistence production Agriculture is by far the main water
or elsewhere to help generate income user. Irrigated agriculture accounts for
to purchase food. Worldwide, 60% of all 70% of water withdrawals and a higher
child labourers in the 5–17 year age group share of water consumption. The inter-
are engaged in agriculture (including actions between sdg2 and sdg6 are
farming, fishing, aquaculture, forestry, and undisputable with some targets enabling
livestock), amounting to over 98 million the achievement of others, while others
girls and boys (ilo, 2016). are constraining and yet others are in
conflict. Two of the most obvious ways
2  +  5 to lift agricultural productivity are to
Gender inequalities are the most pervasive expand access to irrigation and to increase
of all inequalities, and interactions the use of synthetic fertilisers and
between this goal and the other sdgs are pesticides. But unless carefully planned
strong. Ending hunger and improving and managed, both activities have
nutrition is crucial for women due to the potential to undermine the availabil-
their key roles in food production, food ity, sustainability and quality of water
preparation, and child care, but also for agriculture and for other water users.
because of their special vulnerabilities Similarly, livestock waste can constrain
related to reproductive health. the protection of water-based ecosystems.
Furthermore, undernourished girls Ensuring sustainability of agricultural
and women are often least able to take production systems can help address this
advantage of development resources constraint. Currently about 663 million
(be it microcredit, schooling or paid jobs) people still lack access to safe water and
because of lower work capacity due 2.4 billion do not have access to adequate
to undernutrition, sickness and inability sanitation (unicef /who, 2015). Evidence
to travel or join meetings that could suggests a direct link between unsafe
be to their benefit. They are therefore drinking water and adverse nutrition
less able to contribute to the goals of outcomes through various infectious water-
equality and empowerment. Empowering borne and water-related diseases, such
women in agriculture through increasing as malaria, diarrheal disease, and nematode
their decision-making over agricultural infections as well as a more recently studied
production and incomes has been shown phenomenon called environmental
to improve both family health and enteric dysfunction, an acquired disorder
nutrition outcomes. According to the fao, of the small intestine (Dangour et al., 
if women farmers had the same access 2013). Finally, demand for biofuels is pro-
to agricultural inputs, education and mar- jected to increase dramatically in the
kets as men the number of hungry medium-term under different climate miti-
people could be reduced by 100–150 gation strategies; competition for
million in the 34 countries studied (fao, water (and land) with sdg2 targets and sdg6
2011). Thus, through providing greater targets is likely to increase as a result.
access to resources and productive assets
for sustainable agriculture to women,
 38 2  +  7 cut off from most alternative employment
Sustainable agriculture as well as food opportunities, agriculture is often the
security and nutrition are highly only viable source of both employment
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER

dependent on energy security (affordable, and food and nutrition security. When
easily accessible, and reliable energy rural economies develop, productivity
supplies), because energy is often used growth in agriculture has shown to
to increase food production (agricultural be a key aid to overall economic growth
chemicals, machinery, irrigation, through releasing surplus labour to
post-harvest processing, storage and non-agricultural sectors, thereby spurring
transportation, etc.). Remote agricultural growth in these sectors and in the
areas without access to fertilisers and overall economy. Advances in decoupling
pesticides or electricity connections (or economic growth from environmental
solar pumps) face greater challenges degradation may be constrained by a
in increasing agricultural productivity. focus limited to doubling agricultural
Conversely, agricultural production productivity. Moreover, the agriculture
can play an important role in achieving sector is known to have an important
affordable, reliable, sustainable and buffer function during economic crises,
modern energy for all through the produc- with people losing their jobs in cities
tion of biofuels and biogas. Global during financial turmoil switching to
energy demand is expected to increase temporary employment in the agriculture
by 48% between 2012 and 2040 – with sector. This was well documented
most of the increase among the developing during the Asian financial and economic
non-oecd nations (eia, 2016). The crisis of 1989/1990 (e.g. Rosegrant and
interactions between these trends and Hazell, 2000). Another important linkage
sdg2 depend on (climate) policy and relates to employment. Agricultural
fossil energy prices, but could mean that production strategies and systems can
more crops are diverted for use as constrain the achievement of decent
biofuels. Furthermore, methane production employment as 60% of all child labourers
from agricultural wastes (animal or in the 5–17 year age group are engaged
plant-based) can contribute to meeting in agriculture (ilo, 2010). Moreover, the
the renewable energy targets set for 2030, agriculture sector in some countries
as can dedicated bioenergy resources thrives on temporary migrant workers,
(agroforestry or biofuels crops). often with limited legal and other
protection. Finally, some economic growth
2  +  8 strategies can constrain advancement
Agriculture provides a livelihood for many of the agriculture sector, for example,
of the most poor and vulnerable people if countries choose import-substitution
and supports pro-poor economic develop- industrialisation policies to move agrarian
ment. By increasing sustainable agri- into industrialised economies, by taxing
cultural productivity and incomes of the agricultural surplus and moving
smallholder women and men, sdg2 the resources to the industrial sector
can participate in sustainable economic (Rosegrant and Hazell, 2000).
growth. Key areas for women’s parti-
cipation in economic growth through 2  +  9
agriculture include ensuring their access With changing demographic conditions
to financial services knowledge and and changing patterns of food demand,
markets, strengthening agriculture capac- there is a growing need for the design and
ity to climate adaption, and increasing development of more efficient integra-
investment in rural infrastructure. ted systems of food production, processing,
Especially in remote rural areas that are preservation and distribution as well as
 39 reliable transportation and logistics the reduction of inequality. Of note,
infrastructure with roads facilitating access trade liberalisation, an implementation
to markets (Knox et al., 2013). Infras mechanism suggested under sdg2, can
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER

tructure including affordable and water- adversely affect achieving the equality
use efficient irrigation, transportation, targets under sdg10, if small-scale
communication (e.g. internet access) and farmers are not linked to value chains
market (e.g. cold chain) facilities, could and markets and other non-competitive
make a major contribution to achieving farming enterprises face import prices
sdg2. Moreover, with growing climate below local and national production costs.
variability and extremes, resilient Trade liberalisation can also constrain
transportation infrastructure, allowing a country’s capacity to provide some
food transport from surplus to climate forms of subsidies to domestic farmers or
stressed areas, will become increasingly consumers to address internal inequalities.
important. Access to physical infras- However, trade liberalisation can also
tructure is in this sense an important support achieving sdg2 through making
factor for the interaction between food more affordable to poor farmers,
productivity and income. From an sdg2 most of whom are net buyers of food, and
perspective, developing and upgrading to consumers.
rural infrastructure, integrating small-
scale enterprises into value chains, and 2  + 11
enhancing investment in agricultural Progress in food security and nutrition,
research are aligned with sdg9; however, increased agricultural productivity
if such infrastructure, research and and more sustainable food production
financial services favours some producers systems will reinforce the inclusive-
over others, then achieving targets under ness and sustainability of cities. Specifi-
sdg 9 might constrain achievement of cally, increased agricultural produc-
some sdg 2 targets and/or reduce equity in tivity – freeing up agricultural land for
access to such infrastructure (un, 2016). urban growth – can support progress
For instance, more resilient infrastructure, on expanding green spaces and other
such as larger dams supporting irrigation city expansion needs. However, cities
infrastructure, or wider, asphalted roads are generally built on prime agricultural
may address the needs of agri-exporters land with stable water resources and
while ignoring those of smallholders and uncontrolled expansion on these areas
the food insecure. Such infrastructure might constrain achieving sdg 2, by
may also accelerate biodiversity loss, over- removing further land resources and by
extract of water resources, and ignite other consuming and polluting water resources.
unsustainable practices. Urban agriculture can address this
potential trade-off to some extent, through
2  + 10 growing food on soil-less agriculture or
Hunger and food security are closely hydroponics, vertical farming, aeroponics,
related to poverty, and thus to inequality. nutrient-film-techniques, aquaponics,
Reduction or elimination of inequality in and through recycling of nutrients in
the policy and legal arenas should en- wastewater. Urban agriculture thus can
hance food and nutrition security as well contribute to social welfare and sustain-
as sustainable agricultural production. able development of cities and can
Empowering small-scale food producers, support development of green spaces.
both women and men (who represent It can also contribute to waste avoidance
an important segment of the world’s and recycling of organic waste in cities
extremely poor) and ensuring their equal (Goldstein et al., 2016). Advancing rural-
access to resources such as land, facilitates urban linkages will support sustainable
 40 agricultural productivity and income the implementation mode proposed for
generation – peri-urban environments rationalising inefficient fossil-fuel subsidies
often house high-value vegetable and is implemented in agriculture and the
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER

livestock production systems whose food value chain without putting alterna-
sustainable management is key to urban tives in place. The direct elimination
food and nutrition security. Of note, of such subsidies could lead to increased
urban dwellers tend to consume more food prices which, in turn, could constrain
processed foods and, at least in low-income achieving ‘zero hunger’ by making food
developing countries, tend to house more less affordable to the poor.
obese people and in some places (e.g.
cities in Latin America and elsewhere) also 2  + 13
more undernourished people than rural Rising temperatures, changing precipi-
areas. Addressing the triple burden of tation patterns, and the intensity and
malnutrition (obesity, undernutrition and frequency of extreme weather events
micronutrient deficiencies) is therefore an adversely affect agricultural production
important linkage between sdg2 and sdg11 systems, particularly those in developing
that deserves further attention. countries, which in turn constrains
the achievement of ‘zero hunger’ and
2  + 12 nutritional objectives under sdg2.
Most aspects of sdg12 support progress It is important that investments in agri-
in sdg 2 and vice versa. For example, the culture increase the sector’s resilience
10-year Framework of Programmes on and adaptive capacity to climate change;
Sustainable Consumption and Production for example, by mobilising large funds
Patterns is housed at unep (and not at for climate mitigation and adaptation.
un fao) and aims at raising awareness, How climate adaptation and mitigation
building capacity, developing information options are implemented in the agri-
as well as synergies and cooperation culture sector under the climate change
toward more sustainable food systems, frameworks (e.g. through biofuel
which directly strengthen all areas of development, short-term coping mech-
sdg 2. Similarly, the subsequent efficiency, anisms or long-term adaptation / 
waste and loss reduction targets and the mitigation strategies) will be decisive
aim to manage chemicals more judiciously for achieving sdg2. At the same time,
directly support sdg2 in terms of increased unsustainable agriculture, deforestation
productivity and more sustainable natural and other types of land use account
resource use. While sdg2 focuses more for about 24% of total anthropogenic
on the production end and nutritional greenhouse gas (ghg) emissions (ipcc,
outcomes, sdg 12 focuses on the processing, 2014). Achieving sdg13 will thus require
distribution and procurement side of the reduction of ghg emissions in
the food system, which complements and agriculture and related activities and
completes the food system perspective. depending on which actions are taken,
However, if developing countries, where ending hunger, doubling agricultural
most food is produced, distributed and productivity and ensuring more
consumed, would use the sdg12 focus on sustainable food production systems
industrialised countries as a reason to may be achieved faster or slower, or not
not make progress on sdg12 themselves at all. A range of actions could be
or would await funding and support impactful in this area, such as a mora-
from industrialised countries before embark- torium on further expansion of
ing on progress, then some aspects of agricultural areas into tropical forests
sdg2 (and sdg12) might not be achieved. or peatlands, a tax on highly emitting
An additional constraint could develop if livestock production systems, increased
 41 R&D toward new technologies that 2  + 15
increase fertiliser nutrient use efficiency The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
levels of plants, the accelerated adoption identified agriculture as the major cause
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER

of no-till agriculture, and additional of land use change, land degradation

support to agroforestry systems. By and desertification (mea, 2005). As such,
integrating action on sustainability with sdg 15 could constrain the aim of zero
action on productivity improvement hunger, improved nutrition and increased
(smart agriculture) and soil organic matter agricultural productivity, at least in the
sequestration, agriculture could be seen short term. A key trade-off is extensification,
as part of the solution not only to mitigate namely a focus on low-input agriculture
agricultural ghg emissions but also to (e.g. some organic agricultural systems), to
strengthen adaptation strategies. preserve existing agro-ecosystems versus
intensification where inputs per unit of land
2  + 14 are substantially increased with better
More than 3 billion people depend on seed and other technologies and manage-
marine and coastal resources for their ment practices. While intensification
livelihoods (United Nations, 2015b). More reduces the need to expand agricultural
sustainable ocean fisheries and better areas, in many cases water consumption
access for small-scale fishers and residents and pollutant runoff are increased. In
of small-island states to these resources some cases, increased income from inten-
will support food security and nutrition sified agriculture might accelerate
in the long term. More research and deforestation, but globally, the long-term
solutions for ocean acidification would focus on intensification in much of
also support food security and nutrition. the world has reduced deforestation rates
However, strong marine protection dramatically. On the other hand, sdg 15
limiting fisheries development in the short largely supports sustainable agricultural
term, can adversely affect the hunger production and genetic diversity. For
and nutrition targets of sdg 2 and can sdg 2 and sdg 15 to become mutually rein-
constrain livelihoods and food security forcing, sustainable ecological processes
of poor populations in coastal areas. need to be supported, without adverse
Sustainable agricultural practices can impacts on land, water and biodiversity
support the prevention of marine pollution (e.g. pollinators) and without further
from land-based activities, including deforestation and associated biodiversity
nutrient pollution, and can facilitate the losses and climate change impacts.
conservation and sustainable development The conservation of forests, wetlands,
of the oceans. However, poorly managed mountains and drylands can constrain
agricultural processes and activities (such increases in both agricultural production
as nutrient runoff and diffuse pollution) area and crop yield as well as livestock
may have adverse impacts on water supply number and yield, unless this increased
and the oceans. A well-known example production is achieved using more
of largely agricultural-driven pollution sustainable management practices. Other
is the hypoxia in the Gulf of Mexico linkages between sdg 2 and sdg 15 concern
(Hufnagl-Eichiner et al., 2011). Similarly, the conservation of genetic diversity
clearing coastal habitats such as mangrove of seeds, plants and animals; an area with
forests that protect coastlines and sustain shared targets.
coastal habitat for intensive aquaculture
production, could help end hunger and 2  + 16
improve nutrition over the short term, Achieving sdg 2 is highly dependent on
but could also exacerbate food security political stability, peace, just and inclusive
concerns over the long term. societies, and effective accountable
 42 and inclusive institutions. Hunger and 2  + 17
food insecurity are sources of political sdg 17 lists the main enablers for imple-
instability, conflict and war – to the point menting the entire sdg framework,
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER

that hunger is, at times, deliberately with structures around five sub-categories:
used in conflicts as a weapon to starve finance, technology, capacity-building,
opponents into submission (seizing or trade, and systemic issues (including
destroying food stocks, livestock, cutting policy and institutional coherence, multi-
off marketed supplies of food, targeting stakeholder partnerships, data, moni-
farmers, land-mining, etc.). And, if toring and accountability). These are all
food insecurity is not already a factor linked with sdg2. For instance, finance
contributing to war and civil strife, enhancement can reinforce investment
then hunger and undernutrition are often in rural infrastructure for agriculture.
the result of such activities, as farmers Enhancing technology and capacity
need to leave their land to flee insecurity, building can also lead to the strengthening
abuse and destruction and/or agricultural of agriculture’s capacity for adaptation
inputs or outputs cannot be moved to to climate change, extreme weather,
where they are needed, and support drought, flooding and other disasters.
through food aid is often restricted or not Enhancing multi-stakeholder partnerships,
available. On the other hand, effective, data, monitoring and accountability,
transparent and accountable institutions and especially policy and institutional
are needed at all levels of government coherence, should also positively impact
to support sustainable agriculture, food sdg2. Some trade-offs can emerge
and nutrition security and the empow- insofar as trade liberalisation may not
erment of certain marginal groups such fit with some countries’ policy spaces,
as women, indigenous peoples, family if they seek to establish and implement
farmers, pastoralists and fishers. Justice policies for poverty eradication and
for all and non-discriminatory laws lead sustainable development. Furthermore,
directly or indirectly to securing fair non-discriminatory international trade
access to land, other productive resources regulation may limit the capacity for some
and inputs, knowledge, financial services, countries, mostly those in development,
markets and opportunities. Armed to protect their national agriculture
conflict and broader forms of violence production and small-scale food producers.
undoubtedly undermine the achievement
of food security, improved nutrition and
sustainable agricultural systems. Civil
war and conflict are also detrimental to the
preservation of seed and plant banks,
as the impacts on icarda’s (International
Center for Agricultural Research in the
Dry Areas) gene bank in Syria has shown
(Bhattacharya, 2016). Conversely, food
insecurity has the potential to become the
leading cause of conflict in the 21st century
in the absence of national, regional and
global political measures to enhance food
solidarity, particularly in crisis situations.
43
KEY INTERACTIONS AT
TARGET-LEVEL

sdg 2 is an integral part of the 2030 Agenda, Seven goals were selected for detailed
linking to all 16 other sdgs. This section analysis:
analyses some of these interactions, from
the perspective of sdg 2, with a selected SDG 1
set of sdgs in detail at the target-level. SDG 3
sdgs were selected based on the strength SDG 5
of the interactions with sdg 2 and the SDG 6
magnitude and scale of impact in relation SDG 7
to the overall objective of the 2030 Agenda, SDG 13
while ensuring a balanced consideration SDG 15
of the economic, social and environmental
dimensions. Target-level interactions sdgs were selected based on the strength
are judged to fall within one of seven cate- of the interactions with sdg 2, while
gories and are scored accordingly: indi- ensuring a balanced consideration of the
visible (+3), reinforcing (+2), enabling (+1), economic, social and environmental
consistent (0), constraining (-1), counter- dimensions. While there are also obvious
acting (-2), and cancelling (-3). Following linkages between sdg 12 and sdg 2, it
a generic analysis of the selected inter- was considered that these are less insight-
actions, specific examples are provided to ful than those between sdg 2 and the
illustrate how interactions unfold in other sdgs selected for detailed analysis.
different geographical and policy contexts.
Illustrative examples are used to show the
context-dependency of the interactions
and provide a more practical entry point
to characterising sdg 2 interactions among
the ‘integrated and indivisible’ sdgs.
These concern three geographic regions:

West Africa (Senegal)

Amazonia
California (USA)
SDG 2 + SDG 1

TARGETS KEY INTERACTIONS SCORE POLICY OPTIONS

2.1, 2.2     1.1, 1.2 Food and nutrition security are

indivisible from the eradication
and reduction of poverty
+3 Strengthen interaction issues via national, regional
and international governance. Co-design and
co-develop mechanisms to mitigate the negative
interactions and target particular resiliency
2.3     
overall SDG 1
Increasing small-scale food
producer productivity and income
reinforce the fight against poverty
+2 needs by ensuring that the poor and small-scale
food producers’ interests are fully addressed

Advance agricultural research and development

2.3     1.4 Equal access to land and other
productive resources is directly
aligned with securing equal rights
+2 with a focus on pro-poor technology development;
with complementary investments in safe drinking
water, social protection systems, and rural roads
to economic resources
Increase small-scale food producer capacities
2.3     1.5 Increasing agricultural productivity
without sustainability (2.4) will
increase vulnerability to climate-
-1/ and empowerment (knowledge, economic
resources, basic services, rights); in particular
put in place the economic mechanisms that
related extreme events and other
shocks – primarily in developing
countries and for poor segments of
-2 increase the wealth of small farmers and reduce
their vulnerability to uncertainties: access to land,
access to productive and non-productive assets
societies. Thus, 2.3 and 2.4 need to
be achieved in tandem Enhance diets and improve nutritional outcomes
of a population to break the intergenerational

0/
2.4     1.5 Enhancing adaptive capacity cycle of poverty and at the same time generate
in agriculture may enhance accelerated shared economic growth.
the resilience of the poor as long Such interactions could be reinforced via social
as they are fully included in
adaptation strategies +1 programmes in nutrition education

Build resilience by setting up pro-poor policy

-1
frameworks and safeguards for poor and
2.b     1.b Removal of trade restrictions could
vulnerable small-scale food producers within
constrain the creation of pro-poor
a competitive market environment
policy frameworks by limiting the
range of policy actions, at least in
Ensure inclusive participation in trade negotiations
the short term
and in addressing trade related issues. Consider
the situation of the poorest countries in the agricul-
ture sector and design trade policy accordingly.
Address factors leading to market failure such as
limited market access. Set up complementary
policies to trade reform – such as strengthening
social protection systems for those losing out from
trade and develop capacities to explore beneficial
changes

Consider the role of diversification in strategies

to improve production, productivity, employment,
income nutrition and sustainability, as well as
to reduce risks associated with market volatility,
climate change and natural disasters
 45 KEY POINTS many beneficial impacts on individuals,
families, communities and countries
sdg 2 enables and can reinforce
(ifpri, 2015).
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER

sdg 1 through enhanced food and Although recent data show the rural/
nutrition security – which are urban gap in poverty to be declining,
essential to reduce poverty and with the poor urbanising faster than the
population as a whole (Chen and Raval-
eradicate extreme poverty lion, 2007), rural people still represent a
large proportion of the world’s extreme
Supporting small-scale food poor (i.e. those living on less than us$ 1.90
producers can lead to substantial per day). With wide regional variation,
80% of the world’s poor live in rural areas,
poverty reduction as rural people
64% work in agriculture, 44% are 14 years
constitute the largest segment of the old or younger, and 39% have no formal
world’s ultra-poor education (World Bank, 2016).
It is usually assumed that growth in
agriculture is at least twice more effective
A possible constraint is the potential
in reducing poverty than change in any
impact of trade liberalisation, other sector (World Bank, 2007). In this
because small-scale farmers, at sense, a focus on small-scale food producers
least in the short term, might be and aiming at doubling their agricultural
productivity and incomes (through equal
adversely affected by import surges access to land and other productive
and highly competitive foreign resources and inputs) (2.3), and on resilient
products or food dumping practices agriculture and adaptation practices (2.4)
should provide significant means to
achieve sdg  1. Such a focus can even rein-
If targets on agricultural force targets on access to equal rights
productivity and on ensuring to economic resources and basic services
(including control over land) (1.4) and
sustainable food production are not
on building resilience of the poor and those
implemented in tandem, the poor in vulnerable situations (1.5). Women are
and those in vulnerable situations identified in both sdg1 and sdg 2 as a target
group to support and empower.
are likely to be most affected
However, interactions between the
means of implementing sdg 2 and sdg 1,
such as removal of trade restrictions in
KEY INTERACTIONS world agricultural markets (2.b) versus the
There are many pathways through which creation of pro-poor policy frameworks
increases in agricultural productivity (1.b) can be constraining. There is a surpris-
can reduce poverty. Food and nutrition ing number of knowledge gaps about
security (2.1, 2.2) are inextricably linked to trade liberalisation and poverty, with
reducing and eradicating poverty (1.1, 1.2). disputed evidence on ‘automatic’ long-term
Without proper nutrition, humans cannot gains, which remain elusive even though
reach their full potential. Enhancing often asserted (Chabe-Ferret et al., 2007).
diets and improving nutritional outcomes In terms of developing countries, some
of a population is important to break research suggests that the consequences
the intergenerational cycle of poverty and of agricultural trade liberalisation are
at the same time generate accelerated very uneven. In middle-income developing
shared economic growth. Effects will have countries, liberalisation can be a source of
 46 substantial growth, particularly in a high- safety nets are put in place and non-compet-
performing export sector. However, itive farmers are successfully integrated
in poorer countries such as Least Developing into other employment opportunities.
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER

Countries (ldcs), liberalisation can have

overall negative consequences, owing to KEY UNCERTAINTIES
terms-of-trade effects and supply-side The main uncertainty is that pursuing sdg1
constraints (Bureau et al., 2006). Negative and sdg2 targets does not always reduce
consequences will necessitate further poverty and improve food and nutrition
special and differential measures by coun- security everywhere and for everyone.
tries in trade regulations. Without these, As such, there is no guarantee that pro-poor
target 2.b can constrain the achievement agricultural development policies reduce
of doubling incomes of small-scale food poverty everywhere or that poverty-
producers (2.3) by setting-up a competitive focused policies improve food security
market environment, which might not everywhere. To ensure that pro-poor
be pro-poor unless safeguards, for example policies are always conducive to enhanced
in the form of social safety nets, are food and nutrition security and sustainable
implemented for poor and vulnerable agriculture requires a complex policy
farmers. framework that differs by geography and
Furthermore, targets 2.3 and 2.4 need status of development. There is no one-size
to be achieved in tandem as one can fits all, which is why poverty reduction
counteract the other, and negatively affect policies do not necessarily make everyone
the poor and those in vulnerable situa- food secure.
tions. Unsustainable agriculture, deforesta-
tion and other land use changes, currently KEY DIMENSIONS
responsible for 24% of global ghg emis- Time: The contribution of sdg 2 to sdg 1 has
sions (ipcc, 2014), can counteract target 1.5 different time dimensions depending on
by increasing the exposure of vulnerable the policy instrument or investment made.
populations to climate-related extreme For instance, conventional agriculture
events and other economic, social and based on synthetic chemical inputs could
environmental shocks and disasters – help alleviate hunger and thus help
primarily in developing countries and poor achieve sdg 1 in a shorter time than a focus
segments of societies. In addition, land- on more sustainable agriculture might;
use change, conventional agricultural prac- however, intense agriculture without taking
tices and pesticide use can impact sustainability into account can reduce
negatively on the health and diversity of the long-term ability to produce food for
pollinators and the provision of polli- future generations.
nation. Many of the world’s most important
cash crops are pollinator-dependent – Geography: There is a gradual shift from
crops such as coffee and cocoa in develop- rural to urban for the majority of the
ing countries, or almonds in developed poor and food insecure populations, a tran-
countries, represent an important source of sition that has already happened in Latin
income. Pollinator loss will constrain America and that will soon be complete in
economic development, employment and parts of Asia and especially in Africa.
income for millions of people and limit Nevertheless, remote rural areas are still
capacity to reach sdg1 (ipbes, 2016). Finally, likely to contain some of the poorest
the objective of doubled agricultural pro- and most food insecure people for decades
ductivity (2.3) could, if successfully achieved, to come.
lead to substantial declines in producer
prices, rendering farming non-profitable, Governance: Trade-offs between sdg 2 and
and leave many farmers worse off unless sdg 1 can be mitigated by national,
 47 regional and international governance.
Compensation mechanisms can be
designed, if needed, to ensure that the
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER

poor and small-scale food producers’

interests are taken into account in the
design of pro-poor policy frameworks.
Furthermore, mechanisms such as
targeted cash and food transfer systems
for the rural and urban poor, market-
based mechanisms to increase demand
for smallholder production through
public procurement (e.g. the National
School Feeding Programme, and Food
Purchase Programme in Brazil) or water
and land rights for rural dwellers, can play
important roles in ensuring convergence
and synergies between the two goals.

Technology: Advances in agricultural

research and development (with a focus
on gender-responsive, pro-poor technology
development), with complementary
investments in safe drinking water, social
protection systems, and rural roads,
would all support poverty alleviation
while also enhancing food and nutrition
security. Supporting institutions, such as
secure land and water rights, and sound
governance mechanisms that ensure
access by the poor to natural resources
to grow and access food, are also crucial.
Technology development, innovative
agricultural practices, and the application
of traditional practices and ancestral
knowledge in agriculture can mitigate
potential constraints between targets
2.3 and 2.4 and thus help reach targets
under sdg1. For instance, Climate Smart
Agriculture could support sustainable
increases in agricultural productivity,
farmers’ incomes, and can help build
resilience to climate change which would
benefit the poorest and most vulnerable.

Directionality: The interactions are close to

being unidirectional, as long as poverty
reduction does not reduce access to food
and nutrition and does not adversely
affect sustainable agricultural production
systems.
 48
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER
SDG 2 + SDG 3

TARGETS KEY INTERACTIONS SCORE POLICY OPTIONS

2.1, 2.2     3.1, 3.2 Ensuring food and nutrition

security directly creates
conditions that lead to the
+1/ Develop strong, open and inde-
pendent institutions that pro-
mote nutritive and healthy food to
reduction of maternal mortality
and preventable deaths of
newborns
+2 reinforce the synergies between
the two goals; implement nutrition-
focused policies; support nutrition
security through complementary
2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4  
  3.3
Food and nutrition security and
stable agricultural employment
help reduce communicable
+1/ pathways such as social and
human capital programme devel
opment, including on nutrition
diseases owing to better nutrition
and health status and because
better rural incomes help prevent
+2 education, enhanced childcare
practices, and empowerment of
women in the household
the pursuit of unsafe practices
leading to communicable diseases Promote sustainable agriculture
including farming diversification
2.3  
3.4
  3.9, 3.1, 3.2, Increasing agricultural produc-
tivity via conventional agriculture
can increase soil and water
-1/ techniques that reduce use of
hazardous chemical inputs

pollution constraining the

reduction of deaths and illness
caused by hazardous chemicals.
-2 Support better rural incomes,
stable agricultural employment,
nutrition and health status, and
Such chemicals can adversely help prevent the pursuit of unsafe
affect human health, particularly practices leading to communicable
of newborns, but can also affect diseases
perinatal death and cancer
outcomes in the overall population Further support understanding
and raise awareness among
2.3     3.4 Doubling agriculture productivity
by mainly focusing on low-
nutrient and energy-rich foods
-1 governments, industry, and
consumers, that agriculture,
food, nutrition, health, culture,
(calories) will constrain the fight the environment, and the
against non-communicable achievement of SDGs are strongly
diseases. This interaction is also interdependent
counterbalanced by targets on
nutrition Set up appropriate measures to
counteract the increased health
2.3     3.3 Extensification of agriculture
may increase deforestation.
Often accompanied by irrigation,
-2 risks from irrigation services
(e.g. malaria); or other agriculture-
related health risks, such as those
intensification can, in some associated with pesticides and
regions, increase the incidence fertilisers
of waterborne diseases if no
hazard mitigation measures are Set up incentives and regulations
taken, leading to an increase in favour of sustainable agriculture
in communicable diseases such and against uncontrolled defor-
as malaria, counteracting its estation to limit malaria increase
prevention and other diseases
 49 KEY POINTS nutrition, both undernutrition and obesity.
Although agricultural productivity
Providing those in vulnerable
improves food availability, better nutrition
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER

situations with sufficient, safe for children does not follow automatically
and nutritious food contributes to (Masset et al., 2011). Creating an enabling
reduced maternal mortality and environment for nutrition improvements
requires more holistic approaches, in-
preventable deaths of newborns cluding investment in social and human
and children under 5 years of age. capital programme development, nutri-
Food and nutrition security and tion education, enhanced childcare
practices, and empowerment of women
stable agricultural employment
in the household (Ruel et al., 2013).
can also help reduce epidemics of Food and nutrition security and stable
communicable diseases such as aids, agricultural employment strongly enable
malaria, and tuberculosis, among the reduction of epidemics such as
hiv (3.3) due to better nutrition and health
others status and better rural incomes helping
prevent the pursuit of unsafe practices
Depending on the agricultural leading to communicable diseases. For
practices used, doubling agricultural instance, a recent study in Africa showed
how local rainfall shocks can be a large
productivity may constrain the
source of income variation for rural
elimination of death and illness households and can increase infection
from water and soil pollution rates in hiv-endemic rural areas (Burke et
al., 2015). According to this study, income
and the ending epidemics of
shocks explain up to 20% of variation in
communicable diseases such as hiv prevalence across African countries,
malaria suggesting existing approaches to hiv
prevention could be bolstered by helping
households manage income risk better.
If nutrition security is not fully
There are negative interactions
embraced, a focus on low- between reducing premature mortality
nutrient and energy-rich foods from non-communicable diseases (3.4)
may counteract the reduction and diets dominated by low-cost, highly
processed food, which continue to
of premature mortality from non- increase worldwide. Over the past 50
communicable diseases years, consumption of sugar has tripled
worldwide. Like tobacco and alcohol,
KEY INTERACTIONS ‘added sugar’ has been identified in many
Good health is not possible without good studies as a driver for abuse that could
nutrition – the two are indivisible. lead to diseases such as liver toxicity and
Ending hunger, improving nutrition and other chronic diseases (Lustig et al., 2012).
achieving food security through sustain- Negative interactions are mitigated by tar-
able agriculture reinforces the reduction gets aimed at fighting malnutrition (2.1, 2.2).
of maternal mortality (3.1) and creates Depending on the agriculture practices
positive conditions for ending the used to double productivity, potential
preventable deaths of newborns and constraints can occur for reducing the
children under 5 years of age (3.2). In this number of deaths and illnesses from
sense, a major item of target 2.2 is to hazardous chemicals and air, water and
address the fundamental problem of mal- soil pollution (3.9). For example, forest
 50 fires and soil cultivation in Amazonia are obesity. Prevention, including a healthy
responsible for a significant erosion of and well-balanced diet, is pivotal to
land surfaces. Erosion of oxisols was identi- avoiding disease, a worsening of health-
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER

fied as one of the main mercury enrich- related conditions and hospitalisation.
ment processes in floodplains. Deforestation While emphasising productivity, the need
thus increases soil mercury mobilisation for diversification of food production
by runoff, which may explain the increase (not mentioned in target 2.3) may provide
in mercury burden in Amazonian aquatic broader options for healthy diets.
ecosystems in newly colonised watersheds Potential trade-offs could arise between
(Roulet and Maury-Brachet, 2001). the target to double agricultural produc-
Chemicals used in pesticides and fer- tivity (2.3), which may lead to practices
tilisers can adversely affect human health, and outcomes such as deforestation or
particularly for newborns, but can also irrigation that, in turn, lead to an increase
affect perinatal death and cancer outcomes in communicable diseases such as malaria
in the overall population – thus constrain- (3.3). Changes in biodiversity due to
ing the achievement of targets concerning deforestation have been reported to have
maternal mortality (3.1), mortality of adverse effects on the risk of malaria
newborns and children under the age of in the Brazilian and Peruvian regions
five years (3.2) and mortality from non- (Whitmee et al., 2015; Li et al., 2016).
communicable diseases (3.4) (Daniels Mosquitoes that transmit malaria can
et al., 1997; Vinson et al., 2011; Brainerd benefit from deforestation due to the
et al., 2014). In addition, conventional creation of new breeding sites, a reduction
agricultural practices leading to in biodiversity (including impacts on
pollinator loss may constrain production predators/prey relations), and the creation
of pollinated crops such as vegetables, of favourable microclimates for
fruits, nuts, seeds, and oils. Many of these mosquitoes to survive and reproduce
pollinator-dependent food products (e.g. by increasing humidity). Past studies
are important dietary sources of vitamins, have shown that increased numbers
micronutrients and minerals, without of vectors following irrigation can lead to
which the risks of malnutrition could increased malaria in areas of unstable
increase (ipbes, 2016). transmission, where people have little or
Doubling agricultural productivity (2.3) no immunity to malaria parasites, such
could constrain the reduction of prema- as in the African highlands and desert
ture mortality from non-communicable fringes (Ijumba and Lindsay, 2001). For
diseases (3.4) if this increase focuses on low- instance, in northern Ethiopia, the
nutrient and energy-rich foods, such as construction of micro-dams and irrigation
cereals, tubers, and fats. These agricultural systems to minimise dependence on
products are contributing to the triple rainfed agriculture and improve food
burden of undernutrition, micronutrient production systems led to an increase in
deficiency, and obesity with its associated the incidence of malaria among chil-
health issues, such as stunting, anaemia, dren under 10 years of age living near
and diabetes (Tappy et al., 2010). The poor dams (Ghebreyesus et al., 1999). Similarly,
are adversely affected in this respect failures in agriculture and vulnerability
because energy-rich, low-nutrient foods of the poorest to agricultural shocks
are becoming more affordable to them can increase hiv aids infection rates,
worldwide (Bernard, 2015). Target 2.1 with further increases driven by poor
aims to limit this negative interaction nutritional status.
by pointing to the need for safe and nutri-
tious food and target 2.2 focuses on
eliminating both under-nutrition and
 51 KEY UNCERTAINTIES Directionality: Mostly unidirectional – sdg2
How consumer behaviour and preferences affects sdg 3, but poor health status can
might change over time is unclear, espe- also reduce the absorption of food; here
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER

cially regarding the adoption of healthier health-based solutions can help improving
consumption patterns, and might affect sdg2 outcomes.
or be affected by trends and methods for
agricultural intensification and land use.

KEY DIMENSIONS
Time: Changes toward more sustainable
and nutrition-sensitive agriculture to
support healthy lives can be implemented
in a relatively short period – focusing
on agricultural products that enhance
nutrition, without adversely affecting
overall food availability. However, changing
dietary patterns to address obesity can
take much longer to achieve; similarly
adverse impacts from poor agricultural
practices can be quickly visible but might
be difficult to address.

Geography: Remote rural areas contain

some of the poorest and most food
and health insecure people (75%).
Although all regions are affected by non-
communicable diseases, chronic disease
disproportionately affects low- and middle-
income countries where nearly three
quarters of deaths occur (28 million) (who,
2014). Once considered a high-income
country problem, overweight and obesity
are now an increasing issue in low- and
middle-income countries, especially in
urban settings.

Governance: Strong and open institutions

in favour of promoting nutritious and
healthy food can play a significant role in
reinforcing the synergies between sdg2
and sdg3. Incentives and regulations in
favour of sustainable agriculture and
against uncontrolled deforestation would
mitigate some of the trade-offs.

Technology: Innovation in agricultural

practices, or in highly nutritive (new) food
products (insects, etc.) can also address
some of the trade-offs between sdg2 and
sdg5.
 52
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER
SDG 2 + SDG 5

TARGETS KEY INTERACTIONS SCORE POLICY OPTIONS

2.1, 2.2     
overall SDG 5
Ensuring food and nutrition secu-
rity reinforces women’s
empowerment. In turn, women’s
+2 Support policies that ensure
adequate and sufficient diets for
everyone; as well as policies that
empowerment is enabling nutrition strengthen women’s empowerment
security due partly to their role in agriculture. Promote equal
in food production and preparation access to productive resources,
and their greater inclination to rights and services in agriculture
spend resources they control on can reinforces the synergetic
family nutrition and health interactions between women’s
empowerment and food and
2.3     5.5, 5.a Promoting investment in rural
infrastructure, securing equal
access to productive resources
+2 nutrition security

Further explore and invest in in

(including land), and increasing gender-equitable agricultural
income strengthens women’s innovations. Technologies that
empowerment and gender equality improve access to assets and
resources and save women’s
2.a     5.b Access to technology is an
important lever to enable women’s
empowerment in agriculture
+1 time are particularly important for
women’s empowerment

and overall – the two means of

implementation mutually reinforce
each other
 53 KEY POINTS Smallholder female farmers face specific
barriers to increasing agricultural
sdg 2 interacts with and reinforces
productivity, such as restricted access to
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER

the achievement of sdg 5 in information, technologies, finance,

many ways, ranging from food and voice in farmer-related associations,
and nutrition security for all, compounding restrictions imposed by
unequal access to education in many coun-
and especially for women and tries and regions. Since women’s lack of,
girls, to gender equality in access or limited access to, productive resources
to productive resources, and is among the main reasons why they
are poorer and often less efficient than
to promoting gender-equitable
men as economic agents (Asian Devel-
investment in rural infrastructure opment Bank, 2013), by promoting
investment in rural infrastructure with
equal access to productive resources
sdg 2 facilitates the use of
(including equal access to land, technolo-
technologies to promote women’s gies and financial services), target 2.3 can
empowerment along agricultural help increase women’s full and effective
value chains, for enhanced nutrition participation at all levels of decision-
making (5.5), and can reinforce women’s
outcomes, and in the maintenance equal right to economic resources as
of genetic resources well as access to financial services and
ownership over their land and other forms
of property (5.a). Unequal access to land
KEY INTERACTIONS is a major factor limiting empowerment of
Targets 2.2 and 2.3 include a specific women farmers because land is a pivotal
reference to the need for gender equality resource for meeting subsistence needs,
for achieving the full agricultural and and for accessing other goods and services,
nutrition potential envisioned. Ensuring such as credit. If women farmers had
food security with a special focus on the same access to agricultural inputs,
reducing undernutrition in adolescent education and markets as men the number
girls and women of childbearing age will of hungry people could be reduced by
support them to take full advantage of 100–150 million in the 34 countries studied
development resources. Empowering (fao, 2011).
women is crucial for achieving sdg 2 due By promoting investment in agricul-
to the important role many women tural research and extension services, as
have in food production, food preparation, well as technology development, target 2.a
child care and for overall nutritional enhances the use of enabling technologies
outcome in families, as well as their spe- to promote women’s empowerment (5.b).
cific vulnerabilities related to repro-
ductive health (Pinstrup-Andersen, 2011;
Duflo, 2012). Recognising that women KEY UNCERTAINTIES
are often over-represented among the There is insufficient knowledge about links
rural poor, target 2.3 calls for a doubling between gender equality and several
of the agricultural productivity and aspects of sdg 2. Food systems and gender
incomes of small-scale food producers, equality are highly location-specific and
particularly women. Target 2.3 links therefore require contextualised and
investment in sustainable agriculture integrated research, policies and investments.
with the establishment of pro-poor and
gender sensitive development strategies.
 54 KEY DIMENSIONS
Time: For improvements in sdg 5 to translate
into improvements of sdg 2 may take
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER

generations because social norms related

to gender inequality change slowly.

Geography: Linkages between sdg 5 and

sdg 2 are highly location-specific.

Governance: Strong institutions establishing

gender responsive development strategies
are key to capitalising on synergies between
sdg 2 and sdg 5.

Technology: Gender-responsive agricultural

technologies and innovations have a large
potential to bridge the gender gap in
agricultural productivity, food security and
nutrition, and can reinforce positive
synergies between sdg 2 and sdg 5. Tech-
nologies that improve access to assets and
resources and save women’s time are
particularly important for women’s empow-
erment in agriculture.

Directionality: The tendency is a bidirec-

tional positive interaction between sdg 2
and sdg 5.
 55
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER SDG 2 + SDG 6

TARGETS KEY INTERACTIONS SCORE POLICY OPTIONS

2.4     6.3 Sustainable agriculture enables

the improvement of water quality
by reducing pollution
+1 Promote sustainable agricultural
technologies that support land
and soil quality improvement
and the protection/restoration of
2.4     6.6 Sustainable agriculture, improving
land and soil quality reinforces
the protection/restoration of water-
+2 water related ecosystems. For
instance: more diverse rotations
and associations in agriculture
related ecosystems (including industrial agriculture) are
often less energy-consuming and
2.2, 2.1     6.1, 6.2 Safe and affordable drinking
water and adequate and equitable
sanitation are essential to address
+2 use fewer pesticides and fertilisers,
lowering freshwater toxicity

undernutrition Promote sustainable agricultural

technologies and research/
2.3     6.1, 6.2, 6.4 Competition over water can
result in trade-offs. Intensive
conventional agriculture can
-1/ technology activities, such as
breeding of drought tolerant crops,
or use of advanced irrigation
constrain and in some cases
counteract access to safe drinking
water, proper sanitation, and
-2 technologies to reduce water use
in agriculture; develop guidelines
for sustainable agricultural water
the fight against water scarcity use to engage all sectors on the
important topic of water savings
2.3     6.3, 6.6 Pollution due to unsustainable
agriculture can constrain or even
counteract the reduction of water
-1/ Enhance institutional capacity,
and improve communication and
pollution and the protection /
restoration of water and related
ecosystems
-2 coordination between public
departments to design coherent
water resource policies and
regulatory practices to address
water scarcity and pollution
 56 KEY POINTS Irrigated agriculture accounts for 70% of
water withdrawals globally, and this
Sustainable agriculture that
can rise to more than 80% in some regions
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER

helps maintain ecosystems and (fao-aquastat, 2016). Global demand

progressively improves soil and for water is expected to grow significantly
land quality should lead to the for all major water use sectors, with total
demand expected to increase by about 20%
improvement of water quality and by 2050 (Connor and Webber, 2014). In
quantity through reduced pollution this context, ensuring sustainable agricul-
and should reinforce the protection tural practices that help maintain eco-
systems and progressively improve soil
and restoration of water-related
and land quality (2.4) should lead to
ecosystems improvement of water quality (6.3) and
protection and restoration of water-
related ecosystems (6.6). These positive
Some targets are reinforcing, with
synergies are often bidirectional. For
sdg 6 enhancing access to safe example, ending all forms of malnutrition
and affordable drinking water for (2.2) has strong and direct links with
all, and adequate and equitable enhancing access to safe and affordable
drinking water for all (6.1), and adequate
sanitation for all being essential for and equitable sanitation for all (6.2).
ending all forms of malnutrition Expansion of agricultural land to avoid
overuse of chemicals, can lead to defor-
estation and adverse impacts on water-
Increasing agricultural productivity
based ecosystems. Similarly, unsustainable
can limit access to safe drinking intensification of agriculture (2.3) to
water and adequate and equitable help end hunger can lead to overuse, and
sanitation, which, in turn, can pollution of water resources, which
in turn could exacerbate food security
increase the number of people concerns. Demand for various types
affected by water scarcity and of biomass is projected to increase
pollution dramatically in the medium-term, due
to population growth, growing wealth,
urbanisation, and changing d ietary
Conventional food production and patterns (oecd / fao, 2014). In this context,
processing systems can constrain competition over water can result in
trade-off between sdg 2 (mainly 2.1, 2.2,
the reduction of water pollution
2.3, 2.a) and sdg 6.
and can counteract the protection Conventional food production can
and restoration of water-related deplete groundwater resources, pollute
water bodies (e.g. eutrophication), and can
ecosystems, including aquifers
reduce non-agricultural water availability
and use, such as for drinking water
KEY INTERACTIONS (e.g. through soil degradation and resulting
Pressure on freshwater resources is increas- siltation of downstream reservoirs).
ing throughout the world. With food Reversal of land and water degradation,
production responsible for the largest share and pumping of groundwater from
of freshwater withdrawals, sdg 2 is highly greater depth are generally very costly,
dependent on the achievement of several energy-intensive, and adversely affected
sdg 6 targets. by climate change. Intensification of
 57 land use might also reduce water quality hold (i.e. no water, no food unless trade
and availability where rates of water in food is well established). Water
extraction for irrigation exceed rates of productivity in kcal per m³ varies widely
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER

replenishment. In this context, doubling among crops, cropping systems, and

agriculture productivity (2.3) could have water and agricultural management prac-
negative impacts on universal access to tices, which are subject to cultural
safe drinking water (6.1), and adequate and preferences and traditions. (2) Global
equitable sanitation (6.2) and counteract trade in goods and water-intensive
the reduction of people suffering from products (virtual water flows) can offset
water scarcity (6.4). high national water consumption levels,
Conventional food production and allowing countries with limited water
processing systems release pollutants that resources to rely on water resources
build up in the environment, including in other countries. Approximately 40%
waste and pollution of water supplies. of the world’s population lives in
They also have negative impacts on overall transboundary river or lake basins with
efficiency of water and land use for other hydrological and associated social and
ecosystem services – which constrain the economic interdependencies. In countries
reduction of water pollution (6.3) and the where competition over and pollution of
protection and restoration of water related transboundary water resources increases,
ecosystems, including aquifers (6.6). tensions and conflicts between countries
Non-achievement of sdg 6, can can arise.
adversely affect food prices and increase
food price volatility (2.c), in addition to Governance: Governance over water
constraining all other targets under sdg2. resources remains relatively weak, partic-
Nevertheless, while food price volatility is ularly in terms of water quality, which
higher with insufficient water availability affects food and nutrition security in many
in agriculture, functioning food markets ways. Strong institutions and policies
can help move food from water abundant as well as regulations on water resources
to more water constrained regions (2.b). are essential for addressing some of the
competition over water use between sdg2
KEY UNCERTAINTIES and sdg6 targets. Good governance and
Water availability for food systems is under strong institutions could also help ensure
growing threat from increasing non- that agricultural productivity is increased
agricultural demands, agricultural uses, through sustainable agricultural practices,
and climate change. How these various which in turn enable the achievement of
factors will play out and what level and some sdg6 targets.
type of investments will be undertaken to
reduce these risks and uncertainties is a Technology: A wide range of technologies
further uncertainty. that affect water use in agriculture are
in use and more are under development.
KEY DIMENSIONS They range from low-cost technologies,
Time: Some elements of the interactions such as rainwater harvesting to the breed-
are short-term (i.e. no water, no food, ing of drought, heat and submergence
no safe drinking water, and no proper tolerant crops, to advanced irrigation tech-
nutrition), while others are longer-term nologies that support irrigation schedul-
(e.g. water pollution and longer-term ing and accurately and on time meet crop
degradation). water demands and the use of precision
agriculture techniques, including the use
Geography: (1) Linkages are geography- and of soil, plant and weather sensors. Further
climate-specific, but some general ‘rules’ observations, technologies, modelling and
 58 decision-support systems based on soil
moisture to improve targeted irrigation can
play an important role in enhancing the
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER

sustainable use of fresh water.

Directionality: Interactions are bi-direc-

tional. For example, maintaining water
quality might constrain the doubling
of agricultural productivity but would
support nutrition security.
 59
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER
SDG 2 + SDG 7

TARGETS KEY INTERACTIONS SCORE POLICY OPTIONS

2.3, 2.4     7.1, 7.2 Increasing food productivity and

farmers’ revenues may enable the
increase of renewable energy in
+1 Design policies geared toward
avoiding competition for land
between energy and food purposes
the global energy mix via biofuel and ‘land grabbing’
production. This may also increase
access to affordable, reliable and Promote the creation of sustainable
modern energy services bioenergy-related jobs and
diversified income for small food
2.3, 2.1     7.3, 7.1 Affordable energy and improving
energy efficiency for agriculture
may facilitate increases in food
+2 producers

Maximise energy production from

production, farmer revenues, agricultural wastes
and indirectly food and nutrition
security Promote local production of
renewable energy and ensure
2.3     7.1, 7.2 Competition over land and water
can results in trade-offs. Doubling
agricultural production may
-1/ careful planning and multi-
stakeholder participation in large
infrastructure development projects
constrain the use of water at the
expense of increasing renewable
energy sources (e.g. hydropower)
-2 that may impact freshwater
ecosystems, agricultural lands
and local communities’ livelihoods.
or the use of other water-related Further explore technology for
energy sources higher crop yields, and target
bioenergy production on degraded
2.1, 2.2     7.1, 7.2 Food and nutrition security may
constrain the use of water
and land, at the expense of energy
-1 land if competition with land and
water for food can be avoided

production such as bioenergy

 60 KEY POINTS KEY INTERACTIONS
Ending hunger, undernutrition and food
Agroforestry, biofuel crops, and the
insecurity through sustainable agri-
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER

use of agricultural waste can enable culture interacts at several levels with
an increase in renewable energy in ensuring access to affordable, reliable,
the global energy mix sustainable and modern energy for all.
With worldwide energy demand expected
to increase by 48% between 2012 and
Agriculture aiming at energy pro- 2040 (eia, 2016), agroforestry, biofuel crops,
duction can enable the increase and the use of agricultural wastes (animal
or plant), can support progress on sdg 7.
of small farmers’ revenues through
In this sense, sustainable agriculture,
more diversified production, mainly through doubling agricultural
and support universal access to productivity (2.3) and ensuring sustainable
food production systems (2.4) can help
affordable, reliable and modern
increase the share of renewable energy in
energy services the global mix (7.2). In addition, biofuels
as part of the production mix can lead
to the diversification of agriculture from
Affordable energy and better energy
which farmers can benefit and thus lead
efficiency can enable increased to positive synergies with target 2.3
agricultural productivity and focusing, among other things, on doubling
revenues and by doing so, provide revenues of small-scale food producers.
This can facilitate and enable universal
broader support for ending hunger access to affordable, reliable and modern
and malnutrition energy services (7.1).
Reciprocally, improving energy effi-
ciency (7.3) and better access to affordable,
Competition over the same resources
reliable and modern energy services
(land and water) may result in (7.1) can provide crucial leverage such as
negative interactions between sdg 2 better access to water-pumping and
and sdg  7. Increased agricultural irrigation systems, or other energy-inten-
sive agriculture technologies, such as
production and food and nutrition processing, storage and transportation
security may constrain the use systems for agricultural commodities.
of land and water for bioenergy, thus Such positive interactions should enable
the targets on productivity and enhanced
limiting the increase of renewable
incomes (2.3) and on ending hunger
energy and constraining universal and malnutrition (2.1, 2.2). Competition
access to energy. Similarly, bioenergy over the same resources may result in
development can constrain use negative interactions. Food and nutrition
security (2.1, 2.2) as well as the increase
of agricultural by-products for soil in agricultural productivity and income (2.3)
fertility enhancement and can may constrain the use of land and water
adversely affect food and nutrition at the expense of bioenergy production
and overall renewable energy deployment
security targets through competition
– that is, water is needed for all types
for land, water and biomass of energy production, but particularly for
bioenergy, hydropower, thermal power
production, coal, solar systems (7.1, 7.2).
 61 In the case of hydropower production, KEY DIMENSIONS
large dam infrastructure can constrain Time: Interactions between sdg 2 and sdg 7
food systems, both for fisheries and (synergies and trade-offs), can have both
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER

for food supply due to changes in the immediate and longer-term impacts. For
timing, quantity and quality of the example, lack of energy availability in
water released for irrigation. Moreover, rural areas prevents the extraction of
similar to other large-scale energy-dense deep groundwater resources for irrigation
agricultural commodities, large-scale until the area is electrified or diesel or
biofuel production systems can adversely solar pumps are accessible, a process that
impact water, soil and land quality and can take time. Application of energy in
would need to be implemented using the form of fertilisers can quickly boost
sustainable management practices. food production with results visible at
Furthermore, raising levels of irrigation the end of the growing season. Bioenergy-
to increase agricultural productivity, but sdg2 linkages have both shorter-term
also the higher energy requirements for and longer-term elements: production of
pumping water over long distances could energy sources can be achieved in a season
exacerbate this competition and further (or a few years depending on the plant)
deepen negative interactions between sdg 2 while longer-term soil, land and water
and sdg 7. quality and sustainability implications
Those interactions are highly context might take years to materialize.
dependent, and synergies or trade-offs
can emerge depending on the type of the Geography: Linkages are highly location-
biomass, the relative shares of food and specific, but changes in one country can
biofuel production (and subsidies), and the also have spill-over impacts on other
potential indirect spillover effects due to parts of the world given the nature of
international trade structures and patterns. international trade structures and patterns.
Good governance and coherence are key
to mitigate negative interactions and Governance: Good governance, careful
explore the synergies between sdg2 and planning designed via inclusive and
sdg 7. In this sense, farm activities could open policymaking are important. Such
be promoted toward maximising energy governance mechanisms need to study
production from agricultural wastes, and potential positive and negative linkages
reinforced synergies between targets 2.3 between sdg 2 and sdg 7 investments.
and 2.4 and targets 7.1 and 7.2. For instance, integrative participation
of local small food producers in renew-
KEY UNCERTAINTIES able infrastructure construction
Key uncertainties remain regarding (e.g. hydropower) or large-scale biofuel
future bioenergy production levels, production is key to ensure coherence
which are currently largely driven by among the goals and identify a wider range
subsidies and climate policies. The role of of impacts.
bioenergy production can both support
and constrain the achievement of sdg 2, Technology: Technological change has a sig-
and can constrain sdg 2 more so than nificant impact on the interactions between
other renewable energy sources. Other sdg 7 and sdg 2. For example, continued
critical uncertainties concern competition energy-based innovation is helping to in-
over natural resources between sdg2 and crease water, land and energy efficiency in
sdg 7, many of which are driven by rapid agriculture. Climate smart agricultural prac-
changes in innovation, and changes in cost tices can enhance the use of agricultural
structures and subsidies for alternative wastes (animal or plant) in support of local
technologies. and sustainable energy production.
 62 Directionality: The linkage can be bi-direc-
tional. For example, solar-powered
pumps can deplete groundwater resources
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER

that are fundamental to food security;

thus making energy accessible to all might
compete with the sustainability of food
production. But making energy accessible
to all should also put more energy in the
hands of the rural poor for agricultural
use (such as fertilisers). Regarding biofuel,
relations might be asymmetric. For
example, growing bioenergy crops may
undermine the eradication of hunger more
than implementation of sdg 2 would affect
and limit the generation of renewable
energy sources.
 63
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER
SDG 2 + SDG 13

POLICY OPTIONS –
IN ADDITION TO THE
COMPLEMENTARY ONES
HIGHLIGHTED FOR
TARGETS KEY INTERACTIONS SCORE SDG 2 / SDG  7 AND SDG 6
2.4, 2.5     13.1 Resilient agricultural practices
and maintaining and giving
access to seeds/plant/animal
+2 Design policies and mechanisms
to foster and support agricultural
action plans with triple wins
genetic diversity should reinforce for food security, adaptation
adaptation to climate change and mitigation. Promote resilient
strategies and practices, including
2.a  
13.b
  13.2, 13.3, Enhancing international coop-
eration in agriculture research,
science, and services should
+2 market- and regulatory-based
measures

enable climate change measure- Support science and research in

ments and raise awareness on agricultural adaptation and
climate challenges, and promote mitigation. Enhance international
mechanisms to address them cooperation and build scientific
capacity (especially in developing
2.3, 2.4, 2.5     13.b Positive feedback from raising
awareness and capacity on
climate change impacts (mitiga-
+2 countries) in agriculture research,
science, and climate science and
services
tion and adaptation) to setting
up sustainable and productive Support multi-stakeholders platform
agriculture practices, and and science / society / policy
maintaining biodiversity interfaces: including scientists,
civil society organisations, farmers,
2.3     13.1 Unsustainable agriculture focusing
solely on productivity may
counteract climate adaption by
-2 policy decision-makers

increasing climate instability and

extreme events
 64 KEY POINTS KEY INTERACTIONS
Agriculture accounts for about 14% of ghg
sdg 2 directly affects sdg 13, since
emissions and 24% when forestry and
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER

today’s agriculture directly accounts other land uses are included (ipcc, 2014), a
for about 14% of greenhouse gas close second in global ghg emissions after
emissions. Similarly, sdg 13 directly electricity and heat production. Defor-
estation, livestock emissions, and soil and
affects sdg 2 nutrient management, are some of the
key drivers. At the same time, the challenge
sdg 2 targets on resilient, sustainable is to meet the needs of a growing world
food production and genetic population and rising average incomes per
person which implies an increase in
diversity reinforce resilience and
demand for all agricultural commodities
adaptive capacity to climate change especially livestock products. sdg13 focuses
and risks. Under some conditions, mainly on climate adaptation issues, but
in acknowledging the role of the United
they can also support climate
Nations Framework Convention on
mitigation Climate Change, the goal also indirectly
addresses climate mitigation and the
main aim of the Paris Agreement signed in
By enhancing international coop-
December 2015 to keep global tempera-
eration and building joint initiatives, ture rise this century well below 2°c above
sdg 2 enables the integration of pre-industrial levels (un, 2015a). The
climate change measures into Paris Agreement does not set specific
parameters on climate mitigation targets
national policies, strategies and for the agriculture sector which is very
planning and awareness raising on briefly mentioned within the Agreement
climate mitigation and adaptation preamble, but many of the country-
level strategies (94%) presented through
Nationally Determined Contributions
Boosting agriculture productivity (ndcs) do include mitigation action in the
relying solely on ‘business-as- agricultural sector; albeit without clear
benchmarks. Through the ndcs, the inte-
usual’ agricultural practices may
gration of climate change measures
counteract resilience and adaptive into national planning (13.2) is already
capacity to climate change. Instead, underway but close follow-up work
on the integration of strategies to mitigate
sustainability and productivity
climate change in agriculture are still
improvement within sdg 2 need needed. Overall, sdg 2 targets converge
to be realised in tandem to ensure with the Paris Agreement.
synergies with sdg 13 targets Beyond climate mitigation, sustainable
food productions systems (2.4) that
strengthen capacity for adaptation, and
that progressively improve soil and
land quality will reinforce the pursuit
of resilience and adaptive capacity to
climate change and risks (13.1). Improving
soil properties such as Carbon Stock
will contribute to adaption to climate
variability, that is, higher Soil Carbon stock
 65 will improve water availability for crops, synergies with sdg 13 targets. Solutions do
and crops will adapt to adverse and erratic exist to enable a shift from a negative
weather. In addition, by maintaining to more positive interactions. For instance,
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER

the genetic diversity of seeds, cultivated ‘smart and climate-sensitive agriculture

plants, farmed and domesticated animals approaches, such as the ‘4 per 1000 Initia-
and their wild species (2.5), and ensuring tive’ launched by France on the side of
their access to farmers will offer efficient cop21, or the initiative for the Adaptation
options for adaptation and resilience to of African Agriculture (aaa) launched
climate change. Furthermore, target 2.a upstream of cop22, aim at reconciling
on enhancing international cooperation food security with climate mitigation
might facilitate the integration of climate by engaging in resilient and sustainable
change measures into national policies, agriculture practices. Building capacity and
strategies and planning (13.2) by providing, awareness raising are also key to design
for example, science-based evidence. converging actions in doubling agricultural
International support can also help raise production in a sustainable way, combat
awareness on climate mitigation and climate change, and ensure the use of
adaptation (13.3). Feedbacks from sdg13 well adapted natural resources for better
to sdg 2 are also synergetic as land food climate resilience, such as traditional
production is generally reinforced by a crop varieties as well as new biotechnologies.
stable climate – in contrast to extreme
weather events (droughts, floods). KEY UNCERTAINTIES
Food from fisheries for instance is also The time required to bridge the gap
reinforced by protecting the climate, between sustainable agriculture practices
because that limits ocean warming and and food security worldwide is highly
ocean acidification and, indirectly, the loss uncertain and cannot yet be predicted.
of marine biodiversity and fish resources. There are also uncertainties on climate
In this sense, the positive feedback from variability and its impact on current agro-
target 13.3 on raising awareness and ecology and adaptive agricultural practices.
capacity on climate change mitigation
is very relevant. However, going beyond KEY DIMENSIONS
awareness raising is essential to give Time: Conventional agriculture will
practical effect to this synergy because impact negatively on climate mitigation
agricultural productivity could fall and adaptation over the short, medium
dramatically, especially in developing and long term. Bridging the gap between
countries (Cline, 2007) as well as global sustainable agriculture practices and
food production from marine ecosystems. food security worldwide will take time but
Potential interactions from sdg 2 can be achieved progressively.
achievement may counteract sdg 13.
Should target 2.3 rely solely on ‘business- Geography: There is strong variation in
as-usual’ practices with conventional and country-level approaches to climate and
unsustainable agriculture production agriculture. China, the largest agricul-
driven by short term productivity tural ghg emitter, is followed by India,
improvements and leading to negative and Brazil. Advanced economy agricul-
impacts such as soil quality decrease and/ tural producers such as the usa or Australia,
or deforestation; resilience and adaptive also have large agricultural ghg emissions.
capacity to climate change (13.1) and Indonesia, a large emerging economy, is
climate mitigation efforts will be offset. an important agricultural ghg emitter and
Sustainability and productivity the top emitter in land-use change and
improvement within sdg2 needs to be forestry. Other agricultural ghg emitters
fully realised in tandem to ensure are much smaller, such as those in sub-
Saharan Africa.
 66 Governance: Climate Smart Agriculture and
resilient strategies and practices can be
promoted by a range of policy approaches,
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER

including market- and regulatory-

based measures. Sustainable practices,
resilient technologies and consumer
preferences can be guided and supported
by policymaking. Furthermore, setting
a carbon price for agriculture could push
forward the adoption of agricultural
productivity measures.

Technology: Science and research play a

major role in agriculture adaptation and
mitigation. Biotechnology, and location-
appropriate crop varieties that are resistant
to fluctuations in temperature and
precipitation are key to provide climate
adaptation solutions to farmers. Land
management to maintain and increase soil
organic carbon stock should be promoted
to reinforce synergies between adaptation
and mitigation. Climate Smart Agriculture
can help provide practical solutions to
climate change challenges, as well as
food security through the use of farming
methods that match local conditions
(e.g. agroecology, agroforestry, conservation
agriculture, landscape management).

Directionality: Bidirectional. A change in

agriculture practices is necessary to limit
global climate change over the long term,
and food production is reinforced by a
stable climate.
 67
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER
SDG 2 + SDG 15

POLICY OPTIONS – IN
ADDITION TO THE
COMPLEMENTARY ONES
HIGHLIGHTED FOR SDG 2  /
TARGETS KEY INTERACTIONS SCORE SDG 13
2.4     15.1, 15.2,
15.3, 15.4
Agriculture impacts on the well-
being of terrestrial ecosystems
(sustainable food production
+2 Maintain and provide access
to seeds/plant/animal genetic
diversity
system and agriculture practices)
should reinforce the maintenance Set up appropriate monitoring
of terrestrial ecosystems and systems at the correct scales
the prevention of land as well as to understand how agriculture
biodiversity erosion impacts on land degradation
and biodiversity loss. Developed
2.3, 2.4  
15.8
  15.3, 15.5, Combatting desertification,
restoring degraded land, and
reducing the impact of invasive
+1 landscape-scale management
approaches to address some of
the trade-offs between biodiversity
species as well as fair and better conservation and agriculture
access to genetic resource enable development
sustainable agriculture
Support multi-stakeholder platforms
2.a     15.a, 15.b Enhancing investment in
international agriculture
cooperation can participate
+1 and science / society / policy
interfaces: including scientists,
civil society organizations, farmers,
in resource mobilisation for policy decision-makers. Giving
sustainable management of space to traditional knowledge is
ecosystems key in this regard

2.3     15.1, 15.2,

15.3, 15.5
Intense agriculture and revenue
increase based solely on
agricultural productivity without
-2
sustainability may counteract
ecosystem protection/restoration,
and increase deforestation and
land degradation
 68 KEY POINTS KEY INTERACTIONS
Agriculture is one of the key drivers of
Sustainable and resilient agri-
change in biodiversity, ecosystems,
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER

culture practices aligned to forests, desertification, and land and soil

ecosystems protection can reinforce quality. Those interactions are usually
conservation, restoration and closely related to the relationship between
productivity and income, with a grow-
sustainable use of terrestrial eco- ing need for sustainable agriculture prac-
systems, sustainable forestry tices. sdg 2 has many direct interactions
and arresting deforestation, and with sdg 15. Any actions aiming at
achieving target 2.4 on sustainable and
contribute to the restoration of
resilient agriculture practices aligned
degraded land and soils, as well as to ecosystems protection, and the progres-
combatting desertification sive improvement of land and soil
quality would reinforce the conservation,
restoration and sustainable use of ter-
Maintaining genetic diversity and its
restrial and inland freshwater ecosystems
access is aligned with promoting and their services (15.1 and 15.4 on
the fair sharing of genetic resources, mountain ecosystems); sustainable forestry
and slowing or preventing the and the halt to deforestation (15.2);
and combatting desertification and pro-
extinction of endangered species moting restoration of degraded land
and soil (15.3). In addition, maintaining the
Enhancing investment in interna- genetic diversity of seeds, cultivated
tional cooperation, technology, plants, farmed and domesticated animals
and their wild species and ensuring their
and gene banks could facilitate the
fair access to farmers (2.5), is aligned with
mobilisation of financial resources target 15.6 on the utilisation of genetic
to conserve and sustainably use resources, and the extinction prevention
of threatened species (15.5). Investment
biodiversity
in international cooperation, research and
technology (2.a) can also provide impor-
Extension of agricultural areas can tant resources to conserve and sustainably
lead to an increase in agricultural use biodiversity and ecosystems (15.a, 15.b)
and restore degraded lands and soils, thus
income but can also increase
contributing to a reduction in desertification.
deforestation Similar to several sdg2 interactions
with other goals, sustainability targets
need to be fully integrated with food pro-
If increasing agricultural produc-
ductivity and small-scale farmers’
tivity relies on practices and income improvement targets (i.e. 2.3,
technologies that contribute to and indirectly 2.1 and 2.2). Access to
land and soil degradation and high markets (mainly via roads) can promote
the extension of agricultural areas,
ghg emissions, targets focused particularly for cash crop cultivation, and
on the conservation, restoration might lead to an increase in agricultural
and sustainable use of terrestrial productivity and income (Khandker et
al., 2009). However, this could lead to
ecosystems, forests, soils and
deforestation – counteracting target 15.2
biodiversity might not be achieved on halting deforestation and increasing
 69 afforestation and reforestation globally; knowledge should be considered in
and other negative externalities for conservation efforts aimed at preserving
the environment. Furthermore, should the and restoring biodiversity.
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER

need for food productivity rely on prac-

tices and techniques responsible for land Governance: Governance can play a signif-
degradation, high ghg emission (i.e. the icant role in developing better interactions
‘business-as-usual’ scenario), and land between sdg2 and sdg 15 through pro-
pollution, this will counteract targets 15.1, gramme and planning settings such as
15.2, 15.3 and 15.5. the plan for Actions launched by the
Intensive agricultural management with un Convention to Combat Desertification,
high use of agrochemicals and intense including targets to achieve land degra-
tillage, grazing or mowing, can counteract dation neutrality (ldn; Orr et al., 2017), and
sdg15 (especially 15.5). Animal pollination Biodiversity (ipbes) aimed at achieving
is a key regulating ecosystem service in food security.
nature – almost 90% of wild flowering
plants depend on animal pollination. Inten- Technology: Sustainable land management
sive agricultural management, pesticide (i.e. the use of land resources, including
use and land-use change are key drivers of soils, water, animals and plants, for
pollinator loss. Insecticides (especially the production of goods to meet changing
neonicotinoids) have been demonstrated human needs, while simultaneously
to have lethal and sublethal effects on ensuring the long-term productive poten-
pollinators. It has been estimated that tial of these resources and the main-
16.5% of global vertebrate pollinators and tenance of their environmental functions;
more than 40% of invertebrate pollinator Dumanski and Smyth, 1993) should be
species such as bees and butterflies are promoted. Sustainable land management
facing extinction (ipbes, 2016). Alternative is a way to harmonize the complementary
forms of agriculture and sustainable pest goals of providing environmental,
control methods need to be promoted economic, and social opportunities for the
to address pollinator decline and benefit of present and future generations,
their multiple implications on terrestrial while maintaining and enhancing the
ecosystems. quality of the land (soil, water and air)
resource.
KEY UNCERTAINTIES Innovative agroecology techniques
The appropriate scale at which to take stock such as ecological pest management can
and analyse interactions between sdg2 play an important role in reinforcing
and sdg 15 is a key uncertainty. Such inter- positive interaction between sdg2 and
actions are highly context dependent sdg 15. For instance, the push-pull system
and require different analytical frames and – using repellent plants (push) and trap
landscape-scale approaches. plants (pull) to control agricultural pests,
or the use of key beneficial insects such as
KEY DIMENSIONS arthropod predators and parasitoids
Time: Restoration of degraded land might for biological control of key pest species.
take several years to achieve lasting
positive impacts. Directionality: Mostly bidirectional. Unsus-
tainable agriculture practices impact local
Geography: Linkages are context dependent and global ecosystems via ghg emissions.
since the level of land degradation and Biodiversity protection should constrain
biodiversity status differ from one region such agricultural practices and could foster
to another. Local and indigenous peoples’ new practices aligned with the sustainable
rights and livelihoods and valuable local use of terrestrial ecosystems.
 70 ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES OF IMPLEMENTING CLIMATE SMART
AGRICULTURE TO ADDRESS CALIFORNIA’S
INTERACTIONS BETWEEN WATER CHALLENGES
SDG 2 AND THE OTHER SDGS
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER

While California is best known for Silicon

This box presents a summary of the Valley, a dynamic, high-value agriculture
more detailed country analyses of critical sector contributes substantial nutritional
interactions between sdg 2 and the other diversity to the country and to national
goals presented in Annex 1. exports. However, environmental impacts,
such as associated with particulates from
fertilisers and dust, nitrate leaching and
THE COMPOUND CHALLENGES OF substantial water consumption constrain
DEFORESTATION, FOOD AND ENERGY the achievement of health, water quality
PRODUCTION FOR CLIMATE MITIGATION, and availability targets. In a region prone
ECOSYSTEM PROTECTION AND to periodic drought, achieving Climate
HEALTH IN THE AMAZON REGION Smart Agriculture will be key to the
The Amazon, the world’s largest tropical achievement of sdg 2 and other interlinked
rainforest, is subject to intense economic goals and targets.
development to support agriculture,
cattle ranching, large-scale hydropower
generation and biofuel production, leading
to deforestation and land degradation,
with cascading effects and feedbacks on
water availability and quality, climate
change mitigation, biodiversity and human
health. Thus, a large set of targets and sdgs
are mutually constraining and reinforcing
in this fragile ecosystem. Developing a
framework and action plan to meet key
sdg targets without irreversible losses to
other targets will be essential for areas
such as the Amazon.

PUTTING SUSTAINABLE LAND

MANAGEMENT AT THE HEART OF
SENEGAL’S NATIONAL
DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY
Senegal in West Africa is highly dependent
on agriculture, with about 60% of the
population employed in this sector. The
country is also highly vulnerable to
drought, and increasingly so with the
onset of climate change. With growing
demographic pressures and a fast-
developing economy, these challenges
are exacerbating. Sustainable land
and water management are key areas
identified by the government to ensure
food production and optimal carbon
sequestration.
 SCORE

-3
0
+3
+

+3
2.1, 2.2 1.1, 1.2
2.3 overall SDG 1

+2 +2
2.3 1.4.

/
-2
-1
2.3 1.5
SDG 1

/
0

+1
2.4 1.5

-1
2.b 1.b
+

2.1, 2.2 3.1, 3.2

/ /
+2 +2

+1 +1
2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4 3.3

/
-2
-1
2.3 3.9, 3.1, 3.2, 3.4
KEY INTERACTIONS

-1
2.3 3.4
SDG 3

-2
2.3 3.3
SDG 2 WITH OTHER GOALS

2.1, 2.2 overall SDG5

+2 +2

2.3 5.5, 5.a

+1
2.a 5.b
SDG 5
 +
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER 72

+1
2.4 6.3
2.4 6.6

+2 +2
2.2, 2.1 6.1, 6.2
2.3 6.1, 6.2, 6.4

SDG 6

/ /
-2 -2
-1 -1
2.3 6.3, 6.6
+

+1
2.3, 2.4 7.1, 7.2

+2
2.3, 2.1 7.3, 7.1

/
-2
-1
2.3 7.1, 7.2

-1
SDG 7

2.1, 2.2 7.1, 7.2

2.4, 2.5 13.1

2.a 13.2, 13.3, 13.b

+2 +2 +2
2.3, 2.4, 2.5 13.b

-2
2.3 13.1

+2
2.4 15.1, 15.2, 15.3, 15.4
2.3, 2.4 15.3, 15.5, 15.6

+1 +1
2.a 15.a, 15.b

-2
2.3 15.1, 15.2, 15.3, 15.5
+ SDG 13 + SDG 15

-3
+3
SCORE
73
KNOWLEDGE GAPS

Knowledge gaps and their order of magni- agricultural technologies and practices, are
tude differ for various reasons, and can most detrimental to water availability
vary from one geographical area to anoth- and water quality for downstream urban
er. In this context, science empower- and industrial developments and coastal
ment and capacity building on research, ecosystems. Access to existing data may
data collection, analysis and assessments also be an issue. Some government
on sdg 2 and its linkages are essential agencies are reluctant to share data with
to identify pathways toward meeting mul- other agencies; this could be due to poor
tiple sdgs. Investments and advances in data quality, because the data show poor
agricultural research and development will performance by the agency concerned,
be important for reducing negative linkages or because sharing the data might be
among sdg2 targets and between sdg 2 perceived as losing power. These challenges
targets and other sdg goals and targets. are heightened in interdisciplinary and
For example, global scientific cooperation multi-agency settings.
(south-north, south-south, triangular) is neces- The broad scope of the sdgs challenges
sary for universal science to make progress research, policymakers and the devel-
on issues such as the impact of climate opment community to work across disci-
change on agricultural production and plines and silos – something that is easily
nutritious quality of food produced, or the proclaimed but remains difficult to achieve.
spread of pathogens and invasive species. The section provides a non-exclusive list
Building and strengthening long-term of knowledge gaps that have been identified
observation and information systems in relation to the goal and target interaction
for sustainable development is key. To date, analysis in the previous sections.
sdg 2-related observation systems and
systems that might help identify risks for
related sdg goals and targets receive 2  +  1
insufficient financial support, and are The extent to which progress in sdg2
therefore subject to uneven quality and supports achievements in sdg1 is not
poor coverage. For example, adequate data a priority knowledge gap because
systems are not yet in place to predict achievements are largely synergetic.
food crises with sufficient accuracy, because However, a better understanding is
data are not collected at a high enough needed of how trade openness may impact
frequency or to a sufficient level of detail. smallholder farmers and how adverse
Lack of standardisation of data is a further impacts can be prevented.
challenge. Similarly, data are not yet
available to identify when and where uses 2  +  2
of agricultural land for biofuels (to support There is a need to develop new science,
energy and climate goals) may harm the technology and innovation and associated
environment or reduce food security institutions to reconcile targets 2.3 and
and increase stunting. Information is 2.4; these will be location-specific and will
insufficient concerning which agricultural change dynamically over time. There is
lands in a watershed, as well as which also a need for better understanding of
 74 which interventions work best to achieve on how sdg 2 and sdg 6 targets can be
zero malnutrition, particularly in the short achieved in tandem. In particular, more
sdg timeframe. research is needed to understand how
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER

key water targets (i.e. safe drinking water)

2  +  3 can be met through more sustainable
Insights are needed on incentives that agricultural practices.
would allow agricultural producers
and processors to use their potential to Irrigation is essential for increasing crop
contribute to more sustainable food- productivity and even more so under
production practices that benefit nutri- climate change. Irrigation increasingly
tional and health outcomes. depends on groundwater sources.
Groundwater depletion and the growing
Linkages between agro-ecological practices competition for water must be better
and food quality, as well as understanding understood and managed. Observational
of the impact of climate change (e.g. co² and spatial planning tools are needed,
concentration) on food quality are major as are institutional innovations for
research gaps. more sustainable water stewardship in
agriculture.
There are also important knowledge gaps
regarding the impact of agricultural water 2  +  7
pollution on human health. More analyses are needed on energy-
agricultural linkages and impacts on food
2  +  5 (and energy) systems, to help ensure that
There is insufficient knowledge concerning both sdgs achieve progress in tandem.
gender equality and several sdg 2 targets This is particularly challenging because
in many regions, given that food systems the energy sector is highly dynamic and
and gender equality are highly location- agricultural and food systems are rapidly
specific. becoming increasingly energy dependent.

Agricultural research and development are 2  + 13

generally gender-blind; that is, women’s Rainfed agriculture continues to predomi-
needs for innovation – such as new vari- nate globally and some regions, such as
eties of plant, livestock, and fish, and for sub-Saharan Africa depend almost entirely
new technologies are usually not addressed. on the regularity of seasonal cycles for
Women’s participation and perspectives in food production. As precipitation patterns
agricultural research and development can become less certain, new tools are needed
support social transformation. Adopting for accurate, highly granular seasonal
gender responsive methodologies can help drought predictions, as well as on changes
in the development and introduction of in onset of precipitation.
new technologies.
The effect of land use change on local and
2  +  6 regional precipitation patterns and
Large uncertainties remain between sdg 6 insights on measures to mitigate land use
and sdg 2 as a result of synergistic and change in areas that affect precipitation
counteracting targets, depending on geog- patterns need further study.
raphy, agricultural practice and target.
Growing water variability is adding uncer- Feedbacks between land use change and
tainty to agricultural production systems global climate must also be clarified, espe-
with potentially adverse impacts for cially in the tropics. Additional scientific
most sdg2 targets. More research is needed knowledge needs to be generated on agri-
 75 cultural science, technologies and inno-
vations and associated institutions that meet
CONCLUDING
both mitigation and adaptation targets. COMMENTS
GOAL #2  ZERO HUNGER

The sdg2 targets have multiple reinforcing

Finally, the impact of climate change (co²)
and constraining linkages with the other
on the nutrient content of crops needs to
16 sdgs. These multiple linkages provide
be further studied and assessed.
both challenges and substantial scope for
solutions to reinforce positive and mitigate
2  + 15
counteracting interactions. Agriculture
Research, combining local knowledge with
is at the center of the food-energy-
technological advances, is needed to
water-climate nexus and also has strong
identify technologies, practices and insti-
linkages to human health. Agriculture and
tutions that optimally reduce adverse
associated changes in land-use are also
impacts on terrestrial habitats and fresh-
key to national adaptation and climate
water resources and avoid further de-
mitigation strategies, adaptation being
forestation and land degradation. Such
particularly crucial for less industrialized
research needs to be tailored to differ-
countries.
ent ecologies, geographies and farm
Policy and governance play a funda-
sizes, with particular support needed for
mental role: coherent and coordinated
smallholder farmers. Data and informa-
policies together with appropriate
tion at the landscape scale on the relation-
institutions can enable net environmental
ships between ecosystems management
and development gains in complex
and provision of ecosystems services are
situations and in so doing, can help ensure
lacking – data on long-term ecological
that adverse impacts can be reduced or
impacts from various agricultural practices
avoided. However, in many geographical,
are, however, key to define the optimal
political, social, economic and envi-
allocation of management options at the
ronmental contexts, food security targets
landscape scale and achieve sdg2 and sdg15
dominate policy agendas with potentially
concurrently.
longer-term adverse impacts on several
other goals and targets such as those
There is a lack of wild pollinator data
related to climate, health, biodiversity,
(species identity, distribution, abundance)
water and energy security as well as to
in several regions. Long-term monitoring
food and nutrition security itself. In such
of pollinators (status and trends for most
contexts, in-depth understanding of
species) and pollination around the world
local situations will be critical to better
is urgently required.
understand interactions between sdg2
and the others goals, and provide specific
management options with minimum
trade-offs.
Overall, there is a need for inclusive
multi-sector approaches across govern-
ment departments / ministries and other
stakeholders (research institutions,
ngo, private sector, etc.) that fully consider
environmental boundaries. Building
on these general considerations, the
seven summary tables in the target-level
interactions section provide options for
how policy could address the interactions
in practice.
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A GUIDE TO
SDG INTERACTIONS:
FROM SCIENCE
TO IMPLEMENTATION
PEER-REVIEWERS Martin Obermaier (Federal University of Rio de Janeiro,
Anik Bhaduri (Griffith University, Australia) Brazil)
Kathryn Bowen (Australian National University) Marlon Pareja (De La Salle University Dasmarinas,
Clainos Chidoko (Great Zimbabwe University) Philippines)
Amy Choong (National University of Singapore) Farhan Rauf (Our Own Public Health Institute, Pakistan)
Marius Christen (University of Basel, Switzerland) Thomas Reuter (University of Melbourne, Australia)
Guéladio Cissé (Swiss Tropical and Public Health Adam Samms (Royal Roads University, Canada)
Institute, Switzerland) Lidion Sibanda (South Africa)
Charles Ebikeme (ICSU) R.B. Singh (University of Delhi, India)
Uwe Fritsche (International Institute for Sustainability Patricia Solis (Texas Tech University, United States)
Analysis and Strategy, Germany) Bill Sonntag (Environmental Protection Agency,
Franz Gatzweiler (Urban Health and Well-being United States)
programme, China) Kalum Udagepola (Scientific Research Development
Thomas Skou Grindsted (Roskilde University, Denmark) Institute of Technology, Australia)
Yabi Ibouraïma (Université d’Abomey-Calavi, Benin) Ashish Upadhyay (Center for Environmental Planning
Nafiseh Jafarzadeh (Massachusetts Institute and Technology, India)
of Technology, United States) Ed Urban (Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research,
Johnson Jament (University of Northampton, United States)
United Kingdom) Claude Villeneuve (Université du Québec, Canada)
Saroj Jayasinghe (University of Colombo, Sri Lanka) Gabriela Wülser (Swiss Academies of Arts and
Kristina Jönsson (Lund University, Sweden) Sciences, Switzerland)
Daniel Kachelriess (CITES, Switzerland) Nima Yazdan Panah (Massachusetts Institute of
Shelton Kagande (University of Zimbabwe) Technology, United States)
Richard Kenchington (University of Wollongong,
Australia)
Ushehwedu Kufakurinani (University of Zimbabwe)
Sigrid Kusch (Independent, Germany)
David Leblanc (UNDESA)
Martin Le Tissier (University College Cork/Future Earth
Coasts, Ireland)
Yong Liu (Tianjin University, China)
Stewart Lockie (James Cook University, Australia)
Dand Ly Quoc (Chiang Mai University, Vietnam)
Julius Madzore (Zimbabwe)
Kudzai Makoni (Africa Community Development and
Research Center, Zimbabwe)
Itai Offat Manyanhaire (Zimbabwe Open University)
Michelle Merrill (National Ecology and Environment
Foundation, United States)
Peter Messerli (Centre for Development and
Environment, Switzerland)
Tawanda Mushiri (University of Zimbabwe)
Godfrey Ndlovu (National University of science and
Technology, Zimbabwe)
Gilchriste Ndongwe (Zimbabwe Evidence Informed
Policy Network)
Aidin Niamir (Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate
Research Institute, Germany)
Ana Raquel Nunes (Warwick Medical School,
United Kingdom)