http://dx.doi.org/10.

17159/2411-9717/2016/v116n6a11

Review, evolution, and optimization of

the treatment of Kansanshi mixed
copper ore
by C. Ngulube*, C. Chongo*, and F.X. Paquot*

high content of high acid-consuming (GAC)

minerals. This made it unsuitable for the oxide
.2&,3, float–leach circuit, and poor flotation response
Over the last six years, the Kansanshi copper-gold mine has continued to ruled out the conventional sulphide float
process significant quantities of complex transitional mixed ores. Initially, circuit. The novel circuit involved a conven-
the ore treated came predominantly from accumulated stockpiles. tional sulphide pre-float followed by flotation
Subsequently, the feed source shifted primarily to freshly mined ore that involving staged-controlled potential
generally showed less tarnish with better flotation kinetics, but with the sulphidization (CPS).
downside of lower concentrate grades. A number of changes were made to All the copper minerals constituting the
improve the efficiency of the rougher circuit and quality of concentrate alteration sequence from primary sulphides to
produced. These changes were as a result of initial mineralogical studies carbonates or silicates are present in various
and laboratory flotation test work that were discussed at length in a
proportions in the Kansanshi transitional ores
previous paper1. Salient among the recommendations adopted as a result
(Table I). The alteration of primary sulphides
of previous work were increased circuit capacity and a modified configu-
ration to increase the residence time and the number of sulphidization
starts with an impoverishment in iron to form
stages. These modifications were completed and commissioned in 2011. covellite. Further oxidation results in an
This, however, resulted in significantly low rougher concentrate grades impoverishment in sulphur and enrichment in
and a below-specification final concentrate product. This was due copper to form digenite, then chalcocite (Dunn
primarily to higher mass pulls from the extended rougher bank with and Muzenda, 2001). The final steps of
multiple concentrate discharge streams, and which necessitated an alteration, leading to the formation of copper
enlarged cleaning capability. The extra cleaning capacity came on stream oxide minerals such as malachite or
in 2014. Of note was the development of a recovery model, based on the chrysocolla (a silicate) depend mainly on the
strong correlation between the total copper and acid-soluble copper ratio, composition of the gangue or fluid. The iron
as a tool for monitoring plant performance.
liberated during the alteration sequence can

42/), remobilize to form goethite or limonite. These
copper, flotation, optimization, mixed ore, sulphidization, modelling. iron oxides and hydroxides are particularly
prejudicial for flotation if they precipitate on
the surface of the copper minerals because
they are not collectable with xanthates
(Woods, 2003).
6.1/2)*+132.5 The traditional method applied for the
The Kansanshi mine, the largest copper mine flotation of copper oxide or mixed ores is
in Africa, is 80% owned by Kansanshi Mining sulphidization, which was first developed with
plc, a subsidiary of First Quantum Minerals. industrial success on Pb–Zn oxide ores in
The remaining 20% is owned by the state
through the parastatal Zambia Consolidated
Copper Mines Ltd (ZCCM). The mine is located
approximately 10 km north of the town of
Solwezi and 180 km to the northwest of the 1Paquot, F.X. and Ngulube, C. 2012. Development and
optimization of mixed sulphide/oxide copper ore
Copperbelt town of Chingola. The mine has treatment at Kansanshi Journal of the Southern African
been in commercial operation since 2005. Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, vol. 115, no. 12.
Prior to June 2009, Kansanshi mine treated
only two ore types: oxide and sulphide. All
transitional ores mined during the period
leading up to 2009 was stockpiled. The
treatment of the minerologically complex * First Quantum Minerals Ltd, Kansanshi Mine,
transitional ores through a third train Solwezi, Zambia.
© The Southern African Institute of Mining and
commenced in June 2009, but entailed
Metallurgy, 2016. ISSN 2225-6253. This paper
numerous metallurgical challenges. This was first presented at the, Copper Cobalt Africa
transitional ore (called ‘mixed ore’) could not Conference, 6–8 July 2015, Avani Victoria Falls
previously be treated economically due to the Hotel, Victoria Falls, Livingstone, Zambia.
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Review, evolution, and optimization of the treatment of Kansanshi mixed copper ore

Table I neously conducted on flotation feed and final tails, under

various plant conditions, in order to compare the performance
"2&&4/5(3.4/0-,5&/4,4.15015
0.,0.,$35(3.4 of the plant with the ideal conditions in the laboratory.
The salient points from these studies were as follows.
3.4/0- #2/(*-0 3.4/0- #2/(*-0
® During the sulphide pre-flotation (roughers), recoveries
Chalcopyrite CuFeS2 Azurite Cu2(CO3)2.Cu(OH)2 were generally predominantly in the particle size range
Bornite Cu5FeS4 Cuprite Cu2O –150
m to +38
m and, despite the fairly good mineral
Covellite CuS Tenorite CuO liberation, recovery was poor for the coarse (+150
m)
Digenite Cu9S5 Chrysocolla (Cu,Al)2H2Si2O5(OH)4.nH2O
and fines (–38
m) fractions. In the acid-insoluble
Chalcocite Cu2S Native copper Cu
copper range (sulphide mineralization), chalcocite and
Malachite CuCO3(OH)2
chalcopyrite showed the best flotation response (64 to
65% recovery) while covellite had the worst response
Australia (Crozier, 1991). The method involves multistage among both primary and secondary sulphides.
addition of sodium sulphide (Na2S), sodium hydrogen However, ‘porous’ chalcocite also had poor recoveries,
sulphide (NaHS), or ammonium sulphide (NH4)2S as a mainly attributable to higher the amount of reagents
sulphidizing agent, together with xanthate collectors such as required to activate surfaces that hardly contribute to
potassium amyl xanthate (PAX) (Kongolo et al., 2003; hydrophobicity. Less than half of the liberated
Mwema and Mpoyo, 2001). The effectiveness of chalcopyrite (45%) was recovered in the rougher stage,
sulphidization for flotation of oxidized sulphides has also mostly due to partial transformation of chalcopyrite to
been demonstrated (Newell et al., 2006). When introduced in iron oxyhydroxides. These oxyhydroxide rims
the slurry, the sulphidizer dissociates into the species H2S, decreased the floatability of normally floatable mineral
HS- or S2-, depending on the pH. These ions react with the species. Even after sulphidization, liberated
copper oxide minerals to form a sulphide layer on the surface chalcopyrite and covellite were the sulphide species that
of the oxide minerals (Zhou and Chander, 1992). The displayed lower recovery
sulphidizer concentration can be controlled by measuring the ® In the first sulphidization stage (CPS 1), the best
ES potential of the pulp using a sulphide ion-selective recoveries were observed in the size range –150
m to
electrode. The reaction between the sulphidizer and malachite +75
m. There was, however, very low recovery of the
is optimum at a potential of –500 mV (Jones and Woodcock, fines fraction (–38
m). Compared with the roughers,
1978). However, xanthate flotation is depressed at this there was better flotation response in CPS 1 with regard
potential. Oxidation of sulphide ions in excess is then to sulphide recovery compared with the oxides. This
necessary to reach the optimal potential of –300 mV (Ferron was attributed mainly to the sulphidizer (NaHS)
and Manu, 1994). This leads to the formation of reducing activating the tarnished or rimmed sulphide
agents such as thiosulphates, which are not necessarily components. Secondary sulphides also showed a
indifferent in the flotation process (Castro et al., 1974; Soto superior response to sulphidization
and Laskowski, 1973). ® Malachite recovery started to become significant only in
Direct collectors, such as fatty acids and hydroxamates, the second sulphidizing stage (CPS 2). Additionally, the
have also been developed for the flotation of oxide minerals coarse fraction sulphides were activated and recovered
(Lee et al., 1998, 2009). The fatty acids have the drawback at this stage. However, only 50% of the liberated
of being unselective over the carbonated gangue minerals malachite was recovered. Malachite associated with
and are therefore unsuitable for the Kansanshi mixed ores. iron oxides and hydroxides was not recovered
Paquot et al. (2009) demonstrated the advantage of the ® Major losses of the coarse but prior-activated particles
sulphidization route over direct hydroxamates flotation. in the CPS stages occurred in the cleaning circuit.
The original Kansanshi mixed circuit configuration had However, chalcopyrite recovery was better than that of
six 150 m3 flotation cells. With this configuration, the first other secondary sulphides, malachite, and oxidized
pair of cells was designated as a sulphide pre-flotation stage native copper in the cleaning section
(referred to as a rougher stage). Sequentially, two
sulphidization stages, each comprising two 150 m3 flotation
Table II
cells, immediately followed the rougher stage. These were
referred to as CPS 1 and 2. Two series of sulphidization "2.1/3!*132.52'540+$5(3.4/0-2%3+0-5+-0,,51251$4
conditioning tanks, to control sulphidizer addition against an +2&&4/5-2,,4,53.51$45'3.0-5103-,
Es/Eh potential and collector, preceded each sulphidization
stage. The sulphidizer used was sodium hydrogen sulphide 3.4/0-2%3+0-5+-0,, "2.1/3!*132.5125'3.0-5
"*5-2,,4,5 
(NaHS).
Foremost among the metallurgical challenges with the Chalcopyrite (Cp) 14.5
Chalcocite (Cc) 3.86
mixed float was the loss of a certain class of copper minerals Covellite (Cv) 7.33
to the tails, despite indications that these minerals were fully Cp+Cv+Cc+Dg (digenite) 3.30
liberated and floatable (Table II.). Paquot et al. (2009) and Cp+Cv+Dg+Cc+FeOx (iron oxyhydroxides) 6.02
Cp+gangue 9.75
Ngulube et al. (2011) conducted several investigations to Malachite (Mal) 28.03
investigate this copper loss to tails, collecting samples across Mal+FeOx 19.98
the whole circuit to assess liberation and mineral classes. Chrysocolla (Ch) 6.16
Total 99
Hundreds of laboratory flotation tests were also simulta-
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Review, evolution, and optimization of the treatment of Kansanshi mixed copper ore
® The main copper losses in the final tails were attributed -0.154&0.,32.,50.)5/4,*-1,
to liberated chalcopyrite and malachite (16% and 28%,
respectively) that should be recovered if properly  
sulphidized. Malachite associated with iron oxides and The results of the plant and laboratory test work and
hydroxides also contributed to a significant proportion mineralogy analysis were used to justify the extension of the
of losses (20%). These losses are attributed mainly to mixed ore flotation plant, with the total changes costing
poor sulphidization efficiency. Even lower recoveries approximately US$19 million. A more conservative recovery
were noticed for malachite stained by iron improvement of 5% was considered to justify this
oxyhydroxides. Chalcopyrite had slow-floating expenditure.
tendencies as well. With the exception of covellite, the In mid-2011, six 300 m3 float cells were commissioned:
remainder of secondary sulphides had the best flotation four cells dedicated to the sulphide flotation circuit and the
responses. There was no evidence of chrysocolla other two being flexible between mixed and sulphide ore
floating flotation, depending on milling circuit configuration. The
® The average recovery difference between the laboratory volume capacity of the mixed ore flotation plant increased
experiments performed on the flotation feed and the from 900 m3 to 1500 m3 or 2100 m3, depending on whether
plant results was around 9%. When floating the the 300 m3 cells were used for mixed ore flotation. In late
flotation tails in the laboratory without any additional 2011, an extension of the CPS plant was commissioned to
reagents, the recovery was seen to improve by an increase the number of sulphidization intervals to the current
average of 5%, while floating the tails with additional
four stages. From an initial 900 m3 total capacity and two
reagents resulted in improvements of up to 10%
sulphidization stages, by the end of 2011 there was a total
(Figure 1)
capacity of 2100 m3 and four sulphidization stages available.
® The higher the acid-soluble copper feed grade, the
Subsequently, residence time increased from an average 20
higher the observed improvement (Figure 2). The
minutes to between 30 and 60 minutes, depending on the
additional recovery was only around 2% when the
milling circuit configurations.
acid-soluble copper feed grade was lower than 0.2%,
but was as high as 15% when the acid-soluble copper
feed grade was higher than 0.6% (Figure 3).
In this paper, we review the subsequent circuit changes
and modifications that resulted from the findings of the work
undertaken up to 2011, and the various challenges that these
changes introduced. Relevant points from the above work
were:
® The need for increased residence time and stages for
both the roughers and the CPS stages to capture more
of the slow-activating mineral species and size
fractions. Findings of the mineralogical studies,
coupled with test work, pointed to insufficient
residence time and less- than-efficient sulphidization.
The slow-floating chalcopyrite needed more residence
time and the fully liberated but lost malachite needed
more sulphidization stages and residence time
® The need to divert the mixed cleaner scavenger tails out
#3%*/45 -0.15103-3.%,5+2(&0/4)531$5-0!2/012/5103-3.%,50.0-,3,5'2/
of the mixed circuit because recirculating oxide
0+3),2-*!-45+2&&4/5(3.4/0-,
minerals were increasing the possibility of this being
lost to tails.

#3%*/45-0.15/4+24/5+2(&0/4)531$5-0!2/012/5/4+24/5'2/50+3)
#3%*/454'-210132.52'5103-,531$50.)531$2*15/40%4.150))3132. ,2-*!-45+2&&4/5(3.4/0-,
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Review, evolution, and optimization of the treatment of Kansanshi mixed copper ore
Notably, during the same period in 2011, due to a total Cu/acid-soluble Cu ratio. The period 2011 and 2012 also
shortfall of sulphide ore from the pit, it was decided that more coincided with the shift from treating predominantly
of the mixed ores would be treated, utilizing the larger stockpiled transitional ores to predominantly freshly mined
sulphide mills. This resulted in an 80% increase in daily ore from the pit. This ore was better grade-controlled for
throughput, effectively reducing the residence time through quality (acid-soluble Cu grade which was found to be the best
the mixed float circuit from 45 minutes to about 30 minutes. approximation of the weathering profile). Initially, classifi-
Figure 4 depict the flow sheets before and after the cation of mixed ores was based purely on the amount of acid-
expansion. Figure 5 shows the effect of the additional float soluble Cu and GAC minerals in the material. Freshly mined
cells on the recovery from mixed ore. material also showed less tarnishing. Figure 7 shows the
progressive drop in sulphidizer consumption, especially

 during this same period of the circuit expansion.
From the results obtained after the mixed circuit expansions, Clearly, a rigorous statistical approach was required to
it could at first glance (Figure 5) be deduced that there was prove the benefits of the expanded circuit and the increased
an immediate improvement, especially if the two periods of number of sulphidization stages.
running the same mills on mixed ore (before June 2011 and
after June 2012) are considered. However, as can be seen 
from Figure 6, recovery from the mixed ore through the As shown in Table III, two sets of recovery data were
Kansanshi circuit also has a very strong correlation with the subjected to F-tests. The first set of data was for 192 days

#3%*/45450.)52-)5+3/+*315+2.'3%*/0132.,

#3%*/45''4+152'5'-210132.5/4,3)4.+4513(452.5(34)5/4+24/5
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Review, evolution, and optimization of the treatment of Kansanshi mixed copper ore

#3%*/454-0132.,$3&5!4144.51210-5"*
0+3),2-*!-45"*5/013250.)5(34)5/4+24/5

#3%*/4505+2.,*(&132.524/51$45,340/5&4/32)

Table III

#14,15/4,*-1,
0/0(414/ #14,15/4,*-1, #14,1512,0(&-45'2/50/30.+4
25/4,3)4.+4513(455 5(3. 3%$5/4,3)4.+4513(455 5(3. 25/4,3)4.+4513(455 5(3. 3%$5/4,3)4.+4513(455 5(3.

Mean 68.43603 60.23057

Variance 113.6457 63.02303
Observations 204 75.88294 192 70.30985
Df 203 46.3551 191 117.5439
F 2.451632 204 0.536166 192
P(F<=f) one-tail 1.65E-10 203 9.88E-06 191
F Critical one-tail 1.260095 0.787708

(192 data points) taken from on either side of the mill swap,  
which resulted in major changes in residence time. The new
The increase in rougher and CPS stages on the mixed circuit
residence time was around 45 minutes on average, compared
was therefore successful in reducing copper losses. However,
with 20 minutes before the extension. A recovery difference
the resulting multiple sub-concentrate discharge points
of 7.45% (higher at a residence time of 45 minutes) was
caused a drop in final product (final concentrate) quality. The
noted with 100% confidence limit. Similarly, 204 data points higher mass pulls, and consequently increased volume
were picked for before and after the mill swap in 2011/2012. reporting to the limited cleaner/recleaner flotation bank of
This data-set showed a 10% recovery drop at a residence only 288 m3 total volume, subdivided into nine float cells of
time of 30 minures, again with 100% confidence limit. 32 m3 each, led to higher insoluble components (silicates,
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Review, evolution, and optimization of the treatment of Kansanshi mixed copper ore
aluminates, etc.) in the final combined concentrates. This The main parameter affecting the total Cu recovery or the
resulted in significant smelter penalties. Figure 8 shows the total Cu of the tails is the acid-soluble Cu feed grade.
trend of insolubles in the mixed ore final product, the Because the oxide minerals are more difficult to recover than
recleaner concentrate. In August 2014, the cleaner/recleaner the sulphides, a lower recovery (higher tails grade) can be
capacity was increased to ameliorate this problem, to great expected when the acid-soluble Cu feed grade increases. It is
effect (Figure 8). Volumetrically, the capacity increased from thus not possible to set a fixed recovery target for the mixed
a restricted 288 m3 to a substantial 1220 m3, consisting of ore flotation. However it is possible to set a tails grade target
three banks: 6 × 150 m3 cleaners, 8 × 30 m3 recleaners, and a depending on the acid-soluble Cu feed grade. As a general
further 5 ×16 m3 re-recleaners. rule, if the total Cu tails grade is lower than the acid-soluble
feed grade, an average plant performance is achieved. The


 NaHS consumption depends mainly on the acid-soluble Cu
The variation in mineralogy and TCu/AsCu contents in the feed grade. The fit for the model of the NaHS consumption is
feed causes significant fluctuations in recovery (Table IV). poor because it is calculated based on the variations in stock
Flotation recovery from mixed ore generally varies between inventory levels. The model of the total Cu tails grade is not
50–90%. The NaHS consumption varies between 300 g/t and much different from the one obtained with the daily results,
3000 g/t. Robust multilinear regressions using iteratively but the model of the NaHS consumption is very different, and
reweighted least squares was used for modelling the plant the fit is much better; however, the application range has
flotation final tails and NaHS consumption. Performance of been reduced. Because the NaHS consumption is very
the plant is compared with the model on a daily basis. This variable, the stocks must be controlled carefully to avoid
also serves to highlight the variability in the results and running out of reagents and to avoid holding excessive stock
reagent consumption. The correlation coefficients between the that would degrade. The model of the NaHS consumption can
total Cu tails grade or NaHS dosage and the total Cu feed be used for monitoring the NaHS stocks, depending on the
grade and acid-soluble Cu feed grade are given in Table V. forecast for feed grades coming from the mine.
The equations are of the form:

[1] "2.+-*,32.,
The envisaged recovery improvements from plant extensions
and increasing the stagewise addition of sulphidizer were
[2] achieved. The increased residence time increased the recovery
of slow-floating (tarnished) chalcopyrite. The probability of
Figure 9 shows the models obtained for the total Cu grade recovery of previously fully liberated but unrecovered
of the tails, the corresponding recovery, and the model malachite was increased by the addition of a further two
obtained for the NaHS consumption. Table VI gives the stages of sulphidization at the tailings end of the old circuit.
correlation coefficients between the models and the actual The mineralogical results showed that most chalcopyrite was
plant daily results. recoverable only after being activated by sulphidizer in the

#3%*/45/2&2/132.52'53.,2-*!-45(014/30-53.51$45+2.+4.1/014,

Table IV Table V

0.%452'5)0105*,4)5'2/51$45(2)4- "2//4-0132.5+24''3+34.1,

210-5"*5  +3),2-*!-45"*5  05 %

1 210-5"*5'44) +3),2-*!-45"*5'44)

Min. 0.50 0.17 282 Total Cu tails 0.62 0.86

Max. 2.48 0.93 3800 NaHS 0.35 0.64
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#3%*/45 05+1*0-5&-0.15103-,5 (2)4-5 !50+1*0-505+2.,*(&132.5 (2)4-50.)5 +50+1*0-5&-0.15/4+24/5 (2)4-

LEE, J.S., NAGARAJ, D.R., and COE, J.E. 1998. Practical aspects of oxide copper
Table VI
recovery with alkyl hydroxamates. Minerals Engineering, vol. 11, no. 10.
"2//4-0132.5+24''3+34.1,5!4144.51$45(2)4-,50.) pp. 929–939.
1$450+1*0-5/4,*-1,
LEE, K., ARCHIBALD, D., MCLEAN, J., and REUTER, M.A. 2009. Flotation of mixed
0/0(414/ "2//4-0132.5+24''3+34.1 ore copper and sulphide minerals with xanthate and hydroxamate
collectors. Minerals Engineering, vol. 22. pp. 395–401.
Total Cu tails 0.86
Recovery 0.75
NaHS consumption 0.64 JONES, M.H. and WOODCOCK, J.T. 1978. Optimization and control of laboratory
sulphidization of oxidized copper ores with an ion selective electrode.
Proceedings of the Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,
vol. 266. pp. 11–17.

first stage of sulphidization. Similarly, malachite recovery

KONGOLO, K., KIPOKA, M., MINANGA, K. and MPOYO, M. 2003. Improving efficiency
was achieved only in the second stage of sulphidization.
of oxide-cobalt ores flotation by combination of sulphidisers. Minerals
Another gain in increasing the number of sulphidization
Engineering, vol. 16. pp. 1023–1026.
stages is the recovery of liberated coarse-grained minerals.

MWENA, M.D. and MPOYO, M. 2001. Improvements of cobalt recovery in flotation

4'4/4.+4, of curo-cobaltiferous ore at Gecamines. Proceedings of Copper Cobalt
Nickel and Zinc Recovery, Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe, 16–18 July 2001.
CASTRO, S., SOTO, H., GOLDFARB, J., and LASKOWSKI, J. 1973. Sulphidizing
Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Johannesburg.
reactions in the flotation of oxidized copper mineral II. Role of the
pp. 1–9.
adsorption and oxidation of sodium sulphide in the flotation of
chrysocolla and malachite. International Journal of Mineral Processing,
PAQUOT, F.X. and NGULUBE, C. 2012. Development and optimization of mixed
vol. 1. pp. 151–161.
sulphide/oxide copper ore treatment at Kansanshi. Journal of the
Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, vol. 115, no. 12.
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PAQUOT, F.X., BASTIN, D., MUKUTUMA, A., and DELANEY, A. 2009. Metallurgical
DUNN, J.G. and MUZENDA, C. 2001. Thermal oxidation of covellite (CuS).
Thermochimica Acta, vol. 369, no. 1–2. pp. 117–123. performances of the sulphidization route and the direct alkyl hydrox-
amates flotation of mixed carbonated copper-gold ores of the Kansanshi
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sulfidization flotation. Lakefield Research, Canada. 11 pp. November 2009. Minerals Engineering International, Falmouth, UK. N
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