Lebanese University

Faculty of Engineering

Branch – III

Level Sensor

Third Year-Electrical 2019/2020

Presented for: Dr. Mazen Ghandour

Prepared by: Abed Shaar(5438) and Sara Ghamloush(5548)
Table of Contents

Introduction: What Are Level Sensors? ...................................................................................... 3

Level Sensor Classifications....................................................................................................... 3
A. Point and Continuous Level Measurement Sensors ............................................................ 4
1. Capacitive Level Sensors 4
2. Float Switch 5
B. Continuous Level Measurement Sensors........................................................................... 7
1. Hydrostatic Level Sensor 7
2. Ultrasonic Level Sensor 8
3. Radar Level Sensor 9
C. Point Level Measurement Sensors...................................................................................10
1. Conductivity Level Sensor 10
2. Vibrating or Tuning fork 11
3. Optical Level Sensor 12
References.............................................................................................................................13

Table of Figures
Figure 1 Different types of level sensors .................................................................................... 3
Figure 2 Classifications of level sensors ..................................................................................... 3
Figure 3 Parallel plate capacitor used as a fluid level sensor ........................................................ 4
Figure 4 Open circuit Switch (Low Level).................................................................................... 5
Figure 5 Closed Circuit Switch (High Level) ................................................................................. 5
Figure 6 Typical circuit of a float switch ..................................................................................... 6
Figure 7 Reed Switch............................................................................................................... 6
Figure 8 Floater ...................................................................................................................... 6
Figure 9 Switching Mechanism ................................................................................................. 6
Figure 10 Hydrostatic Level Sensor ........................................................................................... 7
Figure 11 Ultrasonic Sensor ..................................................................................................... 8
Figure 12 Ultrasonic sensor principle of operation ...................................................................... 8
Figure 13 Radar Level Sensor.................................................................................................... 9
Figure 14 GWR vs TAR ............................................................................................................. 9
Figure 15 Conductivity Level Sensor .........................................................................................10
Figure 16 Tuning Fork resonating at its resonant frequency ........................................................11
Figure 17 Tuning fork vibrating below its proper frequency ........................................................11
Figure 18 Tuning Fork Level Sensor ..........................................................................................11
Figure 19 Working Principle of the Optical Sensor .....................................................................12
Figure 20 what is inside an Optical Sensor ................................................................................12
Introduction: What Are Level
Sensors?
Level sensors have been around for decades, in
markets such as food and beverage, industrial,
medical and domestic, printing, agriculture,
automotive and white goods for leak detection or
level measurement. We often wonder why
customers choose one technology over the other
and it is a common question we are asked. Some
equipment manufacturers may also be surprised
at both the variety and intelligence of level
sensing alternatives available on the market. Figure1 Different types of level sensors

Processes that used to involve expensive pieces of equipment can now be achieved using
creative, innovative and intelligent technologies that can be cost effective, reliable, robust,
highly accurate and simple to install. Fluids that have historically been known to be
extremely challenging to detect such as soap containing bubbles/foam, milk, and sticky
substances such as glue and ink are now proving possible and easier to detect with the
variety of level sensing technologies available.
A level sensor is a device that is designed to monitor, maintain, and measure liquid (and
sometimes solid) levels. Once the liquid level is detected, the sensor converts the perceived
data into an electric signal.
Level sensors are used primarily in the manufacturing and automotive industries, but they
can be found in many household appliances as well, such as ice makers in
refrigerators. When you get in your car to go on a drive you often look at your gas gauge,
which is a type of a level sensor.

Level Sensor Classifications

There are two main classifications for level sensors: point level measurement sensors and
continuous level measurement sensors.
Point level sensors are designed to indicate whether a liquid has reached a specific point in a
container. Continuous level sensors, on the other hand, are used to render precise liquid
level measurements.
Level sensors can be divided further into invasive and non-contact sensors.
Invasive sensors make direct contact with the substance they are measuring, while non-
contact sensors use sound or microwaves.

Figure2 Classifications of level sensors

A. Point and Continuous Level Measurement Sensors

1. Capacitive Level Sensors

Fluid level may be sensed by any of the position or proximity sensors by sensing the position
of the fluid surface that then can change the capacitance of a linear or rotary capacitor. One
of the simplest, direct methods for fluid level sensing is to allow the fluid (which must be a
dielectric) to fill the space between the two conducting surfaces that make up the capacitor.
For example, the capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor is linearly proportional to the
permittivity between the two plates.
Therefore, the larger the amount of fluid between the plates, the larger the capacitance and
therefore the capacitance is a measure of fluid level between the plates.

The figure below shows a parallel plate capacitor used as a fluid level sensor. The part of the
plates under the surface of the fluid has a capacitance 𝐶𝐶𝑓𝑓
𝜀𝜀𝑓𝑓 ℎ𝑤𝑤
𝐶𝐶𝑓𝑓 = [𝐹𝐹]
𝑑𝑑
Where 𝜀𝜀𝑓𝑓 the permittivity of the fluid [𝐹𝐹/𝑚𝑚], ℎ is the height of the fluid, 𝑤𝑤 is the width of
the plates, and 𝑑𝑑 is the distance between them. The part of the capacitor above the fluid has
a capacitance 𝐶𝐶0 :
𝜀𝜀0 (𝑙𝑙 − ℎ)𝑤𝑤
𝐶𝐶0 = [𝐹𝐹]
𝑑𝑑
Where 𝑙𝑙 is the total height of the capacitor. The total capacitance of the sensor is the sum of
the two:

𝜀𝜀𝑓𝑓 ℎ𝑤𝑤 𝜀𝜀0 (𝑙𝑙 − ℎ)𝑤𝑤 �𝜀𝜀𝑓𝑓 − 𝜀𝜀0 �𝑤𝑤 𝜀𝜀0 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝐶𝐶 = 𝐶𝐶𝑓𝑓 + 𝐶𝐶0 = + = ℎ� �− [𝐹𝐹]
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑

Although a parallel plate capacitor can be used for this purpose, the expressions above are
approximate (they neglect the effect of the edges by assuming the field is not affected by
the finite size of the plates). In reality, there will be a slight nonlinearity due to these effects
and this nonlinearity depends on the distance between the plates. In addition, it should be
noted that the method is only practical with non-conducting fluids (oils, fuels, freshwater).
For slightly conducting fluids, the plates must be coated with an insulating medium.

Figure3 Parallel plate capacitor used as a fluid level sensor

 In case of radial capacitor plates, we have:
2𝜋𝜋𝜀𝜀0 𝑑𝑑
𝐶𝐶0 = [𝐹𝐹]
𝑏𝑏
ln �𝑎𝑎 �

So,
2𝜋𝜋𝜀𝜀0
𝐶𝐶 = (ℎ𝜀𝜀𝑓𝑓 + 𝑑𝑑 − ℎ) [𝐹𝐹]
𝑏𝑏
ln �𝑎𝑎�

Capacitive fuel gauges of this type are often used in diesel fuel tanks on ships and in aircraft
fuel tanks. The idea can be used for any fluid that is nonconductive, such as oil or even
water, provided the tubes are coated with insulating coatings.

2. Float Switch

a. Point Float switch

The float switch is a type of level sensor that is used to detect the level of liquid in
a tank.
The purpose of a float switch is to open or close a circuit and the level of liquid
rises or falls, if a float switch is normally open, it is incomplete which means an
electric current is unable to flow and the circuit is unable to be activated. In that
position a float switch can be used to empty or pump down a tank.
When a float switch is normally closed, there are no gaps, which means the current
is able to flow throughout the circuit. In that case, a pump can be activated or used
to fill a tank or an alarm can be activated. Before a float moves up or down, it is at
rest or is in a normal position in which it is not suspended in the liquid. As
the liquid rises or falls, it drives the float up or down that in turn opens or closes
the switch.

Figure 4 Open circuit Switch (Low Level) Figure 5 Closed Circuit Switch (High Level)
 b. Continuous Float switch

Although float switches are available in many styles,

sizes, materials and with many options, they typically
consist of a float with an internal magnet that slides up
and down a stem containing magnetically calibrated
switches. As the liquid level moves up and down in the
tank, the float’s magnet activates the internal reed
switch at the designed point. The float switch is used to
close or open a circuit that is carrying small amount of
current, typically at low voltage and amperage.
This means that the combined resistance changes as
the float rises or falls. The electronics in the sensor
housing measures the combined resistance, converts it
to signals, and then amplify and calibrate the signals to
give current output (2 wire, 4 to 20mA DC). Figure6 Typical circuit of a float switch

Voltage output is also available by

connecting a current-to-voltage
converter or a precision resistor to
the output terminal.

Figure8 Floater

Figure7 Reed Switch

The switching mechanism is

comprised of two ferromagnetic
blades, separated by only a few
microns. When a magnet
approaches these blades, the two
blades pull toward one another.
Once touching, the blades close
the normally open (NO) contacts,
allowing electricity to flow.

Figure9 Switching Mechanism

B. Continuous Level Measurement Sensors

1. Hydrostatic Level Sensor

A hydrostatic level sensor is a form of level probe that is used especially for level monitoring
by measuring the hydrostatic pressure in a virtually static liquid at a pre-determined level of
submersion.

A differential pressure sensor is placed at the base of the tank where the pressure 𝑝𝑝 has the
value:

𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝0 + 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌ℎ [𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃]

• 𝑝𝑝0 being the pressure at the top of the tank, equal or not, depending on the case, to
atmospheric pressure,
• 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝ℎ is the hydrostatic pressure due to the height ℎ of liquid of density 𝑝𝑝,the
acceleration of gravity being 𝑔𝑔.

The sensor for the test body is a membrane subjected on one side to the pressure 𝑝𝑝 and on
the other side to the pressure 𝑝𝑝0. The deformation of the membrane, converted into an
electrical signal, is proportional to the level ℎ. In case where the level is also known, the
measurement of 𝑝𝑝 allows the determination of the density 𝜌𝜌.
Pressure measured at the bottom of a vessel can give us a proportional indication of liquid
height if and only if the density of that liquid is known and constant. This means liquid
density is a critically important factor for volumetric measurement when using hydrostatic
pressure-sensing instruments. If liquid density is subject to random change, the accuracy of
any hydrostatic pressure-based level or volume instrument will be correspondingly
unreliable.

Figure10 Hydrostatic Level Sensor

2. Ultrasonic Level Sensor

Ultrasonic sensors measure levels by calculating the

duration and strength of high frequency sound waves
that are reflected off the surface of the liquid and back
to the sensor – the time taken is relative to the
distance between the sensor and the liquid. The length
of time in which the sensor takes to react is affected
by various elements in the atmosphere above the
media such as turbulence, foam, temperature
etc. Hence why the mounting position is critical in
these devices. Figure11 Ultrasonic Sensor
The distance can be calculated with the following
formula:

Figure 12 Ultrasonic sensor principle of operation

1
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝐷𝐷 = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
2

where 𝐷𝐷 is the distance, 𝑇𝑇 is the time between the emission and reception, and 𝐶𝐶 is
the sonic speed. (The value is multiplied by ½ because 𝑇𝑇 is the time for go-and-
return distance).
The ultrasonic liquid level sensor measures the height of a liquid and converts it to
an electrical signal. The liquid level signal output can then be utilized by other
instrumentation to display, monitor, log or control the liquid level.
Pros – No moving parts, compact, reliable, not affected by media properties
Cons – expensive, invasive, performance can be affected by various elements in
the environment, such as temperature. As the signal echo time is evaluated in our
ultrasonic sensors, most sensors are temperature-compensated. This eliminates
most temperature effects on the sensor output. An electrical temperature sensor
that is integrated into the sensor performs this temperature compensation.
Applications – None contact applications with highly viscous and bulk solids. Used in
systems that require remote monitoring.
3. Radar Level Sensor

Radar liquid level sensors are measurement devices,

which transmit and receive high frequency radio
waves (microwaves) to measure the distance to the
surface of a liquid based substance.
Radar liquid level sensor technology transmits a
high frequency electromagnetic wave pulse typically
in the microwave spectrum, and receives the wave
reflected off a liquid surface. The time taken for the
microwave pulse to traverse the distance between
the transmitting antenna and target surface and
back again to the receiving antenna is measured.
The distance (d) between the radar liquid level
sensor and the liquid surface can be calculated
same as the ultrasonic sensor . Figure 13 Radar Level Sensor

Unlike ultrasonic sensors, the performance of a radar level sensor is not easily
affected by temperature changes, humidity or vapor between the sensor and the
liquid surface. This is because changes in air density only have a very small effect on
the speed of electromagnetic wave.
In addition, radar liquid level sensors can work in a vacuum, high pressures and high
temperatures without any noticeable difference on measured transit time, so it can
be used in applications where it is not possible to use ultrasonic based sensors.
Due to the high frequency electromagnetic waves used, it is possible to measure
distance to a very high accuracy, as long as the surface is not too close to the sensor,
where the pulse transit time becomes too small to measure precisely. This is called
the dead zone, blocking distance or dead band, and is typically greater than an
ultrasonic based device.
The main two types of radar liquid level sensor used is through air radar (TAR) and
guided wave radar (GWR).

Figure 14 GWR vs TAR

 In a typical GWR transmitter, more than 250K pulses of electromechanical energy
are developed by a TDR generator and sent down the wave-guide (probe/rod). When
the pulses meet a discontinuity (a change in impedance due to a dielectric change) a
reflection is developed.
After an engineered impedance change or baseline reflection is detected, the
primary level reflection is detected and the level of the media is then calculated as a
time of flight.
High dielectric liquids (e.g. water) develop a strong reflection while low dielectric
media (e.g. hydrocarbons, grease) develop a weaker reflection.
The surface of low dielectric media allows some of the energy to continue down the
probe until it dissipates or is reflected by a higher dielectric media.
This characteristic gives GWR the ability to do interface measurements where a
lower dielectric material (oil for example) is riding on top of a higher dielectric
material (water for example) and to handle applications where build-up on the
probe can occur.

Pros – very accurate, no calibration required, multiple output options

Cons – expensive, can be affected by the environment, limited detection range
Applications – Moist, vaporous and dusty environments. They are also used in systems in
which temperatures vary.

C. Point Level Measurement Sensors

1. Conductivity Level Sensor

Another style of point level sensor is conductivity or resistance.
A conductivity or resistance sensor uses a probe to read conductivity. The probe has
a pair of electrodes and applies alternating current to them.
When a liquid covers the probe its electrodes form a part on an electric circuit,
causing current to flow which signals a high or low level.
The advantages of using a conductivity level sensor are :
– There are no moving parts
– They are low cost
– Fairly easy to use
The disadvantages are:
– They are invasive (meaning they must touch the product being sensed)
– They only sense conductive liquids
– The probe will erode over time

Figure15 Conductivity Level Sensor

2. Vibrating or Tuning fork

Figure16 Tuning Fork resonating at its Figure17 Tuning fork vibrating below its proper
resonant frequency frequency

A vibrating tuning fork liquid level switch is an instrument for monitoring the height
of a liquid and tripping a relay contact switch or transmitting a solid state relay
switch output when a maximum, minimum or intermediate level has been reached.
The liquid level switch output can then be utilised by other instrumentation to open
a valve, illuminate a warning lamp, activate an audible alarm, or switch on a pump.
Vibrating tuning fork liquid level switches are threshold contact trip devices which
typically consist of a tuning fork which extends out from the switch housing.
A second piezoelectric device is used to pick-up the frequency of the vibrating tuning
fork. When the liquid level rises and covers the tuning fork it will vibrate at a lower
frequency.
This change in vibration frequency is used to detect when
the required liquid level has been reached.
A vibrating tuning fork liquid level switch makes direct
contact with the liquid to be measured, and therefore
material compatibility has to be a consideration.

Since there are no pressure sensitive components exposed

to the inside of the tank it is possible to fit tuning fork level Figure18 Tuning Fork Level
switches to sealed pressurised tanks. Sensor
Also, since there is no sensitive components immersed in
the fluid it is possible to use them on higher temperature media that would not be
tolerated by other types of liquid level switch.
Advantages of Vibrating Tuning Fork Level Switches
• Reliable point level switching
• Set up without adjustment to medium
• High repeat accuracy
• Mounting possible in any position
• No moving parts
• Independent of medium characteristics
 3. Optical Level Sensor

The switch operates very simply. Inside the sensor housing is an LED and a
phototransistor. When the sensor tip is in air, the infrared light inside the sensor tip
is reflected back to the detector. When in liquid, the infrared liquid is refracted out
of the sensor tip, causing less energy to reach the detector. Being a solid-state
device, these compact switches are ideal for a vast range of point level sensing
applications, especially when reliability is essential. Optical liquid level switches are
suitable for high, low or intermediate level detection. They are also suitable for
detecting leaks preventing costly damage. Reflected light, such as in a small
reflective tank, mirrored tanks, bubbles, milk or coating fluids can often cause issues
with delayed readings.

Figure 19 Working Principle of the Optical Sensor

Pros – Compact, no moving parts, high pressure and

temperature capability, can detect tiny amounts of
liquids .
Cons – Invasive as the sensor requires contact with
the liquid, requires power, The probe will erode over
time.

Figure 20 what is inside an Optical

Sensor
References

• [IET Control, Robotics and Sensors] Nathan Ida - Sensors, Actuators, and Their Interfaces_ A
multidisciplinary introduction (2020, The Institution of Engineering and Technology)
• [L'usine nouvelle] Georges Asch et al. - Les capteurs en instrumentation industrielle (2010,
Dunod)
• Handbook of Modern Sensors Physics, Designs, and Applications by Jacob Fraden
• http://www.globalw.com/support/ultrasonic.html
• https://www.sensorsone.com/ultrasonic-liquid-level-sensors/
• https://www.sensorsone.com/radar-liquid-level-sensors/
• https://www.waterworld.com/technologies/article/16191007/examining-guided-wave-
radar-for-level-control
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mDmGhXAzCIg
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a0R4Ov2DPIc