IMO All Problems PDF

First International Olympiad, 1959
1959/1.
21n+4
Prove that the fraction 14n+3
is irreducible for every natural number n.
1959/2.
For what real values of x is
q √ q √
(x + 2x − 1) + (x − 2x − 1) = A,
√
given (a) A = 2, (b) A = 1, (c) A = 2, where only non-negative real
numbers are admitted for square roots?
1959/3.
Let a, b, c be real numbers. Consider the quadratic equation in cos x :
a cos2 x + b cos x + c = 0.
Using the numbers a, b, c, form a quadratic equation in cos 2x, whose roots
are the same as those of the original equation. Compare the equations in
cos x and cos 2x for a = 4, b = 2, c = −1.
1959/4.
Construct a right triangle with given hypotenuse c such that the median
drawn to the hypotenuse is the geometric mean of the two legs of the triangle.
1959/5.
An arbitrary point M is selected in the interior of the segment AB. The
squares AM CD and M BEF are constructed on the same side of AB, with
the segments AM and M B as their respective bases. The circles circum-
scribed about these squares, with centers P and Q, intersect at M and also
at another point N. Let N 0 denote the point of intersection of the straight
lines AF and BC.
(a) Prove that the points N and N 0 coincide.
(b) Prove that the straight lines M N pass through a fixed point S indepen-
dent of the choice of M.
(c) Find the locus of the midpoints of the segments P Q as M varies between
A and B.
1959/6.
Two planes, P and Q, intersect along the line p. The point A is given in the
plane P, and the point C in the plane Q; neither of these points lies on the
straight line p. Construct an isosceles trapezoid ABCD (with AB parallel to
CD) in which a circle can be inscribed, and with vertices B and D lying in
the planes P and Q respectively.
Second International Olympiad, 1960
1960/1.
Determine all three-digit numbers N having the property that N is divisible
by 11, and N/11 is equal to the sum of the squares of the digits of N.
1960/2.
For what values of the variable x does the following inequality hold:
4x2
√ < 2x + 9?
(1 − 1 + 2x)2
1960/3.
In a given right triangle ABC, the hypotenuse BC, of length a, is divided
into n equal parts (n an odd integer). Let α be the acute angle subtending,
from A, that segment which contains the midpoint of the hypotenuse. Let h
be the length of the altitude to the hypotenuse of the triangle. Prove:
4nh
tan α = 2 .
(n − 1)a
1960/4.
Construct triangle ABC, given ha , hb (the altitudes from A and B) and ma ,
the median from vertex A.
1960/5.
Consider the cube ABCDA0 B 0 C 0 D0 (with face ABCD directly above face
A0 B 0 C 0 D0 ).
(a) Find the locus of the midpoints of segments XY, where X is any point
of AC and Y is any point of B 0 D0 .
(b) Find the locus of points Z which lie on the segments XY of part (a) with
ZY = 2XZ.
1960/6.
Consider a cone of revolution with an inscribed sphere tangent to the base
of the cone. A cylinder is circumscribed about this sphere so
that one of its bases lies in the base of the cone. Let V1 be the volume of the
cone and V2 the volume of the cylinder.
(a) Prove that V1 6= V2 .
(b) Find the smallest number k for which V1 = kV2 , for this case, construct
the angle subtended by a diameter of the base of the cone at the vertex of
the cone.
1960/7.
An isosceles trapezoid with bases a and c and altitude h is given.
(a) On the axis of symmetry of this trapezoid, find all points P such that
both legs of the trapezoid subtend right angles at P.
(b) Calculate the distance of P from either base.
(c) Determine under what conditions such points P actually exist. (Discuss
various cases that might arise.)
Third International Olympiad, 1961
1961/1.
Solve the system of equations:
x+y+z = a
x + y 2 + z 2 = b2
2
xy = z 2
where a and b are constants. Give the conditions that a and b must satisfy
so that x, y, z (the solutions of the system) are distinct positive numbers.
1961/2. √
Let a, b, c be the sides of a triangle, and T its area. Prove: a2 +b2 +c2 ≥ 4 3T.
In what case does equality hold?
1961/3.
Solve the equation cosn x − sinn x = 1, where n is a natural number.
1961/4.
Consider triangle P1 P2 P3 and a point P within the triangle. Lines P1 P, P2 P, P3 P
intersect the opposite sides in points Q1 , Q2 , Q3 respectively. Prove that, of
the numbers
P1 P P2 P P3 P
, ,
P Q1 P Q2 P Q 3
at least one is ≤ 2 and at least one is ≥ 2.
1961/5.
Construct triangle ABC if AC = b, AB = c and 6 AM B = ω, where M is
the midpoint of segment BC and ω < 90◦ . Prove that a
solution exists if and only if
ω
b tan ≤ c < b.
2
In what case does the equality hold?
1961/6.
Consider a plane ε and three non-collinear points A, B, C on the same side of
ε; suppose the plane determined by these three points is not parallel to ε. In
plane a take three arbitrary points A0 , B 0 , C 0 . Let L, M, N be the midpoints
of segments AA0 , BB 0 , CC 0 ; let G be the centroid of triangle LM N. (We will
not consider positions of the points A0 , B 0 , C 0 such that the points L, M, N
do not form a triangle.) What is the locus of point G as A0 , B 0 , C 0 range
independently over the plane ε?
Fourth International Olympiad, 1962
1962/1.
Find the smallest natural number n which has the following properties:
(a) Its decimal representation has 6 as the last digit.
(b) If the last digit 6 is erased and placed in front of the remaining digits,
the resulting number is four times as large as the original number n.
1962/2.
Determine all real numbers x which satisfy the inequality:
√ √ 1
3−x− x+1> .
2
1962/3.
Consider the cube ABCDA0 B 0 C 0 D0 (ABCD and A0 B 0 C 0 D0 are the upper and
lower bases, respectively, and edges AA0 , BB 0 , CC 0 , DD0 are parallel). The
point X moves at constant speed along the perimeter of the square ABCD
in the direction ABCDA, and the point Y moves at the same rate along
the perimeter of the square B 0 C 0 CB in the direction B 0 C 0 CBB 0 . Points X
and Y begin their motion at the same instant from the starting positions A
and B 0 , respectively. Determine and draw the locus of the midpoints of the
segments XY.
1962/4.
Solve the equation cos2 x + cos2 2x + cos2 3x = 1.
1962/5.
On the circle K there are given three distinct points A, B, C. Construct (using
only straightedge and compasses) a fourth point D on K such that a circle
can be inscribed in the quadrilateral thus obtained.
1962/6.
Consider an isosceles triangle. Let r be the radius of its circumscribed circle
and ρ the radius of its inscribed circle. Prove that the distance d between
the centers of these two circles is
q
d= r(r − 2ρ).
1962/7.
The tetrahedron SABC has the following property: there exist five spheres,
each tangent to the edges SA, SB, SC, BCCA, AB, or to their extensions.
(a) Prove that the tetrahedron SABC is regular.
(b) Prove conversely that for every regular tetrahedron five such spheres
exist.
Fifth International Olympiad, 1963
1963/1.
Find all real roots of the equation
q √
x2 − p + 2 x2 − 1 = x,
where p is a real parameter.
1963/2.
Point A and segment BC are given. Determine the locus of points in space
which are vertices of right angles with one side passing through A, and the
other side intersecting the segment BC.
1963/3.
In an n-gon all of whose interior angles are equal, the lengths of consecutive
sides satisfy the relation
a1 ≥ a2 ≥ · · · ≥ an .
Prove that a1 = a2 = · · · = an .
1963/4.
Find all solutions x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 of the system
x5 + x2 = yx1
x1 + x3 = yx2
x2 + x4 = yx3
x3 + x5 = yx4
x4 + x1 = yx5 ,
where y is a parameter.
1963/5.
Prove that cos π7 − cos 2π
7
+ cos 3π
7
= 12 .
1963/6.
Five students, A, B, C, D, E, took part in a contest. One prediction was that
the contestants would finish in the order ABCDE. This prediction was very
poor. In fact no contestant finished in the position predicted, and no two
contestants predicted to finish consecutively actually did so. A second pre-
diction had the contestants finishing in the order DAECB. This prediction
was better. Exactly two of the contestants finished in the places predicted,
and two disjoint pairs of students predicted to finish consecutively actually
did so. Determine the order in which the contestants finished.
Sixth International Olympiad, 1964
1964/1.
(a) Find all positive integers n for which 2n − 1 is divisible by 7.
(b) Prove that there is no positive integer n for which 2n + 1 is divisible by
7.
1964/2.
Suppose a, b, c are the sides of a triangle. Prove that
a2 (b + c − a) + b2 (c + a − b) + c2 (a + b − c) ≤ 3abc.
1964/3.
A circle is inscribed in triangle ABC with sides a, b, c. Tangents to the circle
parallel to the sides of the triangle are constructed. Each of these tangents
cuts off a triangle from ∆ABC. In each of these triangles, a circle is inscribed.
Find the sum of the areas of all four inscribed circles (in terms of a, b, c).
1964/4.
Seventeen people correspond by mail with one another - each one with all
the rest. In their letters only three different topics are discussed. Each pair
of correspondents deals with only one of these topics. Prove that there are
at least three people who write to each other about the same topic.
1964/5.
Suppose five points in a plane are situated so that no two of the straight lines
joining them are parallel, perpendicular, or coincident. From each point per-
pendiculars are drawn to all the lines joining the other four points. Determine
the maximum number of intersections that these perpendiculars can have.
1964/6.
In tetrahedron ABCD, vertex D is connected with D0 the centroid of ∆ABC.
Lines parallel to DD0 are drawn through A, B and C. These lines intersect the
planes BCD, CAD and ABD in points A1 , B1 and C1 , respectively. Prove
that the volume of ABCD is one third the volume of A1 B1 C1 D0 . Is the result
true if point D0 is selected anywhere within ∆ABC?
Seventh Internatioaal Olympiad, 1965
1965/1.
Determine all values x in the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π which satisfy the inequality
¯√ √ ¯ √
2 cos x ≤ ¯¯ 1 + sin 2x − 1 − sin 2x¯¯ ≤ 2.
1965/2.
Consider the system of equations
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 = 0

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 = 0
a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 = 0
with unknowns x1 , x2 , x3 . The coefficients satisfy the conditions:

(a) a11 , a22 , a33 are positive numbers;
(b) the remaining coefficients are negative numbers;
(c) in each equation, the sum of the coefficients is positive.
Prove that the given system has only the solution x1 = x2 = x3 = 0.
1965/3.
Given the tetrahedron ABCD whose edges AB and CD have lengths a and
b respectively. The distance between the skew lines AB and CD is d, and
the angle between them is ω. Tetrahedron ABCD is divided into two solids
by plane ε, parallel to lines AB and CD. The ratio of the distances of ε from
AB and CD is equal to k. Compute the ratio of the volumes of the two solids
obtained.
1965/4.
Find all sets of four real numbers x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 such that the sum of any one
and the product of the other three is equal to 2.
1965/5.
Consider ∆OAB with acute angle AOB. Through a point M 6= O perpendic-
ulars are drawn to OA and OB, the feet of which are P and Q respectively.
The point of intersection of the altitudes of ∆OP Q is H. What is the locus
of H if M is permitted to range over (a) the side AB, (b) the interior of
∆OAB?
1965/6.
In a plane a set of n points (n ≥ 3) is given. Each pair of points is connected
by a segment. Let d be the length of the longest of these segments. We define
a diameter of the set to be any connecting segment of length d. Prove that
the number of diameters of the given set is at most n.
Eighth International Olympiad, 1966
1966/1.
In a mathematical contest, three problems, A, B, C were posed. Among the
participants there were 25 students who solved at least one problem each.
Of all the contestants who did not solve problem A, the number who solved
B was twice the number who solved C. The number of students who solved
only problem A was one more than the number of students who solved A
and at least one other problem. Of all students who solved just one problem,
half did not solve problem A. How many students solved only problem B?
1966/2.
Let a, b, c be the lengths of the sides of a triangle, and α, β, γ, respectively,
the angles opposite these sides. Prove that if
γ
a + b = tan (a tan α + b tan β),
2
the triangle is isosceles.
1966/3.
Prove: The sum of the distances of the vertices of a regular tetrahedron from
the center of its circumscribed sphere is less than the sum of the distances of
these vertices from any other point in space.
1966/4.
Prove that for every natural number n, and for every real number x 6=
kπ/2t (t = 0, 1, ..., n; k any integer)
1 1 1
+ + ··· + n
= cot x − cot 2n x.
sin 2x sin 4x sin 2 x
1966/5.
Solve the system of equations
|a1 − a2 | x2 + |a1 − a3 | x3 + |a1 − a4 | x4 = 1

|a2 − a1 | x1 + |a2 − a3 | x3 + |a2 − a3 | x3 = 1
|a3 − a1 | x1 + |a3 − a2 | x2 =1
|a4 − a1 | x1 + |a4 − a2 | x2 + |a4 − a3 | x3 =1
where a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 are four different real numbers.

1966/6.
In the interior of sides BC, CA, AB of triangle ABC, any points K, L, M,
respectively, are selected. Prove that the area of at least one of the triangles
AM L, BKM, CLK is less than or equal to one quarter of the area of triangle
ABC.
Ninth International Olympiad, 1967
1967/1.
Let ABCD be a parallelogram with side lengths AB = a, AD = 1, and with
6 BAD = α. If ∆ABD is acute, prove that the four circles of radius 1 with
centers A, B, C, D cover the parallelogram if and only if
√
a ≤ cos α + 3 sin α.
1967/2.
Prove that if one and only one edge of a tetrahedron is greater than 1, then
its volume is ≤ 1/8.
1967/3.
Let k, m, n be natural numbers such that m + k + 1 is a prime greater than
n + 1. Let cs = s(s + 1). Prove that the product
(cm+1 − ck )(cm+2 − ck ) · · · (cm+n − ck )
is divisible by the product c1 c2 · · · cn .
1967/4.
Let A0 B0 C0 and A1 B1 C1 be any two acute-angled triangles. Consider all
triangles ABC that are similar to ∆A1 B1 C1 (so that vertices A1 , B1 , C1 cor-
respond to vertices A, B, C, respectively) and circumscribed about triangle
A0 B0 C0 (where A0 lies on BC, B0 on CA, and AC0 on AB). Of all such
possible triangles, determine the one with maximum area, and construct it.
1967/5.
Consider the sequence {cn }, where
c1 = a1 + a2 + · · · + a8
c2 = a21 + a22 + · · · + a28
···
cn = an1 + an2 + · · · + an8
···
in which a1 , a2 , · · · , a8 are real numbers not all equal to zero. Suppose that
an infinite number of terms of the sequence {cn } are equal to zero. Find all
natural numbers n for which cn = 0.
1967/6.
In a sports contest, there were m medals awarded on n successive days (n >
1). On the first day, one medal and 1/7 of the remaining m − 1 medals
were awarded. On the second day, two medals and 1/7 of the now remaining
medals were awarded; and so on. On the n-th and last day, the remaining n
medals were awarded. How many days did the contest last, and how many
medals were awarded altogether?
Tenth International Olympiad, 1968
1968/1.
Prove that there is one and only one triangle whose side lengths are consec-
utive integers, and one of whose angles is twice as large as another.
1968/2.
Find all natural numbers x such that the product of their digits (in decimal
notation) is equal to x2 − 10x − 22.
1968/3.
Consider the system of equations
ax21 + bx1 + c = x2
ax22 + bx2 + c = x3
···
2
axn−1 + bxn−1 + c = xn
ax2n + bxn + c = x1 ,
with unknowns x1 , x2 , · · · , xn , where a, b, c are real and a 6= 0. Let ∆ =
(b − 1)2 − 4ac. Prove that for this system
(a) if ∆ < 0, there is no solution,
(b) if ∆ = 0, there is exactly one solution,
(c) if ∆ > 0, there is more than one solution.
1968/4.
Prove that in every tetrahedron there is a vertex such that the three edges
meeting there have lengths which are the sides of a triangle.
1968/5.
Let f be a real-valued function defined for all real numbers x such that, for
some positive constant a, the equation
1 q
f (x + a) = + f (x) − [f (x)]2
2
holds for all x.
(a) Prove that the function f is periodic (i.e., there exists a positive number
b such that f (x + b) = f (x) for all x).
(b) For a = 1, give an example of a non-constant function with the required
properties.
1968/6.
For every natural number n, evaluate the sum
∞
" # · ¸ · ¸ " #
X n + 2k n+1 n+2 n + 2k
= + + ··· + + ···
k=0 2k+1 2 4 2k+1
(The symbol [x] denotes the greatest integer not exceeding x.)
Eleventh International Olympiad, 1969
1969/1.
Prove that there are infinitely many natural numbers a with the following
property: the number z = n4 + a is not prime for any natura1 number n.
1969/2.
Let a1 , a2 , · · · , an be real constants, x a real variable, and
1 1
f (x) = cos(a1 + x) + cos(a2 + x) + cos(a3 + x)
2 4
1
+··· + cos(an + x).
2n−1
Given that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) = 0, prove that x2 − x1 = mπ for some integer m.
1969/3.
For each value of k = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, find necessary and sufficient conditions on
the number a > 0 so that there exists a tetrahedron with k edges of length
a, and the remaining 6 − k edges of length 1.
1969/4.
A semicircular arc γ is drawn on AB as diameter. C is a point on γ other
than A and B, and D is the foot of the perpendicular from C to AB. We
consider three circles, γ1 , γ2 , γ3 , all tangent to the line AB. Of these, γ1 is
inscribed in ∆ABC, while γ2 and γ3 are both tangent to CD and to γ, one on
each side of CD. Prove that γ1 , γ2 and γ3 have a second tangent in common.
1969/5.
Given n > 4 points³ in ´the plane such that no three are collinear. Prove that
there are at least n−3
2
convex quadrilaterals whose vertices are four of the
given points.
1969/6.
Prove that for all real numbers x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 , z1 , z2 , with x1 > 0, x2 > 0, x1 y1 −
z12 > 0, x2 y2 − z22 > 0, the inequality
8 1 1
2 ≤ +
(x1 + x2 ) (y1 + y2 ) − (z1 + z2 ) x1 y1 − z1 x2 y2 − z22
2
is satisfied. Give necessary and sufficient conditions for equality.

Twelfth International Olympiad, 1970
1970/1.
Let M be a point on the side AB of ∆ABC. Let r1 , r2 and r be the radii
of the inscribed circles of triangles AM C, BM C and ABC. Let q1 , q2 and q
be the radii of the escribed circles of the same triangles that lie in the angle
ACB. Prove that
r1 r2 r
· = .
q1 q2 q
1970/2.
Let a, b and n be integers greater than 1, and let a and b be the bases of
two number systems. An−1 and An are numbers in the system with base a,
and Bn−1 and Bn are numbers in the system with base b; these are related as
follows:
An = xn xn−1 · · · x0 , An−1 = xn−1 xn−2 · · · x0 ,
Bn = xn xn−1 · · · x0 , Bn−1 = xn−1 xn−2 · · · x0 ,
xn 6= 0, xn−1 6= 0.
Prove:
An−1 Bn−1
< if and only if a > b.
An Bn
1970/3.
The real numbers a0 , a1 , ..., an , ... satisfy the condition:
1 = a0 ≤ a1 ≤ a2 ≤ · · · ≤ an ≤ · · · .
The numbers b1 , b2 , ..., bn , ... are defined by
n µ
X ¶
ak−1 1
bn = 1− √ .
k=1 ak ak
(a) Prove that 0 ≤ bn < 2 for all n.
(b) Given c with 0 ≤ c < 2, prove that there exist numbers a0 , a1 , ... with
the above properties such that bn > c for large enough n.
1970/4.
Find the set of all positive integers n with the property that the set {n, n +
1, n + 2, n + 3, n + 4, n + 5} can be partitioned into two sets such that the
product of the numbers in one set equals the product of the numbers in the
other set.
1970/5.
In the tetrahedron ABCD, angle BDC is a right angle. Suppose that the
foot H of the perpendicular from D to the plane ABC is the intersection of
the altitudes of ∆ABC. Prove that
(AB + BC + CA)2 ≤ 6(AD2 + BD2 + CD2 ).
For what tetrahedra does equality hold?
1970/6.
In a plane there are 100 points, no three of which are collinear. Consider all
possible triangles having these points as vertices. Prove that no more than
70% of these triangles are acute-angled.
Thirteenth International Olympiad, 1971
1971/1.
Prove that the following assertion is true for n = 3 and n = 5, and that it is
false for every other natural number n > 2 :
If a1 , a2 , ..., an are arbitrary real numbers, then
(a1 − a2 )(a1 − a3 ) · · · (a1 − an ) + (a2 − a1 )(a2 − a3 ) · · · (a2 − an )
+ · · · + (an − a1 )(an − a2 ) · · · (an − an−1 ) ≥ 0
1971/2.
Consider a convex polyhedron P1 with nine vertices A1 A2 , ..., A9 ; let Pi be
the polyhedron obtained from P1 by a translation that moves vertex A1 to
Ai (i = 2, 3, ..., 9). Prove that at least two of the polyhedra P1 , P2 , ..., P9 have
an interior point in common.
1971/3.
Prove that the set of integers of the form 2k − 3(k = 2, 3, ...) contains an
infinite subset in which every two members are relatively prime.
1971/4.
All the faces of tetrahedron ABCD are acute-angled triangles. We consider
all closed polygonal paths of the form XY ZT X defined as follows: X is a
point on edge AB distinct from A and B; similarly, Y, Z, T are interior points
of edges BCCD, DA, respectively. Prove:
(a) If 6 DAB + 6 BCD 6= 6 CDA + 6 ABC, then among the polygonal paths,
there is none of minimal length.
(b) If 6 DAB + 6 BCD = 6 CDA + 6 ABC, then there are infinitely many
shortest polygonal paths, their common length being 2AC sin(α/2), where
α = 6 BAC + 6 CAD + 6 DAB.
1971/5.
Prove that for every natural number m, there exists a finite set S of points
in a plane with the following property: For every point A in S, there are
exactly m points in S which are at unit distance from A.
1971/6.
Let A = (aij )(i, j = 1, 2, ..., n) be a square matrix whose elements are non-
negative integers. Suppose that whenever an element aij = 0, the sum of the
elements in the ith row and the jth column is ≥ n. Prove that the sum of
all the elements of the matrix is ≥ n2 /2.
Fourteenth International Olympiad, 1972
1972/1.
Prove that from a set of ten distinct two-digit numbers (in the decimal sys-
tem), it is possible to select two disjoint subsets whose members have the
same sum.
1972/2.
Prove that if n ≥ 4, every quadrilateral that can be inscribed in a circle can
be dissected into n quadrilaterals each of which is inscribable in a circle.
1972/3.
Let m and n be arbitrary non-negative integers. Prove that
(2m)!(2n)!
m0n!(m + n)!
is an integer. (0! = 1.)
1972/4.
Find all solutions (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 ) of the system of inequalities
(x21 − x3 x5 )(x22 − x3 x5 ) ≤ 0
(x22 − x4 x1 )(x23 − x4 x1 ) ≤ 0
(x23 − x5 x2 )(x24 − x5 x2 ) ≤ 0
(x24 − x1 x3 )(x25 − x1 x3 ) ≤ 0
(x25 − x2 x4 )(x21 − x2 x4 ) ≤ 0
where x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 are positive real numbers.
1972/5.
Let f and g be real-valued functions defined for all real values of x and y,
and satisfying the equation
f (x + y) + f (x − y) = 2f (x)g(y)
for all x, y. Prove that if f (x) is not identically zero, and if |f (x)| ≤ 1 for all
x, then |g(y)| ≤ 1 for all y.
1972/6.
Given four distinct parallel planes, prove that there exists a regular tetrahe-
dron with a vertex on each plane.
Fifteenth International Olympiad, 1973
1973/1.
−−→ −−→ −−→
Point O lies on line g; OP1 , OP2 , ..., OPn are unit vectors such that points
P1 , P2 , ..., Pn all lie in a plane containing g and on one side of g. Prove that
if n is odd, ¯−−→ −−→
¯ −−→¯¯
¯OP1 + OP2 + · · · + OPn ¯ ≥ 1
¯−−→¯ −−→
¯ ¯
Here ¯OM ¯ denotes the length of vector OM .
1973/2.
Determine whether or not there exists a finite set M of points in space not
lying in the same plane such that, for any two points A and B of M, one can
select two other points C and D of M so that lines AB and CD are parallel
and not coincident.
1973/3.
Let a and b be real numbers for which the equation
x4 + ax3 + bx2 + ax + 1 = 0
has at least one real solution. For all such pairs (a, b), find the minimum
value of a2 + b2 .
1973/4.
A soldier needs to check on the presence of mines in a region having the
shape of an equilateral triangle. The radius of action of his detector is equal
to half the altitude of the triangle. The soldier leaves from one vertex of the
triangle. What path shouid he follow in order to travel the least possible
distance and still accomplish his mission?
1973/5.
G is a set of non-constant functions of the real variable x of the form
f (x) = ax + b, a and b are real numbers,
and G has the following properties:
(a) If f and g are in G, then g ◦ f is in G; here (g ◦ f )(x) = g[f (x)].
(b) If f is in G, then its inverse f −1 is in G; here the inverse of f (x) = ax + b
is f −1 (x) = (x − b)/a.
(c) For every f in G, there exists a real number xf such that f (xf ) = xf .
Prove that there exists a real number k such that f (k) = k for all f in G.
1973/6.
Let a1 , a2 , ..., an be n positive numbers, and let q be a given real number such
that 0 < q < 1. Find n numbers b1 , b2 , ..., bn for which
(a) ak < bk for k = 1, 2, · · · , n,
(b) q < bk+1
bk
< 1q for k = 1, 2, ..., n − 1,
(c) b1 + b2 + · · · + bn < 1+q1−q
(a1 + a2 + · · · + an ).
Sixteenth International Olympiad, 1974
1974/1.
Three players A, B and C play the following game: On each of three cards
an integer is written. These three numbers p, q, r satisfy 0 < p < q < r. The
three cards are shuffled and one is dealt to each player. Each then receives
the number of counters indicated by the card he holds. Then the cards are
shuffled again; the counters remain with the players.
This process (shuffling, dealing, giving out counters) takes place for at least
two rounds. After the last round, A has 20 counters in all, B has 10 and C
has 9. At the last round B received r counters. Who received q counters on
the first round?
1974/2.
In the triangle ABC, prove that there is a point D on side AB such that CD
is the geometric mean of AD and DB if and only if
C
sin A sin B ≤ sin2 .
2
1974/3. ³ ´
Pn 2n+1
Prove that the number k=0 2k+1
23k is not divisible by 5 for any integer
n ≥ 0.
1974/4.
Consider decompositions of an 8 × 8 chessboard into p non-overlapping rect-
angles subject to the following conditions:
(i) Each rectangle has as many white squares as black squares.
(ii) If ai is the number of white squares in the i-th rectangle, then a1 < a2 <
· · · < ap . Find the maximum value of p for which such a decomposition is
possible. For this value of p, determine all possible sequences a1 , a2 , · · · , ap .
1974/5.
Determine all possible values of
a b c d
S= + + +
a+b+d a+b+c b+c+d a+c+d
where a, b, c, d are arbitrary positive numbers.
1974/6.
Let P be a non-constant polynomial with integer coefficients. If n(P ) is
the number of distinct integers k such that (P (k))2 = 1, prove that n(P ) −
deg(P ) ≤ 2, where deg(P ) denotes the degree of the polynomial P.
Seventeenth International Olympiad, 1975
1975/1.
Let xi , yi (i = 1, 2, ..., n) be real numbers such that
x1 ≥ x2 ≥ · · · ≥ xn and y1 ≥ y2 ≥ · · · ≥ yn .
Prove that, if z1 , z2 , · · · , zn is any permutation of y1 , y2 , · · · , yn , then

n
X n
X
2
(xi − yi ) ≤ (xi − zi )2 .
i=1 i=1
1975/2.
Let a1 , a2 , a3, · · · be an infinite increasing sequence of positive integers. Prove
that for every p ≥ 1 there are infinitely many am which can be written in
the form
am = xap + yaq
with x, y positive integers and q > p.
1975/3.
On the sides of an arbitrary triangle ABC, triangles ABR, BCP, CAQ are
constructed externally with 6 CBP = 6 CAQ = 45◦ , 6 BCP = 6 ACQ =
30◦ , 6 ABR = 6 BAR = 15◦ . Prove that 6 QRP = 90◦ and QR = RP.
1975/4.
When 44444444 is written in decimal notation, the sum of its digits is A. Let
B be the sum of the digits of A. Find the sum of the digits of B. (A and B
are written in decimal notation.)
1975/5.
Determine, with proof, whether or not one can find 1975 points on the cir-
cumference of a circle with unit radius such that the distance between any
two of them is a rational number.
1975/6.
Find all polynomials P, in two variables, with the following properties:
(i) for a positive integer n and all real t, x, y
P (tx, ty) = tn P (x, y)

(that is, P is homogeneous of degree n),
(ii) for all real a, b, c,
P (b + c, a) + P (c + a, b) + P (a + b, c) = 0,
(iii) P (1, 0) = 1.
Eighteenth International Olympiad, 1976
1976/1.
In a plane convex quadrilateral of area 32, the sum of the lengths of two
opposite sides and one diagonal is 16. Determine all possible lengths of the
other diagonal.
1976/2.
Let P1 (x) = x2 − 2 and Pj (x) = P1 (Pj−1 (x)) for j = 2, 3, · · ·. Show that,
for any positive integer n, the roots of the equation Pn (x) = x are real and
distinct.
1976/3.
A rectangular box can be filled completely with unit cubes. If one places as
many cubes as possible, each with volume 2, in the box, so that their edges
are parallel to the edges of the box, one can fill exactly 40% of the box.
Determine the possible dimensions of all such boxes.
1976/4.
Determine, with proof, the largest number which is the product of positive
integers whose sum is 1976.
1976/5.
Consider the system of p equations in q = 2p unknowns x1 , x2 , · · · , xq :
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1q xq = 0

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2q xq = 0
···
ap1 x1 + ap2 x2 + · · · + apq xq = 0
with every coefficient aij member of the set {−1, 0, 1}. Prove that the system
has a solution (x1 , x2 , · · · , xq ) such that
(a) all xj (j = 1, 2, ..., q) are integers,
(b) there is at least one value of j for which xj 6= 0,
(c) |xj | ≤ q(j = 1, 2, ..., q).
1976/6.
A sequence {un } is defined by
u0 = 2, u1 = 5/2, un+1 = un (u2n−1 − 2) − u1 for n = 1, 2, · · ·

Prove that for positive integers n,
n −(−1)n ]/3
[un ] = 2[2
where [x] denotes the greatest integer ≤ x.

Nineteenth International Mathematical Olympiad,
1977
1977/1.
Equilateral triangles ABK, BCL, CDM, DAN are constructed inside the
square ABCD. Prove that the midpoints of the four segments KL, LM, M N, N K
and the midpoints of the eight segments AKBK, BL, CL, CM, DM, DN, AN
are the twelve vertices of a regular dodecagon.
1977/2.
In a finite sequence of real numbers the sum of any seven successive terms is
negative, and the sum of any eleven successive terms is positive. Determine
the maximum number of terms in the sequence.
1977/3.
Let n be a given integer > 2, and let Vn be the set of integers 1 + kn, where
k = 1, 2, .... A number m ∈ Vn is called indecomposable in Vn if there do not
exist numbers p, q ∈ Vn such that pq = m. Prove that there exists a number
r ∈ Vn that can be expressed as the product of elements indecomposable in
Vn in more than one way. (Products which differ only in the order of their
factors will be considered the same.)
1977/4.
Four real constants a, b, A, B are given, and
f (θ) = 1 − a cos θ − b sin θ − A cos 2θ − B sin 2θ.
Prove that if f (θ) ≥ 0 for all real θ, then
a2 + b2 ≤ 2 and A2 + B 2 ≤ 1.
1977/5.
Let a and b be positive integers. When a2 +b2 is divided by a+b, the quotient
is q and the remainder is r. Find all pairs (a, b) such that q 2 + r = 1977.
1977/6.
Let f (n) be a function defined on the set of all positive integers and having
all its values in the same set. Prove that if
f (n + 1) > f (f (n))
for each positive integer n, then
f (n) = n for each n.
Twentieth International Olympiad, 1978
1978/1. m and n are natural numbers with 1 ≤ m < n. In their decimal
representations, the last three digits of 1978m are equal, respectively, to the
last three digits of 1978n . Find m and n such that m + n has its least value.
1978/2. P is a given point inside a given sphere. Three mutually perpendic-
ular rays from P intersect the sphere at points U, V, and W ; Q denotes the
vertex diagonally opposite to P in the parallelepiped determined by P U, P V,
and P W. Find the locus of Q for all such triads of rays from P
1978/3. The set of all positive integers is the union of two disjoint subsets
{f (1), f (2), ..., f (n), ...}, {g(1), g(2), ..., g(n), ...}, where
f (1) < f (2) < · · · < f (n) < · · · ,
g(1) < g(2) < · · · < g(n) < · · · ,

and
g(n) = f (f (n)) + 1for all n ≥ 1.
Determine f (240).
1978/4. In triangle ABC, AB = AC. A circle is tangent internally to the
circumcircle of triangle ABC and also to sides AB, AC at P, Q, respectively.
Prove that the midpoint of segment P Q is the center of the incircle of triangle
ABC.
1978/5. Let {ak }(k = 1, 2, 3, ..., n, ...) be a sequence of distinct positive
integers. Prove that for all natural numbers n,
n
X n
X
ak 1
≥ .
k=1 k2 k=1 k
1978/6. An international society has its members from six different countries.
The list of members contains 1978 names, numbered 1, 2, ..., 1978. Prove that
there is at least one member whose number is the sum of the numbers of two
members from his own country, or twice as large as the number of one member
from his own country.
Twenty-first International Olympiad, 1979
1979/1. Let p and q be natural numbers such that
p 1 1 1 1 1
= 1 − + − + ··· − + .
q 2 3 4 1318 1319
Prove that p is divisible by 1979.
1979/2. A prism with pentagons A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 and B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 as top and
bottom faces is given. Each side of the two pentagons and each of the line-
segments Ai Bj for all i, j = 1, ..., 5, is colored either red or green. Every
triangle whose vertices are vertices of the prism and whose sides have all
been colored has two sides of a different color. Show that all 10 sides of the
top and bottom faces are the same color.
1979/3. Two circles in a plane intersect. Let A be one of the points of
intersection. Starting simultaneously from A two points move with constant
speeds, each point travelling along its own circle in the same sense. The two
points return to A simultaneously after one revolution. Prove that there is
a fixed point P in the plane such that, at any time, the distances from P to
the moving points are equal.
1979/4. Given a plane π, a point P in this plane and a point Q not in π,
find all points R in π such that the ratio (QP + P A)/QR is a maximum.
1979/5. Find all real numbers a for which there exist non-negative real
numbers x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 satisfying the relations
5
X 5
X 5
X
kxk = a, k 3 xk = a2 , k 5 xk = a 3 .
k=1 k=1 k=1
1979/6. Let A and E be opposite vertices of a regular octagon. A frog starts

jumping at vertex A. From any vertex of the octagon except E, it may jump
to either of the two adjacent vertices. When it reaches vertex E, the frog
stops and stays there.. Let an be the number of distinct paths of exactly n
jumps ending at E. Prove that a2n−1 = 0,
1
a2n = √ (xn−1 − y n−1 ), n = 1, 2, 3, · · · ,
2
√ √
where x = 2 + 2 and y = 2 − 2.
Note. A path of n jumps is a sequence of vertices (P0 , ..., Pn ) such that
(i) P0 = A, Pn = E;
(ii) for every i, 0 ≤ i ≤ n − 1, Pi is distinct from E;
(iii) for every i, 0 ≤ i ≤ n − 1, Pi and Pi+1 are adjacent.
Twenty-second International Olympiad, 1981
1981/1. P is a point inside a given triangle ABC.D, E, F are the feet of the
perpendiculars from P to the lines BC, CA, AB respectively. Find all P for
which
BC CA AB
+ +
PD PE PF
is least.
1981/2. Let 1 ≤ r ≤ n and consider all subsets of r elements of the set
{1, 2, ..., n}. Each of these subsets has a smallest member. Let F (n, r) denote
the arithmetic mean of these smallest numbers; prove that
n+1
F (n, r) = .
r+1
1981/3. Determine the maximum value of m3 +n3 ,where m and n are integers
satisfying m, n ∈ {1, 2, ..., 1981} and (n2 − mn − m2 )2 = 1.
1981/4. (a) For which values of n > 2 is there a set of n consecutive positive
integers such that the largest number in the set is a divisor of the least
common multiple of the remaining n − 1 numbers?
(b) For which values of n > 2 is there exactly one set having the stated
property?
1981/5. Three congruent circles have a common point O and lie inside a
given triangle. Each circle touches a pair of sides of the triangle. Prove
that the incenter and the circumcenter of the triangle and the point O are
collinear.
1981/6. The function f (x, y) satisfies
(1) f (0, y) = y + 1,
(2)f (x + 1, 0) = f (x, 1),
(3) f (x + 1, y + 1) = f (x, f (x + 1, y)),
for all non-negative integers x, y. Determine f (4, 1981).
Twenty-third International Olympiad, 1982
1982/1. The function f (n) is defined for all positive integers n and takes on
non-negative integer values. Also, for all m, n
f (m + n) − f (m) − f (n) = 0 or 1
f (2) = 0, f (3) > 0, and f (9999) = 3333.

Determine f (1982).
1982/2. A non-isosceles triangle A1 A2 A3 is given with sides a1 , a2 , a3 (ai is
the side opposite Ai ). For all i = 1, 2, 3, Mi is the midpoint of side ai , and Ti .
is the point where the incircle touches side ai . Denote by Si the reflection
of Ti in the interior bisector of angle Ai . Prove that the lines M1 , S1 , M2 S2 ,
and M3 S3 are concurrent.
1982/3. Consider the infinite sequences {xn } of positive real numbers with
the following properties:
x0 = 1, and for all i ≥ 0, xi+1 ≤ xi .
(a) Prove that for every such sequence, there is an n ≥ 1 such that
x20 x21 x2
+ + · · · + n−1 ≥ 3.999.
x1 x2 xn
(b) Find such a sequence for which
x20 x21 x2n−1

+ + ··· + < 4.
x1 x2 xn
1982/4. Prove that if n is a positive integer such that the equation
x3 − 3xy 2 + y 3 = n
has a solution in integers (x, y), then it has at least three such solutions.
Show that the equation has no solutions in integers when n = 2891.
1982/5. The diagonals AC and CE of the regular hexagon ABCDEF are
divided by the inner points M and N , respectively, so that
AM CN
= = r.
AC CE
Determine r if B, M, and N are collinear.
1982/6. Let S be a square with sides of length 100, and let L be a path
within S which does not meet itself and which is composed of line segments
A0 A1 , A1 A2 , · · · , An−1 An with A0 6= An . Suppose that for every point P of
the boundary of S there is a point of L at a distance from P not greater than
1/2. Prove that there are two points X and Y in L such that the distance
between X and Y is not greater than 1, and the length of that part of L
which lies between X and Y is not smaller than 198.
Twenty-fourth International Olympiad, 1983
1983/1. Find all functions f defined on the set of positive real numbers which
take positive real values and satisfy the conditions:
(i) f (xf (y)) = yf (x) for all positive x, y;
(ii) f (x) → 0 as x → ∞.
1983/2. Let A be one of the two distinct points of intersection of two unequal
coplanar circles C1 and C2 with centers O1 and O2 , respectively. One of the
common tangents to the circles touches C1 at P1 and C2 at P2 , while the
other touches C1 at Q1 and C2 at Q2 . Let M1 be the midpoint of P1 Q1 ,and
M2 be the midpoint of P2 Q2 . Prove that 6 O1 AO2 = 6 M1 AM2 .
1983/3. Let a, b and c be positive integers, no two of which have a common
divisor greater than 1. Show that 2abc − ab − bc − ca is the largest integer
which cannot be expressed in the form xbc + yca + zab,where x, y and z are
non-negative integers.
1983/4. Let ABC be an equilateral triangle and E the set of all points
contained in the three segments AB, BC and CA (including A, B and C).
Determine whether, for every partition of E into two disjoint subsets, at least
one of the two subsets contains the vertices of a right-angled triangle. Justify
your answer.
1983/5. Is it possible to choose 1983 distinct positive integers, all less than
or equal to 105 , no three of which are consecutive terms of an arithmetic
progression? Justify your answer.
1983/6. Let a, b and c be the lengths of the sides of a triangle. Prove that
a2 b(a − b) + b2 c(b − c) + c2 a(c − a) ≥ 0.
Determine when equality occurs.

Twenty-fifth International Olympiad, 1984
1984/1. Prove that 0 ≤ yz + zx + xy − 2xyz ≤ 7/27, where x, y and z are
non-negative real numbers for which x + y + z = 1.
1984/2. Find one pair of positive integers a and b such that:
(i) ab(a + b) is not divisible by 7;
(ii) (a + b)7 − a7 − b7 is divisible by 77 .
Justify your answer.
1984/3. In the plane two different points O and A are given. For each
point X of the plane, other than O, denote by a(X) the measure of the angle
between OA and OX in radians, counterclockwise from OA(0 ≤ a(X) < 2π).
Let C(X) be the circle with center O and radius of length OX + a(X)/OX.
Each point of the plane is colored by one of a finite number of colors. Prove
that there exists a point Y for which a(Y ) > 0 such that its color appears
on the circumference of the circle C(Y ).
1984/4. Let ABCD be a convex quadrilateral such that the line CD is a
tangent to the circle on AB as diameter. Prove that the line AB is a tangent
to the circle on CD as diameter if and only if the lines BC and AD are
parallel.
1984/5. Let d be the sum of the lengths of all the diagonals of a plane convex
polygon with n vertices (n > 3), and let p be its perimeter. Prove that
· ¸· ¸
2d n n+1
n−3< < − 2,
p 2 2
where [x] denotes the greatest integer not exceeding x.

1984/6. Let a, b, c and d be odd integers such that 0 < a < b < c < d and
ad = bc. Prove that if a + d = 2k and b + c = 2m for some integers k and m,
then a = 1.
Twenty-sixth International Olympiad, 1985
1985/1. A circle has center on the side AB of the cyclic quadrilateral ABCD.
The other three sides are tangent to the circle. Prove that AD + BC = AB.
1985/2. Let n and k be given relatively prime natural numbers, k < n. Each
number in the set M = {1, 2, ..., n − 1} is colored either blue or white. It is
given that
(i) for each i ∈ M, both i and n − i have the same color;
(ii) for each i ∈ M, i 6= k, both i and |i − k| have the same color. Prove that
all numbers in M must have the same color.
1985/3. For any polynomial P (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + ak xk with integer
coefficients, the number of coefficients which are odd is denoted by w(P ).
For i = 0, 1, ..., let Qi (x) = (1 + x)i . Prove that if i1 i2 , ..., in are integers such
that 0 ≤ i1 < i2 < · · · < in , then
w(Qi1 + Qi2 , + + Qin ) ≥ w(Qi1 ).
1985/4. Given a set M of 1985 distinct positive integers, none of which has
a prime divisor greater than 26. Prove that M contains at least one subset
of four distinct elements whose product is the fourth power of an integer.
1985/5. A circle with center O passes through the vertices A and C of triangle
ABC and intersects the segments AB and BC again at distinct points K and
N, respectively. The circumscribed circles of the triangles ABC and EBN
intersect at exactly two distinct points B and M. Prove that angle OM B is
a right angle.
1985/6. For every real number x1 , construct the sequence x1 , x2 , ... by setting
µ ¶
1
xn+1 = xn xn + for each n ≥ 1.
n
Prove that there exists exactly one value of x1 for which
0 < xn < xn+1 < 1
for every n.
27th International Mathematical Olympiad
Warsaw, Poland
Day I
July 9, 1986
1. Let d be any positive integer not equal to 2, 5, or 13. Show that one can find
distinct a, b in the set {2, 5, 13, d} such that ab − 1 is not a perfect square.
2. A triangle A1 A2 A3 and a point P0 are given in the plane. We define As = As−3

for all s ≥ 4. We construct a set of points P1 , P2 , P3 , . . . , such that Pk+1 is
the image of Pk under a rotation with center Ak+1 through angle 120◦ clockwise
(for k = 0, 1, 2, . . . ). Prove that if P1986 = P0 , then the triangle A1 A2 A3 is
equilateral.
3. To each vertex of a regular pentagon an integer is assigned in such a way that

the sum of all five numbers is positive. If three consecutive vertices are assigned
the numbers x, y, z respectively and y < 0 then the following operation is
allowed: the numbers x, y, z are replaced by x + y, −y, z + y respectively. Such
an operation is performed repeatedly as long as at least one of the five numbers
is negative. Determine whether this procedure necessarily comes to and end
after a finite number of steps.
Warsaw, Poland
Day II
July 10, 1986
4. Let A, B be adjacent vertices of a regular n-gon (n ≥ 5) in the plane having

center at O. A triangle XY Z, which is congruent to and initially conincides
with OAB, moves in the plane in such a way that Y and Z each trace out the
whole boundary of the polygon, X remaining inside the polygon. Find the locus
of X.
5. Find all functions f , defined on the non-negative real numbers and taking non-
negative real values, such that:
(i) f (xf (y))f (y) = f (x + y) for all x, y ≥ 0,

(ii) f (2) = 0,
(iii) f (x) 6= 0 for 0 ≤ x < 2.
6. One is given a finite set of points in the plane, each point having integer coor-
dinates. Is it always possible to color some of the points in the set red and the
remaining points white in such a way that for any straight line L parallel to
either one of the coordinate axes the difference (in absolute value) between the
numbers of white point and red points on L is not greater than 1?
Havana, Cuba
Day I
July 10, 1987
1. Let pn (k) be the number of permutations of the set {1, . . . , n}, n ≥ 1, which
have exactly k fixed points. Prove that
n
X
k · pn (k) = n!.
k=0
(Remark: A permutation f of a set S is a one-to-one mapping of S onto itself.

An element i in S is called a fixed point of the permutation f if f (i) = i.)
2. In an acute-angled triangle ABC the interior bisector of the angle A intersects

BC at L and intersects the circumcircle of ABC again at N . From point L
perpendiculars are drawn to AB and AC, the feet of these perpendiculars being
K and M respectively. Prove that the quadrilateral AKN M and the triangle
ABC have equal areas.
3. Let x1 , x2 , . . . , xn be real numbers satisfying x21 + x22 + · · · + x2n = 1. Prove that

for every integer k ≥ 2 there are integers a1 , a2 , . . . , an , not all 0, such that
|ai | ≤ k − 1 for all i and
√
(k − 1) n
|a1 x1 + a1 x2 + · · · + an xn | ≤ .
kn − 1
Havana, Cuba
Day II
July 11, 1987
4. Prove that there is no function f from the set of non-negative integers into itself
such that f (f (n)) = n + 1987 for every n.
5. Let n be an integer greater than or equal to 3. Prove that there is a set of n

points in the plane such that the distance between any two points is irrational
and each set of three points determines a non-degenerate triangle with rational
area.
2
6. Let n be an integer greater than or equal
p to 2. Prove 2that if k + k + n is prime
for all integers k such that 0 ≤ k ≤ n/3, then k + k + n is prime for all
integers k such that 0 ≤ k ≤ n − 2.
Canberra, Australia
Day I
1. Consider two coplanar circles of radii R and r (R > r) with the same center.
Let P be a fixed point on the smaller circle and B a variable point on the larger
circle. The line BP meets the larger circle again at C. The perpendicular l to
BP at P meets the smaller circle again at A. (If l is tangent to the circle at P
then A = P .)
(i) Find the set of values of BC 2 + CA2 + AB 2 .

(ii) Find the locus of the midpoint of BC.
2. Let n be a positive integer and let A1 , A2 , . . . , A2n+1 be subsets of a set B.

Suppose that
(a) Each Ai has exactly 2n elements,

(b) Each Ai ∩ Aj (1 ≤ i < j ≤ 2n + 1) contains exactly one element, and
(c) Every element of B belongs to at least two of the Ai .
For which values of n can one assign to every element of B one of the numbers
0 and 1 in such a way that Ai has 0 assigned to exactly n of its elements?
3. A function f is defined on the positive integers by
f (1) = 1, f (3) = 3,
f (2n) = f (n),
f (4n + 1) = 2f (2n + 1) − f (n),
f (4n + 3) = 3f (2n + 1) − 2f (n),
for all positive integers n.

Determine the number of positive integers n, less than or equal to 1988, for
which f (n) = n.
Canberra, Australia
Day II
4. Show that set of real numbers x which satisfy the inequality

70
X k 5
≥
k=1
x−k 4
is a union of disjoint intervals, the sum of whose lengths is 1988.
5. ABC is a triangle right-angled at A, and D is the foot of the altitude from A.

The straight line joining the incenters of the triangles ABD, ACD intersects
the sides AB, AC at the points K, L respectively. S and T denote the areas of
the triangles ABC and AKL respectively. Show that S ≥ 2T .
6. Let a and b be positive integers such that ab + 1 divides a2 + b2 . Show that
a2 + b2
ab + 1
is the square of an integer.
Braunschweig, Germany
Day I
1. Prove that the set {1, 2, . . . , 1989} can be expressed as the disjoint union of
subsets Ai (i = 1, 2, . . . , 117) such that:
(i) Each Ai contains 17 elements;

(ii) The sum of all the elements in each Ai is the same.
2. In an acute-angled triangle ABC the internal bisector of angle A meets the

circumcircle of the triangle again at A1 . Points B1 and C1 are defined similarly.
Let A0 be the point of intersection of the line AA1 with the external bisectors
of angles B and C. Points B0 and C0 are defined similarly. Prove that:
(i) The area of the triangle A0 B0 C0 is twice the area of the hexagon AC1 BA1 CB1 .
(ii) The area of the triangle A0 B0 C0 is at least four times the area of the
triangle ABC.
3. Let n and k be positive integers and let S be a set of n points in the plane such
that
(i) No three points of S are collinear, and

(ii) For any point P of S there are at least k points of S equidistant from P .
Prove that:
1 √
k< + 2n.
2
Braunschweig, Germany
Day II
4. Let ABCD be a convex quadrilateral such that the sides AB, AD, BC satisfy
AB = AD + BC. There exists a point P inside the quadrilateral at a distance
h from the line CD such that AP = h + AD and BP = h + BC. Show that:
1 1 1
√ ≥√ +√ .
h AD BC
5. Prove that for each positive integer n there exist n consecutive positive integers
none of which is an integral power of a prime number.
6. A permutation (x1 , x2 , . . . , xm ) of the set {1, 2, . . . , 2n}, where n is a positive

integer, is said to have property P if |xi − xi+1 | = n for at least one i in
{1, 2, . . . , 2n − 1}. Show that, for each n, there are more permutations with
property P than without.
31st International Mathematical Olympiad
Beijing, China
Day I
July 12, 1990
1. Chords AB and CD of a circle intersect at a point E inside the circle. Let M

be an interior point of the segment EB. The tangent line at E to the circle
through D, E, and M intersects the lines BC and AC at F and G, respectively.
If
AM
= t,
AB
find
EG
EF
in terms of t.
2. Let n ≥ 3 and consider a set E of 2n − 1 distinct points on a circle. Suppose

that exactly k of these points are to be colored black. Such a coloring is “good”
if there is at least one pair of black points such that the interior of one of the
arcs between them contains exactly n points from E. Find the smallest value
of k so that every such coloring of k points of E is good.
3. Determine all integers n > 1 such that

2n + 1
n2
is an integer.
31st International Mathematical Olympiad
Beijing, China
Day II
July 13, 1990
4. Let Q+ be the set of positive rational numbers. Construct a function f : Q+ →

Q+ such that
f (x)
f (xf (y)) =
y
for all x, y in Q+ .
5. Given an initial integer n0 > 1, two players, A and B, choose integers n1 , n2 ,

n3 , . . . alternately according to the following rules:
Knowing n2k , A chooses any integer n2k+1 such that
n2k ≤ n2k+1 ≤ n22k .
Knowing n2k+1 , B chooses any integer n2k+2 such that

n2k+1
n2k+2
is a prime raised to a positive integer power.
Player A wins the game by choosing the number 1990; player B wins by choosing
the number 1. For which n0 does:
(a) A have a winning strategy?

(b) B have a winning strategy?
(c) Neither player have a winning strategy?
6. Prove that there exists a convex 1990-gon with the following two properties:
(a) All angles are equal.

(b) The lengths of the 1990 sides are the numbers 12 , 22 , 32 , . . . , 19902 in some
order.
32nd International Mathematical Olympiad
First Day July 17, 1991
Time Limit: 4 12 hours
1. Given a triangle ABC, let I be the center of its inscribed circle.

The internal bisectors of the angles A, B, C meet the opposite sides in
A0 , B 0 , C 0 respectively. Prove that
1 AI · BI · CI 8
< 0 0 0
≤ .
4 AA · BB · CC 27
2. Let n > 6 be an integer and a1 , a2 , . . . , ak be all the natural numbers

less than n and relatively prime to n. If
a2 − a1 = a3 − a2 = · · · = ak − ak−1 > 0,
prove that n must be either a prime number or a power of 2.
3. Let S = {1, 2, 3, . . . , 280}. Find the smallest integer n such that each n-
element subset of S contains five numbers which are pairwise relatively
prime.
Second Day July 18, 1991

1. Suppose G is a connected graph with k edges. Prove that it is pos-

sible to label the edges 1, 2, . . . , k in such a way that at each vertex
which belongs to two or more edges, the greatest common divisor of
the integers labeling those edges is equal to 1.
[A graph consists of a set of points, called vertices, together with a set
of edges joining certain pairs of distinct vertices. Each pair of vertices
u, v belongs to at most one edge. The graph G is connected if for
each pair of distinct vertices x, y there is some sequence of vertices
x = v0 , v1 , v2 , . . . , vm = y such that each pair vi , vi+1 (0 ≤ i < m) is
joined by an edge of G.]
2. Let ABC be a triangle and P an interior point of ABC . Show that

at least one of the angles 6 P AB, 6 P BC, 6 P CA is less than or equal
to 30◦ .
3. An infinite sequence x0 , x1 , x2 , . . . of real numbers is said to be bounded
if there is a constant C such that |xi | ≤ C for every i ≥ 0.
Given any real number a > 1, construct a bounded infinite sequence
x0 , x1 , x2 , . . . such that
|xi − xj ||i − j|a ≥ 1
for every pair of distinct nonnegative integers i, j.

33rd International Mathematical Olympiad
First Day - Moscow - July 15, 1992
1. Find all integers a, b, c with 1 < a < b < c such that
(a − 1)(b − 1)(c − 1) is a divisor of abc − 1.
2. Let R denote the set of all real numbers. Find all functions f : R → R
such that
³ ´
f x2 + f (y) = y + (f (x))2 for all x, y ∈ R.
3. Consider nine points in space, no four of which are coplanar. Each pair
of points is joined by an edge (that is, a line segment) and each edge is
either colored blue or red or left uncolored. Find the smallest value of
n such that whenever exactly n edges are colored, the set of colored
edges necessarily contains a triangle all of whose edges have the same
color.
33rd International Mathematical Olympiad

Second Day - Moscow - July 15, 1992
1. In the plane let C be a circle, L a line tangent to the circle C, and

M a point on L. Find the locus of all points P with the following
property: there exists two points Q, R on L such that M is the
midpoint of QR and C is the inscribed circle of triangle P QR.
2. Let S be a finite set of points in three-dimensional space. Let Sx , Sy , Sz

be the sets consisting of the orthogonal projections of the points of S
onto the yz-plane, zx-plane, xy-plane, respectively. Prove that
|S|2 ≤ |Sx | · |Sy | · |Sz |,
where |A| denotes the number of elements in the finite set |A|. (Note:
The orthogonal projection of a point onto a plane is the foot of the
perpendicular from that point to the plane.)
3. For each positive integer n, S(n) is defined to be the greatest integer
such that, for every positive integer k ≤ S(n), n2 can be written as
the sum of k positive squares.
(a) Prove that S(n) ≤ n2 − 14 for each n ≥ 4.

(b) Find an integer n such that S(n) = n2 − 14.
(c) Prove that there are infintely many integers n such that S(n) =
n2 − 14.
First Day July 18, 1993
1. Let f (x) = xn + 5xn−1 + 3, where n > 1 is an integer. Prove that f (x)

cannot be expressed as the product of two nonconstant polynomials
with integer coefficients.
2. Let D be a point inside acute triangle ABC such that 6 ADB =

6 ACB + π/2 and AC · BD = AD · BC.
(a) Calculate the ratio (AB · CD)/(AC · BD).

(b) Prove that the tangents at C to the circumcircles of 4ACD and
4BCD are perpendicular.
3. On an infinite chessboard, a game is played as follows. At the start, n2

pieces are arranged on the chessboard in an n by n block of adjoining
squares, one piece in each square. A move in the game is a jump in
a horizontal or vertical direction over an adjacent occupied square to
an unoccupied square immediately beyond. The piece which has been
jumped over is removed.
Find those values of n for which the game can end with only one piece
remaining on the board.
Second Day July 19, 1993

1. For three points P, Q, R in the plane, we define m(P QR) as the min-
imum length of the three altitudes of 4P QR. (If the points are
collinear, we set m(P QR) = 0.)
Prove that for points A, B, C, X in the plane,
m(ABC) ≤ m(ABX) + m(AXC) + m(XBC).
2. Does there exist a function f : N → N such that f (1) = 2, f (f (n)) =

f (n) + n for all n ∈ N, and f (n) < f (n + 1) for all n ∈ N?
3. There are n lamps L0 , . . . , Ln−1 in a circle (n > 1), where we denote
Ln+k = Lk . (A lamp at all times is either on or off.) Perform steps
s0 , s1 , . . . as follows: at step si , if Li−1 is lit, switch Li from on to off or
vice versa, otherwise do nothing. Initially all lamps are on. Show that:
(a) There is a positive integer M (n) such that after M (n) steps all
the lamps are on again;
(b) If n = 2k , we can take M (n) = n2 − 1;
(c) If n = 2k + 1, we can take M (n) = n2 − n + 1.
The 35th International Mathematical Olympiad (July 13-14,
1994, Hong Kong)
1. Let m and n be positive integers. Let a1 , a2 , . . . , am be distinct elements
of {1, 2, . . . , n} such that whenever ai + aj ≤ n for some i, j, 1 ≤ i ≤ j ≤ m,
there exists k, 1 ≤ k ≤ m, with ai + aj = ak . Prove that
a1 + a2 + · · · + am n+1
≥ .
m 2
2. ABC is an isosceles triangle with AB = AC. Suppose that
1. M is the midpoint of BC and O is the point on the line AM such that
OB is perpendicular to AB;
2. Q is an arbitrary point on the segment BC different from B and C;
3. E lies on the line AB and F lies on the line AC such that E, Q, F are
distinct and collinear.
Prove that OQ is perpendicular to EF if and only if QE = QF .
3. For any positive integer k, let f (k) be the number of elements in the set
{k + 1, k + 2, . . . , 2k} whose base 2 representation has precisely three 1s.
• (a) Prove that, for each positive integer m, there exists at least one
positive integer k such that f (k) = m.
• (b) Determine all positive integers m for which there exists exactly one
k with f (k) = m.
4. Determine all ordered pairs (m, n) of positive integers such that
n3 + 1
mn − 1
is an integer.
5. Let S be the set of real numbers strictly greater than −1. Find all
functions f : S → S satisfying the two conditions:
1. f (x + f (y) + xf (y)) = y + f (x) + yf (x) for all x and y in S;
f (x)
2. x
is strictly increasing on each of the intervals −1 < x < 0 and 0 < x.
6. Show that there exists a set A of positive integers with the following
property: For any infinite set S of primes there exist two positive integers
m ∈ A and n ∈/ A each of which is a product of k distinct elements of S for
some k ≥ 2.
First Day - Toronto - July 19, 1995
1. Let A, B, C, D be four distinct points on a line, in that order. The

circles with diameters AC and BD intersect at X and Y . The line XY
meets BC at Z. Let P be a point on the line XY other than Z. The
line CP intersects the circle with diameter AC at C and M , and the
line BP intersects the circle with diameter BD at B and N . Prove
that the lines AM, DN, XY are concurrent.
2. Let a, b, c be positive real numbers such that abc = 1. Prove that

1 1 1 3
+ 3 + 3 ≥ .
a3 (b+ c) b (c + a) c (a + b) 2
3. Determine all integers n > 3 for which there exist n points A1 , . . . , An

in the plane, no three collinear, and real numbers r1 , . . . , rn such that
for 1 ≤ i < j < k ≤ n, the area of 4Ai Aj Ak is ri + rj + rk .

Second Day - Toronto - July 20, 1995
1. Find the maximum value of x0 for which there exists a sequence x0 , x1 . . . , x1995
of positive reals with x0 = x1995 , such that for i = 1, . . . , 1995,
2 1
xi−1 + = 2xi + .
xi−1 xi
2. Let ABCDEF be a convex hexagon with AB = BC = CD and DE =

EF = F A, such that 6 BCD = 6 EF A = π/3. Suppose G and H are
points in the interior of the hexagon such that 6 AGB = 6 DHE =
2π/3. Prove that AG + GB + GH + DH + HE ≥ CF .
3. Let p be an odd prime number. How many p-element subsets A of

{1, 2, . . . 2p} are there, the sum of whose elements is divisible by p?
Mumbai, India
Day I 9 a.m. - 1:30 p.m.
July 10, 1996
1. We are given a positive integer r and a rectangular board ABCD with

dimensions |AB| = 20, |BC| = 12. The rectangle is divided into a grid
of 20 × 12 unit squares. The following moves are permitted on the
board: one can move from one square to another
√ only if the distance
between the centers of the two squares is r. The task is to find a
sequence of moves leading from the square with A as a vertex to the
square with B as a vertex.
(a) Show that the task cannot be done if r is divisible by 2 or 3.

(b) Prove that the task is possible when r = 73.
(c) Can the task be done when r = 97?
2. Let P be a point inside triangle ABC such that
6 AP B − 6 ACB = 6 AP C − 6 ABC.
Let D, E be the incenters of triangles AP B, AP C, respectively. Show

that AP, BD, CE meet at a point.
3. Let S denote the set of nonnegative integers. Find all functions f from
S to itself such that
f (m + f (n)) = f (f (m)) + f (n) ∀m, n ∈ S.

Mumbai, India
Day II 9 a.m. - 1:30 p.m.
July 11, 1996
1. The positive integers a and b are such that the numbers 15a + 16b
and 16a − 15b are both squares of positive integers. What is the least
possible value that can be taken on by the smaller of these two squares?
2. Let ABCDEF be a convex hexagon such that AB is parallel to DE,

BC is parallel to EF , and CD is parallel to F A. Let RA , RC , RE denote
the circumradii of triangles F AB, BCD, DEF , respectively, and let P
denote the perimeter of the hexagon. Prove that
P
RA + RC + RE ≥ .
2
3. Let p, q, n be three positive integers with p + q < n. Let (x0 , x1 , . . . , xn )

be an (n + 1)-tuple of integers satisfying the following conditions:
(a) x0 = xn = 0.
(b) For each i with 1 ≤ i ≤ n, either xi − xi−1 = p or xi − xi−1 = −q.
Show that there exist indices i < j with (i, j) 6= (0, n), such that
xi = xj .
Mar del Plata, Argentina
Day I
July 24, 1997
1. In the plane the points with integer coordinates are the vertices of unit squares.
The squares are colored alternately black and white (as on a chessboard).
For any pair of positive integers m and n, consider a right-angled triangle whose
vertices have integer coordinates and whose legs, of lengths m and n, lie along
edges of the squares.
Let S1 be the total area of the black part of the triangle and S2 be the total
area of the white part. Let
f (m, n) = |S1 − S2 |.
(a) Calculate f (m, n) for all positive integers m and n which are either both
even or both odd.
(b) Prove that f (m, n) ≤ 21 max{m, n} for all m and n.
(c) Show that there is no constant C such that f (m, n) < C for all m and n.
2. The angle at A is the smallest angle of triangle ABC. The points B and C
divide the circumcircle of the triangle into two arcs. Let U be an interior point
of the arc between B and C which does not contain A. The perpendicular
bisectors of AB and AC meet the line AU at V and W , respectively. The lines
BV and CW meet at T . Show that
AU = T B + T C.
3. Let x1 , x2 , . . . , xn be real numbers satisfying the conditions
|x1 + x2 + · · · + xn | = 1
and
n+1
|xi | ≤ i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
2
Show that there exists a permutation y1 , y2 , . . . , yn of x1 , x2 , . . . , xn such that
n+1
|y1 + 2y2 + · · · + nyn | ≤ .
2
Mar del Plata, Argentina
Day II
July 25, 1997
4. An n × n matrix whose entries come from the set S = {1, 2, . . . , 2n − 1} is

called a silver matrix if, for each i = 1, 2, . . . , n, the ith row and the ith column
together contain all elements of S. Show that
(a) there is no silver matrix for n = 1997;

(b) silver matrices exist for infinitely many values of n.
5. Find all pairs (a, b) of integers a, b ≥ 1 that satisfy the equation

2
ab = ba .
6. For each positive integer n , let f (n) denote the number of ways of representing
n as a sum of powers of 2 with nonnegative integer exponents. Representations
which differ only in the ordering of their summands are considered to be the
same. For instance, f (4) = 4, because the number 4 can be represented in the
following four ways:
4; 2 + 2; 2 + 1 + 1; 1 + 1 + 1 + 1.
Prove that, for any integer n ≥ 3,

2 /4 2 /2
2n < f (2n ) < 2n .
Taipei, Taiwan
Day I
July 15, 1998
1. In the convex quadrilateral ABCD, the diagonals AC and BD are perpendicular

and the opposite sides AB and DC are not parallel. Suppose that the point P ,
where the perpendicular bisectors of AB and DC meet, is inside ABCD. Prove
that ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral if and only if the triangles ABP and CDP
have equal areas.
2. In a competition, there are a contestants and b judges, where b ≥ 3 is an odd

integer. Each judge rates each contestant as either “pass” or “fail”. Suppose k
is a number such that, for any two judges, their ratings coincide for at most k
contestants. Prove that k/a ≥ (b − 1)/(2b).
3. For any positive integer n, let d(n) denote the number of positive divisors
of n (including 1 and n itself). Determine all positive integers k such that
d(n2 )/d(n) = k for some n.
Taipei, Taiwai
Day II
July 16, 1998
4. Determine all pairs (a, b) of positive integers such that ab2 + b + 7 divides
a2 b + a + b.
5. Let I be the incenter of triangle ABC. Let the incircle of ABC touch the sides
BC, CA, and AB at K, L, and M , respectively. The line through B parallel
to M K meets the lines LM and LK at R and S, respectively. Prove that angle
RIS is acute.
6. Consider all functions f from the set N of all positive integers into itself sat-
isfying f (t2 f (s)) = s(f (t))2 for all s and t in N . Determine the least possible
value of f (1998).
Bucharest
Day I
July 16, 1999
1. Determine all finite sets S of at least three points in the plane which satisfy the
following condition:
for any two distinct points A and B in S, the perpendicular bisector

of the line segment AB is an axis of symmetry for S.
2. Let n be a fixed integer, with n ≥ 2.
(a) Determine the least constant C such that the inequality

Ã !4
X X
xi xj (x2i + x2j ) ≤C xi
1≤i<j≤n 1≤i≤n
holds for all real numbers x1 , · · · , xn ≥ 0.
(b) For this constant C, determine when equality holds.
3. Consider an n × n square board, where n is a fixed even positive integer. The

board is divided into n2 unit squares. We say that two different squares on the
board are adjacent if they have a common side.
N unit squares on the board are marked in such a way that every square (marked
or unmarked) on the board is adjacent to at least one marked square.
Determine the smallest possible value of N .
Bucharest
Day II
July 17, 1999
4. Determine all pairs (n, p) of positive integers such that
p is a prime,
n not exceeded 2p, and
(p − 1)n + 1 is divisible by np−1 .
5. Two circles G1 and G2 are contained inside the circle G, and are tangent to G
at the distinct points M and N , respectively. G1 passes through the center of
G2 . The line passing through the two points of intersection of G1 and G2 meets
G at A and B. The lines M A and M B meet G1 at C and D, respectively.
Prove that CD is tangent to G2 .
6. Determine all functions f : R −→ R such that
f (x − f (y)) = f (f (y)) + xf (y) + f (x) − 1
for all real numbers x, y.

41st IMO 2000
Problem 1. AB is tangent to the circles CAM N and N M BD. M lies

between C and D on the line CD, and CD is parallel to AB. The chords
N A and CM meet at P ; the chords N B and M D meet at Q. The rays CA
and DB meet at E. Prove that P E = QE.
Problem 2. A, B, C are positive reals with product 1. Prove that (A − 1 +

1 1 1
B )(B − 1 + C )(C − 1 + A ) ≤ 1.
Problem 3. k is a positive real. N is an integer greater than 1. N points

are placed on a line, not all coincident. A move is carried out as follows.
Pick any two points A and B which are not coincident. Suppose that A lies
to the right of B. Replace B by another point B 0 to the right of A such that
AB 0 = kBA. For what values of k can we move the points arbitrarily far to
the right by repeated moves?
Problem 4. 100 cards are numbered 1 to 100 (each card different) and
placed in 3 boxes (at least one card in each box). How many ways can this
be done so that if two boxes are selected and a card is taken from each, then
the knowledge of their sum alone is always sufficient to identify the third
box?
Problem 5. Can we find N divisible by just 2000 different primes, so that

N divides 2N + 1? [N may be divisible by a prime power.]
Problem 6. A1 A2 A3 is an acute-angled triangle. The foot of the altitude

from Ai is Ki and the incircle touches the side opposite Ai at Li . The line
K1 K2 is reflected in the line L1 L2 . Similarly, the line K2 K3 is reflected in
L2 L3 and K3 K1 is reflected in L3 L1 . Show that the three new lines form a
triangle with vertices on the incircle.
1
Washington, DC, United States of America

July 8–9, 2001
Problems
Each problem is worth seven points.
Problem 1
Let ABC be an acute-angled triangle with circumcentre O . Let P on BC be the foot of the altitude from A.
Suppose that BCA ABC 30 .
Prove that CAB COP 90 .
Problem 2
Prove that
a b c

1

a2 8bc b2 8ca c2 8ab
for all positive real numbers a, b and c .
Problem 3
Twenty-one girls and twenty-one boys took part in a mathematical contest.
• Each contestant solved at most six problems.

• For each girl and each boy, at least one problem was solved by both of them.
Prove that there was a problem that was solved by at least three girls and at least three boys.
Problem 4
Let n be an odd integer greater than 1, and let k1 , k2 , …, kn be given integers. For each of the n permutations
a a1 , a2 , …, an of 1, 2, …, n , let
n
Sa ki ai .
i1
Prove that there are two permutations b and c, b c, such that n is a divisor of Sb
Sc.
http://imo.wolfram.com/
2 IMO 2001 Competition Problems
Problem 5
In a triangle ABC , let AP bisect BAC , with P on BC , and let BQ bisect ABC , with Q on CA.
It is known that BAC 60 and that AB BP AQ QB.
What are the possible angles of triangle ABC ?
Problem 6
Let a, b, c, d be integers with a b c d 0. Suppose that
ac bd b d a
cb d
a c.
Prove that ab cd is not prime.
http://imo.wolfram.com/
43rd IMO 2002
Problem 1. S is the set of all (h, k) with h, k non-negative integers such

that h + k < n. Each element of S is colored red or blue, so that if (h, k)
is red and h0 ≤ h, k 0 ≤ k, then (h0 , k 0 ) is also red. A type 1 subset of S has
n blue elements with different first member and a type 2 subset of S has n
blue elements with different second member. Show that there are the same
number of type 1 and type 2 subsets.
Problem 2. BC is a diameter of a circle center O. A is any point on

the circle with 6 AOC > 60o . EF is the chord which is the perpendicular
bisector of AO. D is the midpoint of the minor arc AB. The line through
O parallel to AD meets AC at J. Show that J is the incenter of triangle
CEF .
Problem 3. Find all pairs of integers m > 2, n > 2 such that there are
infinitely many positive integers k for which k n + k 2 − 1 divides k m + k − 1.
Problem 4. The positive divisors of the integer n > 1 are d1 < d2 < . . . <
dk , so that d1 = 1, dk = n. Let d = d1 d2 + d2 d3 + · · · + dk−1 dk . Show that
d < n2 and find all n for which d divides n2 .
Problem 5. Find all real-valued functions on the reals such that (f (x) +
f (y))((f (u) + f (v)) = f (xu − yv) + f (xv + yu) for all x, y, u, v.
Problem 6. n > 2 circles of radius 1 are drawn in the plane so that no line
meets more than two of the circles. Their centers are O1 , O2 , · · · , On . Show
that i<j 1/Oi Oj ≤ (n − 1)π/4.
P
1
44th IMO 2003
Problem 1. S is the set {1, 2, 3, . . . , 1000000}. Show that for any subset A
of S with 101 elements we can find 100 distinct elements xi of S, such that
the sets {a + xi |a ∈ A} are all pairwise disjoint.
m2
Problem 2. Find all pairs (m, n) of positive integers such that 2mn2 −n3 +1
is a positive integer.
Problem 3. A convex hexagon has the property √that for any pair of opposite
sides the distance between their midpoints is 3/2 times the sum of their
lengths Show that all the hexagon’s angles are equal.
Problem 4. ABCD is cyclic. The feet of the perpendicular from D to the

lines AB, BC, CA are P, Q, R respectively. Show that the angle bisectors of
ABC and CDA meet on the line AC iff RP = RQ.
Problem 5. Given n > 2 and reals x1 ≤ x2 ≤ · · · ≤ xn , show that

( i,j |xi − xj |)2 ≤ 32 (n2 − 1) i,j (xi − xj )2 . Show that we have equality iff
P P
the sequence is an arithmetic progression.
Problem 6. Show that for each prime p, there exists a prime q such that
np − p is not divisible by q for any positive integer n.
1
45rd IMO 2004
Problem 1. Let ABC be an acute-angled triangle with AB 6= AC. The

circle with diameter BC intersects the sides AB and AC at M and N
respectively. Denote by O the midpoint of the side BC. The bisectors of
the angles 6 BAC and 6 M ON intersect at R. Prove that the circumcircles
of the triangles BM R and CN R have a common point lying on the side
BC.
Problem 2. Find all polynomials f with real coefficients such that for all
reals a,b,c such that ab + bc + ca = 0 we have the following relations
f (a − b) + f (b − c) + f (c − a) = 2f (a + b + c).
Problem 3. Define a ”hook” to be a figure made up of six unit squares

as shown below in the picture, or any of the figures obtained by applying
rotations and reflections to this figure.
Determine all m×n rectangles that can be covered without gaps and without
overlaps with hooks such that
• the rectangle is covered without gaps and without overlaps
• no part of a hook covers area outside the rectagle.
Problem 4. Let n ≥ 3 be an integer. Let t1 , t2 , ..., tn be positive real

numbers such that
1 1 1

2
n + 1 > (t1 + t2 + ... + tn ) + + ... + .
t1 t2 tn
Show that ti , tj , tk are side lengths of a triangle for all i, j, k with
1 ≤ i < j < k ≤ n.
Problem 5. In a convex quadrilateral ABCD the diagonal BD does not

bisect the angles ABC and CDA. The point P lies inside ABCD and
satisfies
6 P BC = 6 DBA and 6 P DC = 6 BDA.
Prove that ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral if and only if AP = CP .
1
Problem 6. We call a positive integer alternating if every two consecutive
digits in its decimal representation are of different parity.
Find all positive integers n such that n has a multiple which is alternating.
2
46rd IMO 2005
Problem 1. Six points are chosen on the sides of an equilateral triangle

ABC: A1 , A2 on BC, B1 , B2 on CA and C1 , C2 on AB, such that they are
the vertices of a convex hexagon A1 A2 B1 B2 C1 C2 with equal side lengths.
Prove that the lines A1 B2 , B1 C2 and C1 A2 are concurrent.
Problem 2. Let a1 , a2 , . . . be a sequence of integers with infinitely many

positive and negative terms. Suppose that for every positive integer n the
numbers a1 , a2 , . . . , an leave n different remainders upon division by n.
Prove that every integer occurs exactly once in the sequence a1 , a2 , . . ..
Problem 3. Let x, y, z be three positive reals such that xyz ≥ 1. Prove

that
x5 − x2 y5 − y2 z5 − z2
5 2 2
+ 2 5 2
+ 2 ≥ 0.
x +y +z x +y +z x + y2 + z5
Problem 4. Determine all positive integers relatively prime to all the terms
of the infinite sequence
an = 2n + 3n + 6n − 1, n ≥ 1.
Problem 5. Let ABCD be a fixed convex quadrilateral with BC = DA

and BC not parallel with DA. Let two variable points E and F lie of the
sides BC and DA, respectively and satisfy BE = DF . The lines AC and
BD meet at P , the lines BD and EF meet at Q, the lines EF and AC meet
at R.
Prove that the circumcircles of the triangles P QR, as E and F vary, have a
common point other than P .
Problem 6. In a mathematical competition, in which 6 problems were

posed to the participants, every two of these problems were solved by more
than 25 of the contestants. Moreover, no contestant solved all the 6 problems.
Show that there are at least 2 contestants who solved exactly 5 problems
each.
1
day: 1
language: English
12 July 2006
Problem 1. Let ABC be a triangle with incentre I. A point P in the interior of the
triangle satisfies
6 P BA + 6 P CA = 6 P BC + 6 P CB.
Show that AP ≥ AI, and that equality holds if and only if P = I.
Problem 2. Let P be a regular 2006-gon. A diagonal of P is called good if its endpoints

divide the boundary of P into two parts, each composed of an odd number of sides of P .
The sides of P are also called good .
Suppose P has been dissected into triangles by 2003 diagonals, no two of which have
a common point in the interior of P . Find the maximum number of isosceles triangles
having two good sides that could appear in such a configuration.
Problem 3. Determine the least real number M such that the inequality

2
ab(a2 − b2 ) + bc(b2 − c2 ) + ca(c2 − a2 ) ≤ M (a2 + b2 + c2 )

holds for all real numbers a, b and c.
Time allowed: 4 hours 30 minutes

Each problem is worth 7 points
day: 2
language: English
13 July 2006
Problem 4. Determine all pairs (x, y) of integers such that
1 + 2x + 22x+1 = y 2 .
Problem 5. Let P (x) be a polynomial of degree n > 1 with integer coefficients and let
k be a positive integer. Consider the polynomial Q(x) = P (P (. . . P (P (x)) . . .)), where P
occurs k times. Prove that there are at most n integers t such that Q(t) = t.
Problem 6. Assign to each side b of a convex polygon P the maximum area of a triangle
that has b as a side and is contained in P . Show that the sum of the areas assigned to
the sides of P is at least twice the area of P .

July 25, 2007
Problem 1. Real numbers a1 , a2 , . . . , an are given. For each i (1 ≤ i ≤ n) define
di = max{aj : 1 ≤ j ≤ i} − min{aj : i ≤ j ≤ n}
and let
d = max{di : 1 ≤ i ≤ n}.
(a) Prove that, for any real numbers x1 ≤ x2 ≤ · · · ≤ xn ,
d
max{|xi − ai | : 1 ≤ i ≤ n} ≥ . (∗)
2
(b) Show that there are real numbers x1 ≤ x2 ≤ · · · ≤ xn such that equality holds
in (∗).
Problem 2. Consider five points A, B, C, D and E such that ABCD is a parallelogram

and BCED is a cyclic quadrilateral. Let ` be a line passing through A. Suppose that
` intersects the interior of the segment DC at F and intersects line BC at G. Suppose
also that EF = EG = EC. Prove that ` is the bisector of angle DAB.
Problem 3. In a mathematical competition some competitors are friends. Friendship

is always mutual. Call a group of competitors a clique if each two of them are friends. (In
particular, any group of fewer than two competitors is a clique.) The number of members
of a clique is called its size.
Given that, in this competition, the largest size of a clique is even, prove that the
competitors can be arranged in two rooms such that the largest size of a clique contained
in one room is the same as the largest size of a clique contained in the other room.

Language: English
July 26, 2007
Problem 4. In triangle ABC the bisector of angle BCA intersects the circumcircle
again at R, the perpendicular bisector of BC at P , and the perpendicular bisector of AC
at Q. The midpoint of BC is K and the midpoint of AC is L. Prove that the triangles
RP K and RQL have the same area.
Problem 5. Let a and b be positive integers. Show that if 4ab − 1 divides (4a2 − 1)2 ,
then a = b.
Problem 6. Let n be a positive integer. Consider
S = {(x, y, z) : x, y, z ∈ {0, 1, . . . , n}, x + y + z > 0}
as a set of (n + 1)3 − 1 points in three-dimensional space. Determine the smallest possible

number of planes, the union of which contains S but does not include (0, 0, 0).

Language: English Day: 1
49th INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIAD

MADRID (SPAIN), JULY 10-22, 2008
Wednesday, July 16, 2008
Problem 1. An acute-angled triangle ABC has orthocentre H. The circle passing through H with
centre the midpoint of BC intersects the line BC at A1 and A2 . Similarly, the circle passing through
H with centre the midpoint of CA intersects the line CA at B1 and B2 , and the circle passing through
H with centre the midpoint of AB intersects the line AB at C1 and C2 . Show that A1 , A2 , B1 , B2 ,
C1 , C2 lie on a circle.
Problem 2. (a) Prove that
x2 y2 z2
+ + ≥1
(x − 1)2 (y − 1)2 (z − 1)2
for all real numbers x, y, z, each different from 1, and satisfying xyz = 1.
(b) Prove that equality holds above for infinitely many triples of rational numbers x, y, z, each
different from 1, and satisfying xyz = 1.
2
Problem 3. Prove that there exist √ infinitely many positive integers n such that n + 1 has a prime
divisor which is greater than 2n + 2n.
Language: English Time: 4 hours and 30 minutes

Language: English Day: 2
49th INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIAD

MADRID (SPAIN), JULY 10-22, 2008
Thursday, July 17, 2008
Problem 4. Find all functions f : (0, ∞) → (0, ∞) (so, f is a function from the positive real
numbers to the positive real numbers) such that
2 2
f (w) + f (x) w 2 + x2
=
f (y 2 ) + f (z 2 ) y2 + z2
for all positive real numbers w, x, y, z, satisfying wx = yz.
Problem 5. Let n and k be positive integers with k ≥ n and k − n an even number. Let 2n lamps
labelled 1, 2, . . . , 2n be given, each of which can be either on or off. Initially all the lamps are off.
We consider sequences of steps: at each step one of the lamps is switched (from on to off or from off
to on).
Let N be the number of such sequences consisting of k steps and resulting in the state where
lamps 1 through n are all on, and lamps n + 1 through 2n are all off.
Let M be the number of such sequences consisting of k steps, resulting in the state where lamps
1 through n are all on, and lamps n + 1 through 2n are all off, but where none of the lamps n + 1
through 2n is ever switched on.
Determine the ratio N/M .
Problem 6. Let ABCD be a convex quadrilateral with |BA| 6= |BC|. Denote the incircles of
triangles ABC and ADC by ω1 and ω2 respectively. Suppose that there exists a circle ω tangent to
the ray BA beyond A and to the ray BC beyond C, which is also tangent to the lines AD and CD.
Prove that the common external tangents of ω1 and ω2 intersect on ω.

Language: English
Day: 1
Problem 1. Let n be a positive integer and let a1 , . . . , ak (k ≥ 2) be distinct integers in the set
{1, . . . , n} such that n divides ai (ai+1 −1) for i = 1, . . . , k −1. Prove that n does not divide ak (a1 −1).
Problem 2. Let ABC be a triangle with circumcentre O. The points P and Q are interior points
of the sides CA and AB, respectively. Let K, L and M be the midpoints of the segments BP , CQ
and P Q, respectively, and let Γ be the circle passing through K, L and M . Suppose that the line
P Q is tangent to the circle Γ. Prove that OP = OQ.
Problem 3. Suppose that s1 , s2 , s3 , . . . is a strictly increasing sequence of positive integers such

that the subsequences
ss1 , ss2 , ss3 , . . . and ss1 +1 , ss2 +1 , ss3 +1 , . . .
are both arithmetic progressions. Prove that the sequence s1 , s2 , s3 , . . . is itself an arithmetic pro-
gression.

Language: English
Day: 2
Problem 4. Let ABC be a triangle with AB = AC. The angle bisectors of 6 CAB and 6 ABC
meet the sides BC and CA at D and E, respectively. Let K be the incentre of triangle ADC.
Suppose that 6 BEK = 45◦ . Find all possible values of 6 CAB.
Problem 5. Determine all functions f from the set of positive integers to the set of positive integers
such that, for all positive integers a and b, there exists a non-degenerate triangle with sides of lengths
a, f (b) and f (b + f (a) − 1).
(A triangle is non-degenerate if its vertices are not collinear.)
Problem 6. Let a1 , a2 , . . . , an be distinct positive integers and let M be a set of n − 1 positive

integers not containing s = a1 + a2 + · · · + an . A grasshopper is to jump along the real axis, starting
at the point 0 and making n jumps to the right with lengths a1 , a2 , . . . , an in some order. Prove that
the order can be chosen in such a way that the grasshopper never lands on any point in M .

Language: English
Day: 1
Problem 1. Determine all functions f : R → R such that the equality

Ä ä ö ù
f bxcy = f (x) f (y)
holds for all x, y ∈ R. (Here bzc denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to z.)
Problem 2. Let I be the incentre of triangle ABC and let Γ be its circumcircle. Let the line AI
˙ and F a point on the side BC such that
intersect Γ again at D. Let E be a point on the arc BDC
∠BAF = ∠CAE < 21 ∠BAC.
Finally, let G be the midpoint of the segment IF . Prove that the lines DG and EI intersect on Γ.
Problem 3. Let N be the set of positive integers. Determine all functions g : N → N such that
Ä äÄ ä
g(m) + n m + g(n)
is a perfect square for all m, n ∈ N.

Language: English
Day: 2
Problem 4. Let P be a point inside the triangle ABC. The lines AP , BP and CP intersect the
circumcircle Γ of triangle ABC again at the points K, L and M respectively. The tangent to Γ at C
intersects the line AB at S. Suppose that SC = SP . Prove that M K = M L.
Problem 5. In each of six boxes B1 , B2 , B3 , B4 , B5 , B6 there is initially one coin. There are two
types of operation allowed:
Type 1: Choose a nonempty box Bj with 1 ≤ j ≤ 5. Remove one coin from Bj and add two
coins to Bj+1 .
Type 2: Choose a nonempty box Bk with 1 ≤ k ≤ 4. Remove one coin from Bk and exchange
the contents of (possibly empty) boxes Bk+1 and Bk+2 .
Determine whether there is a finite sequence of such operations that results in boxes B1 , B2 , B3 , B4 , B5
2010 c c
being empty and box B6 containing exactly 20102010 coins. (Note that ab = a(b ) .)
Problem 6. Let a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . be a sequence of positive real numbers. Suppose that for some
positive integer s, we have
an = max{ak + an−k | 1 ≤ k ≤ n − 1}
for all n > s. Prove that there exist positive integers ` and N , with ` ≤ s and such that an = a` +an−`
for all n ≥ N .

Language: English
Day: 1
Monday, July 18, 2011
Problem 1. Given any set A = {a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 } of four distinct positive integers, we denote the sum
a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 by sA . Let nA denote the number of pairs (i, j) with 1 ≤ i < j ≤ 4 for which ai + aj
divides sA . Find all sets A of four distinct positive integers which achieve the largest possible value
of nA .
Problem 2. Let S be a finite set of at least two points in the plane. Assume that no three points
of S are collinear. A windmill is a process that starts with a line ` going through a single point
P ∈ S. The line rotates clockwise about the pivot P until the first time that the line meets some
other point belonging to S. This point, Q, takes over as the new pivot, and the line now rotates
clockwise about Q, until it next meets a point of S. This process continues indefinitely.
Show that we can choose a point P in S and a line ` going through P such that the resulting windmill
uses each point of S as a pivot infinitely many times.
Problem 3. Let f : R → R be a real-valued function defined on the set of real numbers that
satisfies
f (x + y) ≤ yf (x) + f (f (x))
for all real numbers x and y. Prove that f (x) = 0 for all x ≤ 0.

Language: English
Day: 2
Tuesday, July 19, 2011
Problem 4. Let n > 0 be an integer. We are given a balance and n weights of weight 20 ,
2 , . . . , 2 . We are to place each of the n weights on the balance, one after another, in such a
1 n−1
way that the right pan is never heavier than the left pan. At each step we choose one of the weights
that has not yet been placed on the balance, and place it on either the left pan or the right pan,
until all of the weights have been placed.
Determine the number of ways in which this can be done.
Problem 5. Let f be a function from the set of integers to the set of positive integers. Suppose
that, for any two integers m and n, the dierence f (m) − f (n) is divisible by f (m − n). Prove that,
for all integers m and n with f (m) ≤ f (n), the number f (n) is divisible by f (m).
Problem 6. Let ABC be an acute triangle with circumcircle Γ. Let ` be a tangent line to Γ, and
let `a , `b and `c be the lines obtained by reecting ` in the lines BC , CA and AB , respectively. Show
that the circumcircle of the triangle determined by the lines `a , `b and `c is tangent to the circle Γ.

Language: English
Day: 1
Problem 1. Given triangle ABC the point J is the centre of the excircle opposite the vertex A.
This excircle is tangent to the side BC at M , and to the lines AB and AC at K and L, respectively.
The lines LM and BJ meet at F , and the lines KM and CJ meet at G. Let S be the point of
intersection of the lines AF and BC, and let T be the point of intersection of the lines AG and BC.
Prove that M is the midpoint of ST .
(The excircle of ABC opposite the vertex A is the circle that is tangent to the line segment BC,
to the ray AB beyond B, and to the ray AC beyond C.)
Problem 2. Let n ≥ 3 be an integer, and let a2 , a3 , . . . , an be positive real numbers such that
a2 a3 · · · an = 1. Prove that
(1 + a2 )2 (1 + a3 )3 · · · (1 + an )n > nn .
Problem 3. The liar’s guessing game is a game played between two players A and B. The rules
of the game depend on two positive integers k and n which are known to both players.
At the start of the game A chooses integers x and N with 1 ≤ x ≤ N . Player A keeps x secret,
and truthfully tells N to player B. Player B now tries to obtain information about x by asking player
A questions as follows: each question consists of B specifying an arbitrary set S of positive integers
(possibly one specified in some previous question), and asking A whether x belongs to S. Player
B may ask as many such questions as he wishes. After each question, player A must immediately
answer it with yes or no, but is allowed to lie as many times as she wants; the only restriction is
that, among any k + 1 consecutive answers, at least one answer must be truthful.
After B has asked as many questions as he wants, he must specify a set X of at most n positive
integers. If x belongs to X, then B wins; otherwise, he loses. Prove that:
1. If n ≥ 2k , then B can guarantee a win.
2. For all sufficiently large k, there exists an integer n ≥ 1.99k such that B cannot guarantee a
win.

Language: English
Day: 2
Problem 4. Find all functions f : Z → Z such that, for all integers a, b, c that satisfy a + b + c = 0,
the following equality holds:
f (a)2 + f (b)2 + f (c)2 = 2f (a)f (b) + 2f (b)f (c) + 2f (c)f (a).
(Here Z denotes the set of integers.)
Problem 5. Let ABC ∠BCA = 90◦ , and let D be the foot of the altitude from
be a triangle with
C . Let X be a point in the interior of the segment CD. Let K be the point on the segment AX
such that BK = BC . Similarly, let L be the point on the segment BX such that AL = AC . Let M
be the point of intersection of AL and BK .
Show that M K = M L.
Problem 6. Find all positive integers n for which there exist non-negative integers a1 , a2 , . . . , an
such that
1 1 1 1 2 n
+ + · · · + an = a1 + a2 + · · · + an = 1.
2a1 2a2 2 3 3 3

Language: English
Day: 1
Problem 1. Prove that for any pair of positive integers k and n, there exist k positive integers
m1 , m2 , . . . , mk (not necessarily different) such that
2k − 1

1 1 1
1+ = 1+ 1+ ··· 1 + .
n m1 m2 mk
Problem 2. A configuration of 4027 points in the plane is called Colombian if it consists of 2013 red
points and 2014 blue points, and no three of the points of the configuration are collinear. By drawing
some lines, the plane is divided into several regions. An arrangement of lines is good for a Colombian
configuration if the following two conditions are satisfied:
• no line passes through any point of the configuration;
• no region contains points of both colours.
Find the least value of k such that for any Colombian configuration of 4027 points, there is a good
arrangement of k lines.
Problem 3. Let the excircle of triangle ABC opposite the vertex A be tangent to the side BC at the
point A1 . Define the points B1 on CA and C1 on AB analogously, using the excircles opposite B and
C, respectively. Suppose that the circumcentre of triangle A1 B1 C1 lies on the circumcircle of triangle
ABC. Prove that triangle ABC is right-angled.
The excircle of triangle ABC opposite the vertex A is the circle that is tangent to the line segment
BC, to the ray AB beyond B, and to the ray AC beyond C. The excircles opposite B and C are similarly
defined.

Language: English
Day: 2
Problem 4. Let ABC be an acute-angled triangle with orthocentre H, and let W be a point on the
side BC, lying strictly between B and C. The points M and N are the feet of the altitudes from B and
C, respectively. Denote by ω1 the circumcircle of BW N , and let X be the point on ω1 such that W X
is a diameter of ω1 . Analogously, denote by ω2 the circumcircle of CW M , and let Y be the point on ω2
such that W Y is a diameter of ω2 . Prove that X, Y and H are collinear.
Problem 5. Let Q>0 be the set of positive rational numbers. Let f : Q>0 → R be a function satisfying
the following three conditions:
(i) for all x, y ∈ Q>0 , we have f (x)f (y) ≥ f (xy);
(ii) for all x, y ∈ Q>0 , we have f (x + y) ≥ f (x) + f (y);
(iii) there exists a rational number a > 1 such that f (a) = a.
Prove that f (x) = x for all x ∈ Q>0 .
Problem 6. Let n ≥ 3 be an integer, and consider a circle with n + 1 equally spaced points marked
on it. Consider all labellings of these points with the numbers 0, 1, . . . , n such that each label is used
exactly once; two such labellings are considered to be the same if one can be obtained from the other
by a rotation of the circle. A labelling is called beautiful if, for any four labels a < b < c < d with
a + d = b + c, the chord joining the points labelled a and d does not intersect the chord joining the
points labelled b and c.
Let M be the number of beautiful labellings, and let N be the number of ordered pairs (x, y) of
positive integers such that x + y ≤ n and gcd(x, y) = 1. Prove that
M = N + 1.

Language: English
Day: 1
Problem 1. Let a0 < a1 < a2 < · · · be an innite sequence of positive integers. Prove that there
exists a unique integer n ≥ 1 such that
a0 + a1 + · · · + an
an < ≤ an+1 .
n
Problem 2. Let n ≥ 2 be an integer. Consider an n × n chessboard consisting of n2 unit squares.

A conguration of n rooks on this board is peaceful if every row and every column contains exactly
one rook. Find the greatest positive integer k such that, for each peaceful conguration of n rooks,
there is a k × k square which does not contain a rook on any of its k 2 unit squares.
Problem 3. Convex quadrilateral ABCD has ∠ABC = ∠CDA = 90◦ . Point H is the foot of the
perpendicular from A to BD. Points S and T lie on sides AB and AD, respectively, such that H
lies inside triangle SCT and
∠CHS − ∠CSB = 90◦ , ∠T HC − ∠DT C = 90◦ .
Prove that line BD is tangent to the circumcircle of triangle T SH .

Language: English
Day: 2
Problem 4. Points P and Q lie on side BC of acute-angled triangle ABC so that ∠P AB = ∠BCA
and ∠CAQ = ∠ABC . Points M and N lie on lines AP and AQ, respectively, such that P is the
midpoint of AM , and Q is the midpoint of AN . Prove that lines BM and CN intersect on the
circumcircle of triangle ABC .
Problem 5. For each positive integer n, the Bank of Cape Town issues coins of denomination n1 .
Given a nite collection of such coins (of not necessarily dierent denominations) with total value at
most 99 + 21 , prove that it is possible to split this collection into 100 or fewer groups, such that each
group has total value at most 1.
Problem 6. A set of lines in the plane is in general position if no two are parallel and no three
pass through the same point. A set of lines in general position cuts the plane into regions, some of
which have nite area; we call these its nite regions. Prove that√for all suciently large n, in any
set of n lines in general position it is possible to colour at least n of the lines blue in such a way
that none of its nite regions has a completely blue boundary.
√ √
Note: Results with n replaced by c n will be awarded points depending on the value of the
constant c.

Language: English
Day: 1
❋r✐❞❛②✱ ❏✉❧② ✶✵✱ ✷✵✶✺
Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✶✳ ❲❡ s❛② t❤❛t ❛ ✜♥✐t❡ s❡t S ♦❢ ♣♦✐♥ts ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✐s ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡❞ ✐❢✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② t✇♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t
♣♦✐♥ts A ❛♥❞ B ✐♥ S ✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ ♣♦✐♥t C ✐♥ S s✉❝❤ t❤❛t AC = BC ✳ ❲❡ s❛② t❤❛t S ✐s ❝❡♥tr❡✲❢r❡❡ ✐❢
❢♦r ❛♥② t❤r❡❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ♣♦✐♥ts A✱ B ❛♥❞ C ✐♥ S ✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ♣♦✐♥t P ✐♥ S s✉❝❤ t❤❛t P A = P B = P C ✳
✭❛✮ ❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t ❢♦r ❛❧❧ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs n > 3✱ t❤❡r❡ ❡①✐sts ❛ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡❞ s❡t ❝♦♥s✐st✐♥❣ ♦❢ n ♣♦✐♥ts✳
✭❜✮ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❛❧❧ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs n > 3 ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ t❤❡r❡ ❡①✐sts ❛ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡❞ ❝❡♥tr❡✲❢r❡❡ s❡t ❝♦♥s✐st✐♥❣ ♦❢ n
♣♦✐♥ts✳
Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✷✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❛❧❧ tr✐♣❧❡s (a, b, c) ♦❢ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs s✉❝❤ t❤❛t ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs
ab − c, bc − a, ca − b
✐s ❛ ♣♦✇❡r ♦❢ 2✳
✭❆ ♣♦✇❡r ♦❢ 2 ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠ 2n ✱ ✇❤❡r❡ n ✮
✐s ❛ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡r✳
Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✸✳ ▲❡t ABC ❜❡ ❛♥ ❛❝✉t❡ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ ✇✐t❤ AB > AC ✳ ▲❡t Γ ❜❡ ✐ts ❝✐r❝✉♠❝✐r❝❧❡✱ H ✐ts
♦rt❤♦❝❡♥tr❡✱ ❛♥❞ F t❤❡ ❢♦♦t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛❧t✐t✉❞❡ ❢r♦♠ A✳ ▲❡t M ❜❡ t❤❡ ♠✐❞♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ BC ✳ ▲❡t Q ❜❡ t❤❡
♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ Γ s✉❝❤ t❤❛t ∠HQA = 90◦ ✱ ❛♥❞ ❧❡t K ❜❡ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ Γ s✉❝❤ t❤❛t ∠HKQ = 90◦ ✳ ❆ss✉♠❡
t❤❛t t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts A✱ B ✱ C ✱ K ❛♥❞ Q ❛r❡ ❛❧❧ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✱ ❛♥❞ ❧✐❡ ♦♥ Γ ✐♥ t❤✐s ♦r❞❡r✳
Pr♦✈❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❝✐r❝✉♠❝✐r❝❧❡s ♦❢ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡s KQH ❛♥❞ F KM ❛r❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✳
▲❛♥❣✉❛❣❡✿ ❊♥❣❧✐s❤ ❚✐♠❡✿ ✹ ❤♦✉rs ❛♥❞ ✸✵ ♠✐♥✉t❡s
❊❛❝❤ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✐s ✇♦rt❤ ✼ ♣♦✐♥ts

Language: English
Day: 2
❙❛t✉r❞❛②✱ ❏✉❧② ✶✶✱ ✷✵✶✺
Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✹✳ ❚r✐❛♥❣❧❡ ABC ❤❛s ❝✐r❝✉♠❝✐r❝❧❡ Ω ❛♥❞ ❝✐r❝✉♠❝❡♥tr❡ O✳ ❆ ❝✐r❝❧❡ Γ ✇✐t❤ ❝❡♥tr❡ A
✐♥t❡rs❡❝ts t❤❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t BC ❛t ♣♦✐♥ts D ❛♥❞ E ✱ s✉❝❤ t❤❛t B ✱ D✱ E ❛♥❞ C ❛r❡ ❛❧❧ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❛♥❞ ❧✐❡
♦♥ ❧✐♥❡ BC ✐♥ t❤✐s ♦r❞❡r✳ ▲❡t F ❛♥❞ G ❜❡ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ Γ ❛♥❞ Ω✱ s✉❝❤ t❤❛t A✱ F ✱
B ✱ C ❛♥❞ G ❧✐❡ ♦♥ Ω ✐♥ t❤✐s ♦r❞❡r✳ ▲❡t K ❜❡ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝✉♠❝✐r❝❧❡ ♦❢
tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ BDF ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t AB ✳ ▲❡t L ❜❡ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝✉♠❝✐r❝❧❡ ♦❢
tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ CGE ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t CA✳
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡s F K ❛♥❞ GL ❛r❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❛♥❞ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t ❛t t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t X ✳ Pr♦✈❡ t❤❛t X ❧✐❡s ♦♥
t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ AO✳
Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✺✳ ▲❡t R ❜❡ t❤❡ s❡t ♦❢ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❛❧❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s f : R → R s❛t✐s❢②✐♥❣ t❤❡
❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
f x + f (x + y) + f (xy) = x + f (x + y) + yf (x)
❢♦r ❛❧❧ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs x ❛♥❞ y ✳
Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✻✳ ❚❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ a1 , a2 , . . . ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs s❛t✐s✜❡s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s✿

✭✐✮ 1 6 aj 6 2015 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ j > 1❀
✭✐✐✮ k + ak 6= ℓ + aℓ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ 1 6 k < ℓ✳
Pr♦✈❡ t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ❡①✐st t✇♦ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs b ❛♥❞ N s✉❝❤ t❤❛t
n
X
(aj − b) 6 10072

j=m+1
❢♦r ❛❧❧ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs m ❛♥❞ n s❛t✐s❢②✐♥❣ n > m > N ✳
▲❛♥❣✉❛❣❡✿ ❊♥❣❧✐s❤ ❚✐♠❡✿ ✹ ❤♦✉rs ❛♥❞ ✸✵ ♠✐♥✉t❡s
❊❛❝❤ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✐s ✇♦rt❤ ✼ ♣♦✐♥ts

Language: English
Day: 1
▼♦♥❞❛②✱ ❏✉❧② ✶✶✱ ✷✵✶✻
Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✶✳ ❚r✐❛♥❣❧❡ BCF ❤❛s ❛ r✐❣❤t ❛♥❣❧❡ ❛t B ✳ ▲❡t A ❜❡ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ ❧✐♥❡ CF s✉❝❤ t❤❛t
F A = F B ❛♥❞ F ❧✐❡s ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ A ❛♥❞ C ✳ P♦✐♥t D ✐s ❝❤♦s❡♥ s✉❝❤ t❤❛t DA = DC ❛♥❞ AC ✐s t❤❡
❜✐s❡❝t♦r ♦❢ ∠DAB ✳ P♦✐♥t E ✐s ❝❤♦s❡♥ s✉❝❤ t❤❛t EA = ED ❛♥❞ AD ✐s t❤❡ ❜✐s❡❝t♦r ♦❢ ∠EAC ✳ ▲❡t M
❜❡ t❤❡ ♠✐❞♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ CF ✳ ▲❡t X ❜❡ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t s✉❝❤ t❤❛t AM XE ✐s ❛ ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧♦❣r❛♠ ✭✇❤❡r❡ AM k EX
❛♥❞ AE k M X ✮✳ Pr♦✈❡ t❤❛t ❧✐♥❡s BD✱ F X ✱ ❛♥❞ M E ❛r❡ ❝♦♥❝✉rr❡♥t✳
Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✷✳ ❋✐♥❞ ❛❧❧ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs n ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ ❡❛❝❤ ❝❡❧❧ ♦❢ ❛♥ n × n t❛❜❧❡ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ✜❧❧❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ♦♥❡
♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❡tt❡rs ■✱ ▼ ❛♥❞ ❖ ✐♥ s✉❝❤ ❛ ✇❛② t❤❛t✿
• ✐♥ ❡❛❝❤ r♦✇ ❛♥❞ ❡❛❝❤ ❝♦❧✉♠♥✱ ♦♥❡ t❤✐r❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡♥tr✐❡s ❛r❡ ■✱ ♦♥❡ t❤✐r❞ ❛r❡ ▼ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❡ t❤✐r❞ ❛r❡
❖ ❀ ❛♥❞
• ✐♥ ❛♥② ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✱ ✐❢ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ❡♥tr✐❡s ♦♥ t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ✐s ❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ t❤r❡❡✱ t❤❡♥ ♦♥❡ t❤✐r❞
♦❢ t❤❡ ❡♥tr✐❡s ❛r❡ ■✱ ♦♥❡ t❤✐r❞ ❛r❡ ▼ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❡ t❤✐r❞ ❛r❡ ❖✳
◆♦t❡✿ ❚❤❡ r♦✇s ❛♥❞ ❝♦❧✉♠♥s ♦❢ ❛♥ n × n t❛❜❧❡ ❛r❡ ❡❛❝❤ ❧❛❜❡❧❧❡❞ 1 t♦ n ✐♥ ❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ♦r❞❡r✳ ❚❤✉s
❡❛❝❤ ❝❡❧❧ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞s t♦ ❛ ♣❛✐r ♦❢ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs (i, j) ✇✐t❤ 1 6 i, j 6 n✳ ❋♦r n > 1✱ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡ ❤❛s
4n − 2 ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧s ♦❢ t✇♦ t②♣❡s✳ ❆ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✜rst t②♣❡ ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ❝❡❧❧s (i, j) ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ i + j ✐s
❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✱ ❛♥❞ ❛ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ t②♣❡ ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ❝❡❧❧s (i, j) ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ i − j ✐s ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳
Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✸✳ ▲❡t P = A1 A2 . . . Ak ❜❡ ❛ ❝♦♥✈❡① ♣♦❧②❣♦♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡✳ ❚❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❡s A1 ✱ A2 ✱ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✱ Ak

❤❛✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ❛♥❞ ❧✐❡ ♦♥ ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡✳ ▲❡t S ❜❡ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ P ✳ ❆♥ ♦❞❞ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡r n ✐s
❣✐✈❡♥ s✉❝❤ t❤❛t t❤❡ sq✉❛r❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ s✐❞❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤s ♦❢ P ❛r❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs ❞✐✈✐s✐❜❧❡ ❜② n✳ Pr♦✈❡ t❤❛t 2S ✐s ❛♥
✐♥t❡❣❡r ❞✐✈✐s✐❜❧❡ ❜② n✳
▲❛♥❣✉❛❣❡✿ ❊♥❣❧✐s❤ ❚✐♠❡✿ ✹ ❤♦✉rs ❛♥❞ ✸✵ ♠✐♥✉t❡s
❊❛❝❤ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✐s ✇♦rt❤ ✼ ♣♦✐♥ts

Language: English
Day: 2
❚✉❡s❞❛②✱ ❏✉❧② ✶✷✱ ✷✵✶✻
Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✹✳ ❆ s❡t ♦❢ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❢r❛❣r❛♥t ✐❢ ✐t ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s ❛t ❧❡❛st t✇♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥ts ❛♥❞
❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ ✐ts ❡❧❡♠❡♥ts ❤❛s ❛ ♣r✐♠❡ ❢❛❝t♦r ✐♥ ❝♦♠♠♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❛t ❧❡❛st ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❡❧❡♠❡♥ts✳ ▲❡t
P (n) = n2 + n + 1✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❧❡❛st ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡r b s✉❝❤ t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ❡①✐sts ❛
♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡r a ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ t❤❡ s❡t
{P (a + 1), P (a + 2), . . . , P (a + b)}
✐s ❢r❛❣r❛♥t❄
Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✺✳ ❚❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥

(x − 1)(x − 2) · · · (x − 2016) = (x − 1)(x − 2) · · · (x − 2016)
✐s ✇r✐tt❡♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❜♦❛r❞✱ ✇✐t❤ ✷✵✶✻ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢❛❝t♦rs ♦♥ ❡❛❝❤ s✐❞❡✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❧❡❛st ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ k ❢♦r
✇❤✐❝❤ ✐t ✐s ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t♦ ❡r❛s❡ ❡①❛❝t❧② k ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ✹✵✸✷ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢❛❝t♦rs s♦ t❤❛t ❛t ❧❡❛st ♦♥❡ ❢❛❝t♦r r❡♠❛✐♥s
♦♥ ❡❛❝❤ s✐❞❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t✐♥❣ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❤❛s ♥♦ r❡❛❧ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s❄
Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✻✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ n > 2 ❧✐♥❡ s❡❣♠❡♥ts ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ s✉❝❤ t❤❛t ❡✈❡r② t✇♦ s❡❣♠❡♥ts ❝r♦ss✱ ❛♥❞
♥♦ t❤r❡❡ s❡❣♠❡♥ts ♠❡❡t ❛t ❛ ♣♦✐♥t✳ ●❡♦✛ ❤❛s t♦ ❝❤♦♦s❡ ❛♥ ❡♥❞♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ s❡❣♠❡♥t ❛♥❞ ♣❧❛❝❡ ❛
❢r♦❣ ♦♥ ✐t✱ ❢❛❝✐♥❣ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❡♥❞♣♦✐♥t✳ ❚❤❡♥ ❤❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❝❧❛♣ ❤✐s ❤❛♥❞s n − 1 t✐♠❡s✳ ❊✈❡r② t✐♠❡ ❤❡ ❝❧❛♣s✱
❡❛❝❤ ❢r♦❣ ✇✐❧❧ ✐♠♠❡❞✐❛t❡❧② ❥✉♠♣ ❢♦r✇❛r❞ t♦ t❤❡ ♥❡①t ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥ ♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ ✐ts s❡❣♠❡♥t✳ ❋r♦❣s ♥❡✈❡r
❝❤❛♥❣❡ t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡✐r ❥✉♠♣s✳ ●❡♦✛ ✇✐s❤❡s t♦ ♣❧❛❝❡ t❤❡ ❢r♦❣s ✐♥ s✉❝❤ ❛ ✇❛② t❤❛t ♥♦ t✇♦ ♦❢
t❤❡♠ ✇✐❧❧ ❡✈❡r ♦❝❝✉♣② t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥ ♣♦✐♥t ❛t t❤❡ s❛♠❡ t✐♠❡✳
✭❛✮ Pr♦✈❡ t❤❛t ●❡♦✛ ❝❛♥ ❛❧✇❛②s ❢✉❧✜❧ ❤✐s ✇✐s❤ ✐❢ n ✐s ♦❞❞✳
✭❜✮ Pr♦✈❡ t❤❛t ●❡♦✛ ❝❛♥ ♥❡✈❡r ❢✉❧✜❧ ❤✐s ✇✐s❤ ✐❢ n ✐s ❡✈❡♥✳
▲❛♥❣✉❛❣❡✿ ❊♥❣❧✐s❤ ❚✐♠❡✿ ✹ ❤♦✉rs ❛♥❞ ✸✵ ♠✐♥✉t❡s
❊❛❝❤ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✐s ✇♦rt❤ ✼ ♣♦✐♥ts

English (eng), day 1
Problem 1. For each integer a0 > 1, define the sequence a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . by:

√ √
an if an is an integer,
an+1 = for each n > 0.
an + 3 otherwise,
Determine all values of a0 for which there is a number A such that an = A for infinitely many values
of n.
Problem 2. Let R be the set of real numbers. Determine all functions f : R → R such that, for
all real numbers x and y,
f (f (x)f (y)) + f (x + y) = f (xy).
Problem 3. A hunter and an invisible rabbit play a game in the Euclidean plane. The rabbit’s
starting point, A0 , and the hunter’s starting point, B0 , are the same. After n − 1 rounds of the game,
the rabbit is at point An−1 and the hunter is at point Bn−1 . In the nth round of the game, three
things occur in order.
(i) The rabbit moves invisibly to a point An such that the distance between An−1 and An is
exactly 1.
(ii) A tracking device reports a point Pn to the hunter. The only guarantee provided by the tracking
device to the hunter is that the distance between Pn and An is at most 1.
(iii) The hunter moves visibly to a point Bn such that the distance between Bn−1 and Bn is
exactly 1.
Is it always possible, no matter how the rabbit moves, and no matter what points are reported
by the tracking device, for the hunter to choose her moves so that after 109 rounds she can ensure
that the distance between her and the rabbit is at most 100?

Problem 4. Let R and S be different points on a circle Ω such that RS is not a diameter. Let `
be the tangent line to Ω at R. Point T is such that S is the midpoint of the line segment RT . Point
J is chosen on the shorter arc RS of Ω so that the circumcircle Γ of triangle JST intersects ` at two
distinct points. Let A be the common point of Γ and ` that is closer to R. Line AJ meets Ω again
at K. Prove that the line KT is tangent to Γ.
Problem 5. An integer N > 2 is given. A collection of N (N + 1) soccer players, no two of whom

are of the same height, stand in a row. Sir Alex wants to remove N (N − 1) players from this row
leaving a new row of 2N players in which the following N conditions hold:
(1) no one stands between the two tallest players,
(2) no one stands between the third and fourth tallest players,
..
.
(N ) no one stands between the two shortest players.
Show that this is always possible.
Problem 6. An ordered pair (x, y) of integers is a primitive point if the greatest common divisor
of x and y is 1. Given a finite set S of primitive points, prove that there exist a positive integer n
and integers a0 , a1 , . . . , an such that, for each (x, y) in S, we have:
a0 xn + a1 xn−1 y + a2 xn−2 y 2 + · · · + an−1 xy n−1 + an y n = 1.

Monday, July 9, 2018
Problem 1. Let Γ be the circumcircle of acute-angled triangle ABC. Points D and E lie on
segments AB and AC, respectively, such that AD = AE. The perpendicular bisectors of BD and
CE intersect the minor arcs AB and AC of Γ at points F and G, respectively. Prove that the lines
DE and F G are parallel (or are the same line).
Problem 2. Find all integers n ≥ 3 for which there exist real numbers a1 , a2 , . . . , an+2 , such that
an+1 = a1 and an+2 = a2 , and
ai ai+1 + 1 = ai+2
for i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
Problem 3. An anti-Pascal triangle is an equilateral triangular array of numbers such that, except
for the numbers in the bottom row, each number is the absolute value of the difference of the two
numbers immediately below it. For example, the following array is an anti-Pascal triangle with four
rows which contains every integer from 1 to 10.
4
2 6
5 7 1
8 3 10 9
Does there exist an anti-Pascal triangle with 2018 rows which contains every integer from 1 to
1 + 2 + · · · + 2018?

Problem 4. A site is any point (x, y) in the plane such that x and y are both positive integers less
than or equal to 20.
Initially, each of the 400 sites is unoccupied. Amy and Ben take turns placing stones with Amy
going first. On her turn, Amy places a new red stone on an√unoccupied site such that the distance
between any two sites occupied by red stones is not equal to 5. On his turn, Ben places a new blue
stone on any unoccupied site. (A site occupied by a blue stone is allowed to be at any distance from
any other occupied site.) They stop as soon as a player cannot place a stone.
Find the greatest K such that Amy can ensure that she places at least K red stones, no matter
how Ben places his blue stones.
Problem 5. Let a1 , a2 , . . . be an infinite sequence of positive integers. Suppose that there is an

integer N > 1 such that, for each n ≥ N , the number
a1 a2 an−1 an
+ + ··· + +
a2 a3 an a1
is an integer. Prove that there is a positive integer M such that am = am+1 for all m ≥ M .
Problem 6. A convex quadrilateral ABCD satisfies AB · CD = BC · DA. Point X lies inside

ABCD so that
∠XAB = ∠XCD and ∠XBC = ∠XDA.
Prove that ∠BXA + ∠DXC = 180◦ .

Problem 1. Let Z be the set of integers. Determine all functions f : Z → Z such that, for all
integers a and b,
f (2a) + 2f (b) = f (f (a + b)).
Problem 2. In triangle ABC, point A1 lies on side BC and point B1 lies on side AC. Let P and Q
be points on segments AA1 and BB1 , respectively, such that P Q is parallel to AB. Let P1 be a point
on line P B1 , such that B1 lies strictly between P and P1 , and ∠P P1 C = ∠BAC. Similarly, let Q1
be a point on line QA1 , such that A1 lies strictly between Q and Q1 , and ∠CQ1 Q = ∠CBA.
Prove that points P , Q, P1 , and Q1 are concyclic.
Problem 3. A social network has 2019 users, some pairs of whom are friends. Whenever user A
is friends with user B, user B is also friends with user A. Events of the following kind may happen
repeatedly, one at a time:
Three users A, B, and C such that A is friends with both B and C, but B and C are
not friends, change their friendship statuses such that B and C are now friends, but A is
no longer friends with B, and no longer friends with C. All other friendship statuses are
unchanged.
Initially, 1010 users have 1009 friends each, and 1009 users have 1010 friends each. Prove that there
exists a sequence of such events after which each user is friends with at most one other user.

Problem 4. Find all pairs (k, n) of positive integers such that
k! = (2n − 1)(2n − 2)(2n − 4) · · · (2n − 2n−1 ).
Problem 5. The Bank of Bath issues coins with an H on one side and a T on the other. Harry has
n of these coins arranged in a line from left to right. He repeatedly performs the following operation:
if there are exactly k > 0 coins showing H, then he turns over the k th coin from the left; otherwise,
all coins show T and he stops. For example, if n = 3 the process starting with the configuration
T HT would be T HT → HHT → HT T → T T T , which stops after three operations.
(a) Show that, for each initial configuration, Harry stops after a finite number of operations.
(b) For each initial configuration C, let L(C) be the number of operations before Harry stops. For
example, L(T HT ) = 3 and L(T T T ) = 0. Determine the average value of L(C) over all 2n
possible initial configurations C.
Problem 6. Let I be the incentre of acute triangle ABC with AB 6= AC. The incircle ω of ABC is
tangent to sides BC, CA, and AB at D, E, and F , respectively. The line through D perpendicular
to EF meets ω again at R. Line AR meets ω again at P . The circumcircles of triangles P CE
and P BF meet again at Q.
Prove that lines DI and P Q meet on the line through A perpendicular to AI.


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First International Olympiad, 1959

where p is a real parameter.

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 = 0

with unknowns x1 , x2 , x3 . The coefficients satisfy the conditions:

|a1 − a2 | x2 + |a1 − a3 | x3 + |a1 − a4 | x4 = 1

where a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 are four different real numbers.

is satisfied. Give necessary and sufficient conditions for equality.

(AB + BC + CA)2 ≤ 6(AD2 + BD2 + CD2 ).

For what tetrahedra does equality hold?

Prove that, if z1 , z2 , · · · , zn is any permutation of y1 , y2 , · · · , yn , then

P (tx, ty) = tn P (x, y)

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1q xq = 0

u0 = 2, u1 = 5/2, un+1 = un (u2n−1 − 2) − u1 for n = 1, 2, · · ·

where [x] denotes the greatest integer ≤ x.

f (1) < f (2) < · · · < f (n) < · · · ,

g(1) < g(2) < · · · < g(n) < · · · ,

1979/6. Let A and E be opposite vertices of a regular octagon. A frog starts

f (2) = 0, f (3) > 0, and f (9999) = 3333.

x0 = 1, and for all i ≥ 0, xi+1 ≤ xi .

x20 x21 x2n−1

a2 b(a − b) + b2 c(b − c) + c2 a(c − a) ≥ 0.

Determine when equality occurs.

where [x] denotes the greatest integer not exceeding x.

w(Qi1 + Qi2 , + + Qin ) ≥ w(Qi1 ).

0 < xn < xn+1 < 1

2. A triangle A1 A2 A3 and a point P0 are given in the plane. We define As = As−3

3. To each vertex of a regular pentagon an integer is assigned in such a way that

4. Let A, B be adjacent vertices of a regular n-gon (n ≥ 5) in the plane having

(i) f (xf (y))f (y) = f (x + y) for all x, y ≥ 0,

(Remark: A permutation f of a set S is a one-to-one mapping of S onto itself.

2. In an acute-angled triangle ABC the interior bisector of the angle A intersects

3. Let x1 , x2 , . . . , xn be real numbers satisfying x21 + x22 + · · · + x2n = 1. Prove that

5. Let n be an integer greater than or equal to 3. Prove that there is a set of n

(i) Find the set of values of BC 2 + CA2 + AB 2 .

2. Let n be a positive integer and let A1 , A2 , . . . , A2n+1 be subsets of a set B.

(a) Each Ai has exactly 2n elements,

3. A function f is defined on the positive integers by

for all positive integers n.

4. Show that set of real numbers x which satisfy the inequality

is a union of disjoint intervals, the sum of whose lengths is 1988.

5. ABC is a triangle right-angled at A, and D is the foot of the altitude from A.

6. Let a and b be positive integers such that ab + 1 divides a2 + b2 . Show that

(i) Each Ai contains 17 elements;

2. In an acute-angled triangle ABC the internal bisector of angle A meets the

(i) No three points of S are collinear, and

6. A permutation (x1 , x2 , . . . , xm ) of the set {1, 2, . . . , 2n}, where n is a positive

1. Chords AB and CD of a circle intersect at a point E inside the circle. Let M

2. Let n ≥ 3 and consider a set E of 2n − 1 distinct points on a circle. Suppose

3. Determine all integers n > 1 such that

4. Let Q+ be the set of positive rational numbers. Construct a function f : Q+ →

5. Given an initial integer n0 > 1, two players, A and B, choose integers n1 , n2 ,

n2k ≤ n2k+1 ≤ n22k .

Knowing n2k+1 , B chooses any integer n2k+2 such that

(a) A have a winning strategy?

(a) All angles are equal.

1. Given a triangle ABC, let I be the center of its inscribed circle.

2. Let n > 6 be an integer and a1 , a2 , . . . , ak be all the natural numbers

prove that n must be either a prime number or a power of 2.

Second Day July 18, 1991

It is known that BAC 60 and that AB BP AQ QB.