Putnam Imo

First International Olympiad, 1959
1959/1.
21n+4
Prove that the fraction 14n+3
is irreducible for every natural number n.
1959/2.
For what real values of x is
q √ q √
(x + 2x − 1) + (x − 2x − 1) = A,
√
given (a) A = 2, (b) A = 1, (c) A = 2, where only non-negative real
numbers are admitted for square roots?
1959/3.
Let a, b, c be real numbers. Consider the quadratic equation in cos x :
a cos2 x + b cos x + c = 0.
Using the numbers a, b, c, form a quadratic equation in cos 2x, whose roots
are the same as those of the original equation. Compare the equations in
cos x and cos 2x for a = 4, b = 2, c = −1.
1959/4.
Construct a right triangle with given hypotenuse c such that the median
drawn to the hypotenuse is the geometric mean of the two legs of the triangle.
1959/5.
An arbitrary point M is selected in the interior of the segment AB. The
squares AM CD and M BEF are constructed on the same side of AB, with
the segments AM and M B as their respective bases. The circles circum-
scribed about these squares, with centers P and Q, intersect at M and also
at another point N. Let N 0 denote the point of intersection of the straight
lines AF and BC.
(a) Prove that the points N and N 0 coincide.
(b) Prove that the straight lines M N pass through a fixed point S indepen-
dent of the choice of M.
(c) Find the locus of the midpoints of the segments P Q as M varies between
A and B.
1959/6.
Two planes, P and Q, intersect along the line p. The point A is given in the
plane P, and the point C in the plane Q; neither of these points lies on the
straight line p. Construct an isosceles trapezoid ABCD (with AB parallel to
CD) in which a circle can be inscribed, and with vertices B and D lying in
the planes P and Q respectively.
Second International Olympiad, 1960
1960/1.
Determine all three-digit numbers N having the property that N is divisible
by 11, and N/11 is equal to the sum of the squares of the digits of N.
1960/2.
For what values of the variable x does the following inequality hold:
4x2
√ < 2x + 9?
(1 − 1 + 2x)2
1960/3.
In a given right triangle ABC, the hypotenuse BC, of length a, is divided
into n equal parts (n an odd integer). Let α be the acute angle subtending,
from A, that segment which contains the midpoint of the hypotenuse. Let h
be the length of the altitude to the hypotenuse of the triangle. Prove:
4nh
tan α = 2 .
(n − 1)a
1960/4.
Construct triangle ABC, given ha , hb (the altitudes from A and B) and ma ,
the median from vertex A.
1960/5.
Consider the cube ABCDA0 B 0 C 0 D0 (with face ABCD directly above face
A0 B 0 C 0 D0 ).
(a) Find the locus of the midpoints of segments XY, where X is any point
of AC and Y is any point of B 0 D0 .
(b) Find the locus of points Z which lie on the segments XY of part (a) with
ZY = 2XZ.
1960/6.
Consider a cone of revolution with an inscribed sphere tangent to the base
of the cone. A cylinder is circumscribed about this sphere so
that one of its bases lies in the base of the cone. Let V1 be the volume of the
cone and V2 the volume of the cylinder.
(a) Prove that V1 6= V2 .
(b) Find the smallest number k for which V1 = kV2 , for this case, construct
the angle subtended by a diameter of the base of the cone at the vertex of
the cone.
1960/7.
An isosceles trapezoid with bases a and c and altitude h is given.
(a) On the axis of symmetry of this trapezoid, find all points P such that
both legs of the trapezoid subtend right angles at P.
(b) Calculate the distance of P from either base.
(c) Determine under what conditions such points P actually exist. (Discuss
various cases that might arise.)
Third International Olympiad, 1961
1961/1.
Solve the system of equations:
x+y+z = a
x + y 2 + z 2 = b2
2
xy = z 2
where a and b are constants. Give the conditions that a and b must satisfy
so that x, y, z (the solutions of the system) are distinct positive numbers.
1961/2. √
Let a, b, c be the sides of a triangle, and T its area. Prove: a2 +b2 +c2 ≥ 4 3T.
In what case does equality hold?
1961/3.
Solve the equation cosn x − sinn x = 1, where n is a natural number.
1961/4.
Consider triangle P1 P2 P3 and a point P within the triangle. Lines P1 P, P2 P, P3 P
intersect the opposite sides in points Q1 , Q2 , Q3 respectively. Prove that, of
the numbers
P1 P P2 P P3 P
, ,
P Q1 P Q2 P Q 3
at least one is ≤ 2 and at least one is ≥ 2.
1961/5.
Construct triangle ABC if AC = b, AB = c and 6 AM B = ω, where M is
the midpoint of segment BC and ω < 90◦ . Prove that a
solution exists if and only if
ω
b tan ≤ c < b.
2
In what case does the equality hold?
1961/6.
Consider a plane ε and three non-collinear points A, B, C on the same side of
ε; suppose the plane determined by these three points is not parallel to ε. In
plane a take three arbitrary points A0 , B 0 , C 0 . Let L, M, N be the midpoints
of segments AA0 , BB 0 , CC 0 ; let G be the centroid of triangle LM N. (We will
not consider positions of the points A0 , B 0 , C 0 such that the points L, M, N
do not form a triangle.) What is the locus of point G as A0 , B 0 , C 0 range
independently over the plane ε?
Fourth International Olympiad, 1962
1962/1.
Find the smallest natural number n which has the following properties:
(a) Its decimal representation has 6 as the last digit.
(b) If the last digit 6 is erased and placed in front of the remaining digits,
the resulting number is four times as large as the original number n.
1962/2.
Determine all real numbers x which satisfy the inequality:
√ √ 1
3−x− x+1> .
2
1962/3.
Consider the cube ABCDA0 B 0 C 0 D0 (ABCD and A0 B 0 C 0 D0 are the upper and
lower bases, respectively, and edges AA0 , BB 0 , CC 0 , DD0 are parallel). The
point X moves at constant speed along the perimeter of the square ABCD
in the direction ABCDA, and the point Y moves at the same rate along
the perimeter of the square B 0 C 0 CB in the direction B 0 C 0 CBB 0 . Points X
and Y begin their motion at the same instant from the starting positions A
and B 0 , respectively. Determine and draw the locus of the midpoints of the
segments XY.
1962/4.
Solve the equation cos2 x + cos2 2x + cos2 3x = 1.
1962/5.
On the circle K there are given three distinct points A, B, C. Construct (using
only straightedge and compasses) a fourth point D on K such that a circle
can be inscribed in the quadrilateral thus obtained.
1962/6.
Consider an isosceles triangle. Let r be the radius of its circumscribed circle
and ρ the radius of its inscribed circle. Prove that the distance d between
the centers of these two circles is
q
d= r(r − 2ρ).
1962/7.
The tetrahedron SABC has the following property: there exist five spheres,
each tangent to the edges SA, SB, SC, BCCA, AB, or to their extensions.
(a) Prove that the tetrahedron SABC is regular.
(b) Prove conversely that for every regular tetrahedron five such spheres
exist.
Fifth International Olympiad, 1963
1963/1.
Find all real roots of the equation
q √
x2 − p + 2 x2 − 1 = x,
where p is a real parameter.
1963/2.
Point A and segment BC are given. Determine the locus of points in space
which are vertices of right angles with one side passing through A, and the
other side intersecting the segment BC.
1963/3.
In an n-gon all of whose interior angles are equal, the lengths of consecutive
sides satisfy the relation
a1 ≥ a2 ≥ · · · ≥ an .
Prove that a1 = a2 = · · · = an .
1963/4.
Find all solutions x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 of the system
x5 + x2 = yx1
x1 + x3 = yx2
x2 + x4 = yx3
x3 + x5 = yx4
x4 + x1 = yx5 ,
where y is a parameter.
1963/5.
Prove that cos π7 − cos 2π
7
+ cos 3π
7
= 12 .
1963/6.
Five students, A, B, C, D, E, took part in a contest. One prediction was that
the contestants would finish in the order ABCDE. This prediction was very
poor. In fact no contestant finished in the position predicted, and no two
contestants predicted to finish consecutively actually did so. A second pre-
diction had the contestants finishing in the order DAECB. This prediction
was better. Exactly two of the contestants finished in the places predicted,
and two disjoint pairs of students predicted to finish consecutively actually
did so. Determine the order in which the contestants finished.
Sixth International Olympiad, 1964
1964/1.
(a) Find all positive integers n for which 2n − 1 is divisible by 7.
(b) Prove that there is no positive integer n for which 2n + 1 is divisible by
7.
1964/2.
Suppose a, b, c are the sides of a triangle. Prove that
a2 (b + c − a) + b2 (c + a − b) + c2 (a + b − c) ≤ 3abc.
1964/3.
A circle is inscribed in triangle ABC with sides a, b, c. Tangents to the circle
parallel to the sides of the triangle are constructed. Each of these tangents
cuts off a triangle from ∆ABC. In each of these triangles, a circle is inscribed.
Find the sum of the areas of all four inscribed circles (in terms of a, b, c).
1964/4.
Seventeen people correspond by mail with one another - each one with all
the rest. In their letters only three different topics are discussed. Each pair
of correspondents deals with only one of these topics. Prove that there are
at least three people who write to each other about the same topic.
1964/5.
Suppose five points in a plane are situated so that no two of the straight lines
joining them are parallel, perpendicular, or coincident. From each point per-
pendiculars are drawn to all the lines joining the other four points. Determine
the maximum number of intersections that these perpendiculars can have.
1964/6.
In tetrahedron ABCD, vertex D is connected with D0 the centroid of ∆ABC.
Lines parallel to DD0 are drawn through A, B and C. These lines intersect the
planes BCD, CAD and ABD in points A1 , B1 and C1 , respectively. Prove
that the volume of ABCD is one third the volume of A1 B1 C1 D0 . Is the result
true if point D0 is selected anywhere within ∆ABC?
Seventh Internatioaal Olympiad, 1965
1965/1.
Determine all values x in the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π which satisfy the inequality
¯√ √ ¯ √
2 cos x ≤ ¯¯ 1 + sin 2x − 1 − sin 2x¯¯ ≤ 2.
1965/2.
Consider the system of equations
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 = 0

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 = 0
a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 = 0
with unknowns x1 , x2 , x3 . The coefficients satisfy the conditions:

(a) a11 , a22 , a33 are positive numbers;
(b) the remaining coefficients are negative numbers;
(c) in each equation, the sum of the coefficients is positive.
Prove that the given system has only the solution x1 = x2 = x3 = 0.
1965/3.
Given the tetrahedron ABCD whose edges AB and CD have lengths a and
b respectively. The distance between the skew lines AB and CD is d, and
the angle between them is ω. Tetrahedron ABCD is divided into two solids
by plane ε, parallel to lines AB and CD. The ratio of the distances of ε from
AB and CD is equal to k. Compute the ratio of the volumes of the two solids
obtained.
1965/4.
Find all sets of four real numbers x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 such that the sum of any one
and the product of the other three is equal to 2.
1965/5.
Consider ∆OAB with acute angle AOB. Through a point M 6= O perpendic-
ulars are drawn to OA and OB, the feet of which are P and Q respectively.
The point of intersection of the altitudes of ∆OP Q is H. What is the locus
of H if M is permitted to range over (a) the side AB, (b) the interior of
∆OAB?
1965/6.
In a plane a set of n points (n ≥ 3) is given. Each pair of points is connected
by a segment. Let d be the length of the longest of these segments. We define
a diameter of the set to be any connecting segment of length d. Prove that
the number of diameters of the given set is at most n.
Eighth International Olympiad, 1966
1966/1.
In a mathematical contest, three problems, A, B, C were posed. Among the
participants there were 25 students who solved at least one problem each.
Of all the contestants who did not solve problem A, the number who solved
B was twice the number who solved C. The number of students who solved
only problem A was one more than the number of students who solved A
and at least one other problem. Of all students who solved just one problem,
half did not solve problem A. How many students solved only problem B?
1966/2.
Let a, b, c be the lengths of the sides of a triangle, and α, β, γ, respectively,
the angles opposite these sides. Prove that if
γ
a + b = tan (a tan α + b tan β),
2
the triangle is isosceles.
1966/3.
Prove: The sum of the distances of the vertices of a regular tetrahedron from
the center of its circumscribed sphere is less than the sum of the distances of
these vertices from any other point in space.
1966/4.
Prove that for every natural number n, and for every real number x 6=
kπ/2t (t = 0, 1, ..., n; k any integer)
1 1 1
+ + ··· + n
= cot x − cot 2n x.
sin 2x sin 4x sin 2 x
1966/5.
Solve the system of equations
|a1 − a2 | x2 + |a1 − a3 | x3 + |a1 − a4 | x4 = 1

|a2 − a1 | x1 + |a2 − a3 | x3 + |a2 − a3 | x3 = 1
|a3 − a1 | x1 + |a3 − a2 | x2 =1
|a4 − a1 | x1 + |a4 − a2 | x2 + |a4 − a3 | x3 =1
where a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 are four different real numbers.

1966/6.
In the interior of sides BC, CA, AB of triangle ABC, any points K, L, M,
respectively, are selected. Prove that the area of at least one of the triangles
AM L, BKM, CLK is less than or equal to one quarter of the area of triangle
ABC.
Ninth International Olympiad, 1967
1967/1.
Let ABCD be a parallelogram with side lengths AB = a, AD = 1, and with
6 BAD = α. If ∆ABD is acute, prove that the four circles of radius 1 with
centers A, B, C, D cover the parallelogram if and only if
√
a ≤ cos α + 3 sin α.
1967/2.
Prove that if one and only one edge of a tetrahedron is greater than 1, then
its volume is ≤ 1/8.
1967/3.
Let k, m, n be natural numbers such that m + k + 1 is a prime greater than
n + 1. Let cs = s(s + 1). Prove that the product
(cm+1 − ck )(cm+2 − ck ) · · · (cm+n − ck )
is divisible by the product c1 c2 · · · cn .
1967/4.
Let A0 B0 C0 and A1 B1 C1 be any two acute-angled triangles. Consider all
triangles ABC that are similar to ∆A1 B1 C1 (so that vertices A1 , B1 , C1 cor-
respond to vertices A, B, C, respectively) and circumscribed about triangle
A0 B0 C0 (where A0 lies on BC, B0 on CA, and AC0 on AB). Of all such
possible triangles, determine the one with maximum area, and construct it.
1967/5.
Consider the sequence {cn }, where
c1 = a1 + a2 + · · · + a8
c2 = a21 + a22 + · · · + a28
···
cn = an1 + an2 + · · · + an8
···
in which a1 , a2 , · · · , a8 are real numbers not all equal to zero. Suppose that
an infinite number of terms of the sequence {cn } are equal to zero. Find all
natural numbers n for which cn = 0.
1967/6.
In a sports contest, there were m medals awarded on n successive days (n >
1). On the first day, one medal and 1/7 of the remaining m − 1 medals
were awarded. On the second day, two medals and 1/7 of the now remaining
medals were awarded; and so on. On the n-th and last day, the remaining n
medals were awarded. How many days did the contest last, and how many
medals were awarded altogether?
Tenth International Olympiad, 1968
1968/1.
Prove that there is one and only one triangle whose side lengths are consec-
utive integers, and one of whose angles is twice as large as another.
1968/2.
Find all natural numbers x such that the product of their digits (in decimal
notation) is equal to x2 − 10x − 22.
1968/3.
Consider the system of equations
ax21 + bx1 + c = x2
ax22 + bx2 + c = x3
···
2
axn−1 + bxn−1 + c = xn
ax2n + bxn + c = x1 ,
with unknowns x1 , x2 , · · · , xn , where a, b, c are real and a 6= 0. Let ∆ =
(b − 1)2 − 4ac. Prove that for this system
(a) if ∆ < 0, there is no solution,
(b) if ∆ = 0, there is exactly one solution,
(c) if ∆ > 0, there is more than one solution.
1968/4.
Prove that in every tetrahedron there is a vertex such that the three edges
meeting there have lengths which are the sides of a triangle.
1968/5.
Let f be a real-valued function defined for all real numbers x such that, for
some positive constant a, the equation
1 q
f (x + a) = + f (x) − [f (x)]2
2
holds for all x.
(a) Prove that the function f is periodic (i.e., there exists a positive number
b such that f (x + b) = f (x) for all x).
(b) For a = 1, give an example of a non-constant function with the required
properties.
1968/6.
For every natural number n, evaluate the sum
∞
" # · ¸ · ¸ " #
X n + 2k n+1 n+2 n + 2k
= + + ··· + + ···
k=0 2k+1 2 4 2k+1
(The symbol [x] denotes the greatest integer not exceeding x.)
Eleventh International Olympiad, 1969
1969/1.
Prove that there are infinitely many natural numbers a with the following
property: the number z = n4 + a is not prime for any natura1 number n.
1969/2.
Let a1 , a2 , · · · , an be real constants, x a real variable, and
1 1
f (x) = cos(a1 + x) + cos(a2 + x) + cos(a3 + x)
2 4
1
+··· + cos(an + x).
2n−1
Given that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) = 0, prove that x2 − x1 = mπ for some integer m.
1969/3.
For each value of k = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, find necessary and sufficient conditions on
the number a > 0 so that there exists a tetrahedron with k edges of length
a, and the remaining 6 − k edges of length 1.
1969/4.
A semicircular arc γ is drawn on AB as diameter. C is a point on γ other
than A and B, and D is the foot of the perpendicular from C to AB. We
consider three circles, γ1 , γ2 , γ3 , all tangent to the line AB. Of these, γ1 is
inscribed in ∆ABC, while γ2 and γ3 are both tangent to CD and to γ, one on
each side of CD. Prove that γ1 , γ2 and γ3 have a second tangent in common.
1969/5.
Given n > 4 points³ in ´the plane such that no three are collinear. Prove that
there are at least n−3
2
convex quadrilaterals whose vertices are four of the
given points.
1969/6.
Prove that for all real numbers x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 , z1 , z2 , with x1 > 0, x2 > 0, x1 y1 −
z12 > 0, x2 y2 − z22 > 0, the inequality
8 1 1
2 ≤ +
(x1 + x2 ) (y1 + y2 ) − (z1 + z2 ) x1 y1 − z1 x2 y2 − z22
2
is satisfied. Give necessary and sufficient conditions for equality.

Twelfth International Olympiad, 1970
1970/1.
Let M be a point on the side AB of ∆ABC. Let r1 , r2 and r be the radii
of the inscribed circles of triangles AM C, BM C and ABC. Let q1 , q2 and q
be the radii of the escribed circles of the same triangles that lie in the angle
ACB. Prove that
r1 r2 r
· = .
q1 q2 q
1970/2.
Let a, b and n be integers greater than 1, and let a and b be the bases of
two number systems. An−1 and An are numbers in the system with base a,
and Bn−1 and Bn are numbers in the system with base b; these are related as
follows:
An = xn xn−1 · · · x0 , An−1 = xn−1 xn−2 · · · x0 ,
Bn = xn xn−1 · · · x0 , Bn−1 = xn−1 xn−2 · · · x0 ,
xn 6= 0, xn−1 6= 0.
Prove:
An−1 Bn−1
< if and only if a > b.
An Bn
1970/3.
The real numbers a0 , a1 , ..., an , ... satisfy the condition:
1 = a0 ≤ a1 ≤ a2 ≤ · · · ≤ an ≤ · · · .
The numbers b1 , b2 , ..., bn , ... are defined by
n µ
X ¶
ak−1 1
bn = 1− √ .
k=1 ak ak
(a) Prove that 0 ≤ bn < 2 for all n.
(b) Given c with 0 ≤ c < 2, prove that there exist numbers a0 , a1 , ... with
the above properties such that bn > c for large enough n.
1970/4.
Find the set of all positive integers n with the property that the set {n, n +
1, n + 2, n + 3, n + 4, n + 5} can be partitioned into two sets such that the
product of the numbers in one set equals the product of the numbers in the
other set.
1970/5.
In the tetrahedron ABCD, angle BDC is a right angle. Suppose that the
foot H of the perpendicular from D to the plane ABC is the intersection of
the altitudes of ∆ABC. Prove that
(AB + BC + CA)2 ≤ 6(AD2 + BD2 + CD2 ).
For what tetrahedra does equality hold?
1970/6.
In a plane there are 100 points, no three of which are collinear. Consider all
possible triangles having these points as vertices. Prove that no more than
70% of these triangles are acute-angled.
Thirteenth International Olympiad, 1971
1971/1.
Prove that the following assertion is true for n = 3 and n = 5, and that it is
false for every other natural number n > 2 :
If a1 , a2 , ..., an are arbitrary real numbers, then
(a1 − a2 )(a1 − a3 ) · · · (a1 − an ) + (a2 − a1 )(a2 − a3 ) · · · (a2 − an )
+ · · · + (an − a1 )(an − a2 ) · · · (an − an−1 ) ≥ 0
1971/2.
Consider a convex polyhedron P1 with nine vertices A1 A2 , ..., A9 ; let Pi be
the polyhedron obtained from P1 by a translation that moves vertex A1 to
Ai (i = 2, 3, ..., 9). Prove that at least two of the polyhedra P1 , P2 , ..., P9 have
an interior point in common.
1971/3.
Prove that the set of integers of the form 2k − 3(k = 2, 3, ...) contains an
infinite subset in which every two members are relatively prime.
1971/4.
All the faces of tetrahedron ABCD are acute-angled triangles. We consider
all closed polygonal paths of the form XY ZT X defined as follows: X is a
point on edge AB distinct from A and B; similarly, Y, Z, T are interior points
of edges BCCD, DA, respectively. Prove:
(a) If 6 DAB + 6 BCD 6= 6 CDA + 6 ABC, then among the polygonal paths,
there is none of minimal length.
(b) If 6 DAB + 6 BCD = 6 CDA + 6 ABC, then there are infinitely many
shortest polygonal paths, their common length being 2AC sin(α/2), where
α = 6 BAC + 6 CAD + 6 DAB.
1971/5.
Prove that for every natural number m, there exists a finite set S of points
in a plane with the following property: For every point A in S, there are
exactly m points in S which are at unit distance from A.
1971/6.
Let A = (aij )(i, j = 1, 2, ..., n) be a square matrix whose elements are non-
negative integers. Suppose that whenever an element aij = 0, the sum of the
elements in the ith row and the jth column is ≥ n. Prove that the sum of
all the elements of the matrix is ≥ n2 /2.
Fourteenth International Olympiad, 1972
1972/1.
Prove that from a set of ten distinct two-digit numbers (in the decimal sys-
tem), it is possible to select two disjoint subsets whose members have the
same sum.
1972/2.
Prove that if n ≥ 4, every quadrilateral that can be inscribed in a circle can
be dissected into n quadrilaterals each of which is inscribable in a circle.
1972/3.
Let m and n be arbitrary non-negative integers. Prove that
(2m)!(2n)!
m0n!(m + n)!
is an integer. (0! = 1.)
1972/4.
Find all solutions (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 ) of the system of inequalities
(x21 − x3 x5 )(x22 − x3 x5 ) ≤ 0
(x22 − x4 x1 )(x23 − x4 x1 ) ≤ 0
(x23 − x5 x2 )(x24 − x5 x2 ) ≤ 0
(x24 − x1 x3 )(x25 − x1 x3 ) ≤ 0
(x25 − x2 x4 )(x21 − x2 x4 ) ≤ 0
where x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 are positive real numbers.
1972/5.
Let f and g be real-valued functions defined for all real values of x and y,
and satisfying the equation
f (x + y) + f (x − y) = 2f (x)g(y)
for all x, y. Prove that if f (x) is not identically zero, and if |f (x)| ≤ 1 for all
x, then |g(y)| ≤ 1 for all y.
1972/6.
Given four distinct parallel planes, prove that there exists a regular tetrahe-
dron with a vertex on each plane.
Fifteenth International Olympiad, 1973
1973/1.
−−→ −−→ −−→
Point O lies on line g; OP1 , OP2 , ..., OPn are unit vectors such that points
P1 , P2 , ..., Pn all lie in a plane containing g and on one side of g. Prove that
if n is odd, ¯−−→ −−→
¯ −−→¯¯
¯OP1 + OP2 + · · · + OPn ¯ ≥ 1
¯−−→¯ −−→
¯ ¯
Here ¯OM ¯ denotes the length of vector OM .
1973/2.
Determine whether or not there exists a finite set M of points in space not
lying in the same plane such that, for any two points A and B of M, one can
select two other points C and D of M so that lines AB and CD are parallel
and not coincident.
1973/3.
Let a and b be real numbers for which the equation
x4 + ax3 + bx2 + ax + 1 = 0
has at least one real solution. For all such pairs (a, b), find the minimum
value of a2 + b2 .
1973/4.
A soldier needs to check on the presence of mines in a region having the
shape of an equilateral triangle. The radius of action of his detector is equal
to half the altitude of the triangle. The soldier leaves from one vertex of the
triangle. What path shouid he follow in order to travel the least possible
distance and still accomplish his mission?
1973/5.
G is a set of non-constant functions of the real variable x of the form
f (x) = ax + b, a and b are real numbers,
and G has the following properties:
(a) If f and g are in G, then g ◦ f is in G; here (g ◦ f )(x) = g[f (x)].
(b) If f is in G, then its inverse f −1 is in G; here the inverse of f (x) = ax + b
is f −1 (x) = (x − b)/a.
(c) For every f in G, there exists a real number xf such that f (xf ) = xf .
Prove that there exists a real number k such that f (k) = k for all f in G.
1973/6.
Let a1 , a2 , ..., an be n positive numbers, and let q be a given real number such
that 0 < q < 1. Find n numbers b1 , b2 , ..., bn for which
(a) ak < bk for k = 1, 2, · · · , n,
(b) q < bk+1
bk
< 1q for k = 1, 2, ..., n − 1,
(c) b1 + b2 + · · · + bn < 1+q1−q
(a1 + a2 + · · · + an ).
Sixteenth International Olympiad, 1974
1974/1.
Three players A, B and C play the following game: On each of three cards
an integer is written. These three numbers p, q, r satisfy 0 < p < q < r. The
three cards are shuffled and one is dealt to each player. Each then receives
the number of counters indicated by the card he holds. Then the cards are
shuffled again; the counters remain with the players.
This process (shuffling, dealing, giving out counters) takes place for at least
two rounds. After the last round, A has 20 counters in all, B has 10 and C
has 9. At the last round B received r counters. Who received q counters on
the first round?
1974/2.
In the triangle ABC, prove that there is a point D on side AB such that CD
is the geometric mean of AD and DB if and only if
C
sin A sin B ≤ sin2 .
2
1974/3. ³ ´
Pn 2n+1
Prove that the number k=0 2k+1
23k is not divisible by 5 for any integer
n ≥ 0.
1974/4.
Consider decompositions of an 8 × 8 chessboard into p non-overlapping rect-
angles subject to the following conditions:
(i) Each rectangle has as many white squares as black squares.
(ii) If ai is the number of white squares in the i-th rectangle, then a1 < a2 <
· · · < ap . Find the maximum value of p for which such a decomposition is
possible. For this value of p, determine all possible sequences a1 , a2 , · · · , ap .
1974/5.
Determine all possible values of
a b c d
S= + + +
a+b+d a+b+c b+c+d a+c+d
where a, b, c, d are arbitrary positive numbers.
1974/6.
Let P be a non-constant polynomial with integer coefficients. If n(P ) is
the number of distinct integers k such that (P (k))2 = 1, prove that n(P ) −
deg(P ) ≤ 2, where deg(P ) denotes the degree of the polynomial P.
Seventeenth International Olympiad, 1975
1975/1.
Let xi , yi (i = 1, 2, ..., n) be real numbers such that
x1 ≥ x2 ≥ · · · ≥ xn and y1 ≥ y2 ≥ · · · ≥ yn .
Prove that, if z1 , z2 , · · · , zn is any permutation of y1 , y2 , · · · , yn , then

n
X n
X
2
(xi − yi ) ≤ (xi − zi )2 .
i=1 i=1
1975/2.
Let a1 , a2 , a3, · · · be an infinite increasing sequence of positive integers. Prove
that for every p ≥ 1 there are infinitely many am which can be written in
the form
am = xap + yaq
with x, y positive integers and q > p.
1975/3.
On the sides of an arbitrary triangle ABC, triangles ABR, BCP, CAQ are
constructed externally with 6 CBP = 6 CAQ = 45◦ , 6 BCP = 6 ACQ =
30◦ , 6 ABR = 6 BAR = 15◦ . Prove that 6 QRP = 90◦ and QR = RP.
1975/4.
When 44444444 is written in decimal notation, the sum of its digits is A. Let
B be the sum of the digits of A. Find the sum of the digits of B. (A and B
are written in decimal notation.)
1975/5.
Determine, with proof, whether or not one can find 1975 points on the cir-
cumference of a circle with unit radius such that the distance between any
two of them is a rational number.
1975/6.
Find all polynomials P, in two variables, with the following properties:
(i) for a positive integer n and all real t, x, y
P (tx, ty) = tn P (x, y)

(that is, P is homogeneous of degree n),
(ii) for all real a, b, c,
P (b + c, a) + P (c + a, b) + P (a + b, c) = 0,
(iii) P (1, 0) = 1.
Eighteenth International Olympiad, 1976
1976/1.
In a plane convex quadrilateral of area 32, the sum of the lengths of two
opposite sides and one diagonal is 16. Determine all possible lengths of the
other diagonal.
1976/2.
Let P1 (x) = x2 − 2 and Pj (x) = P1 (Pj−1 (x)) for j = 2, 3, · · ·. Show that,
for any positive integer n, the roots of the equation Pn (x) = x are real and
distinct.
1976/3.
A rectangular box can be filled completely with unit cubes. If one places as
many cubes as possible, each with volume 2, in the box, so that their edges
are parallel to the edges of the box, one can fill exactly 40% of the box.
Determine the possible dimensions of all such boxes.
1976/4.
Determine, with proof, the largest number which is the product of positive
integers whose sum is 1976.
1976/5.
Consider the system of p equations in q = 2p unknowns x1 , x2 , · · · , xq :
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1q xq = 0

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2q xq = 0
···
ap1 x1 + ap2 x2 + · · · + apq xq = 0
with every coefficient aij member of the set {−1, 0, 1}. Prove that the system
has a solution (x1 , x2 , · · · , xq ) such that
(a) all xj (j = 1, 2, ..., q) are integers,
(b) there is at least one value of j for which xj 6= 0,
(c) |xj | ≤ q(j = 1, 2, ..., q).
1976/6.
A sequence {un } is defined by
u0 = 2, u1 = 5/2, un+1 = un (u2n−1 − 2) − u1 for n = 1, 2, · · ·

Prove that for positive integers n,
n −(−1)n ]/3
[un ] = 2[2
where [x] denotes the greatest integer ≤ x.

Nineteenth International Mathematical Olympiad,
1977
1977/1.
Equilateral triangles ABK, BCL, CDM, DAN are constructed inside the
square ABCD. Prove that the midpoints of the four segments KL, LM, M N, N K
and the midpoints of the eight segments AKBK, BL, CL, CM, DM, DN, AN
are the twelve vertices of a regular dodecagon.
1977/2.
In a finite sequence of real numbers the sum of any seven successive terms is
negative, and the sum of any eleven successive terms is positive. Determine
the maximum number of terms in the sequence.
1977/3.
Let n be a given integer > 2, and let Vn be the set of integers 1 + kn, where
k = 1, 2, .... A number m ∈ Vn is called indecomposable in Vn if there do not
exist numbers p, q ∈ Vn such that pq = m. Prove that there exists a number
r ∈ Vn that can be expressed as the product of elements indecomposable in
Vn in more than one way. (Products which differ only in the order of their
factors will be considered the same.)
1977/4.
Four real constants a, b, A, B are given, and
f (θ) = 1 − a cos θ − b sin θ − A cos 2θ − B sin 2θ.
Prove that if f (θ) ≥ 0 for all real θ, then
a2 + b2 ≤ 2 and A2 + B 2 ≤ 1.
1977/5.
Let a and b be positive integers. When a2 +b2 is divided by a+b, the quotient
is q and the remainder is r. Find all pairs (a, b) such that q 2 + r = 1977.
1977/6.
Let f (n) be a function defined on the set of all positive integers and having
all its values in the same set. Prove that if
f (n + 1) > f (f (n))
for each positive integer n, then
f (n) = n for each n.
Twentieth International Olympiad, 1978
1978/1. m and n are natural numbers with 1 ≤ m < n. In their decimal
representations, the last three digits of 1978m are equal, respectively, to the
last three digits of 1978n . Find m and n such that m + n has its least value.
1978/2. P is a given point inside a given sphere. Three mutually perpendic-
ular rays from P intersect the sphere at points U, V, and W ; Q denotes the
vertex diagonally opposite to P in the parallelepiped determined by P U, P V,
and P W. Find the locus of Q for all such triads of rays from P
1978/3. The set of all positive integers is the union of two disjoint subsets
{f (1), f (2), ..., f (n), ...}, {g(1), g(2), ..., g(n), ...}, where
f (1) < f (2) < · · · < f (n) < · · · ,
g(1) < g(2) < · · · < g(n) < · · · ,

and
g(n) = f (f (n)) + 1for all n ≥ 1.
Determine f (240).
1978/4. In triangle ABC, AB = AC. A circle is tangent internally to the
circumcircle of triangle ABC and also to sides AB, AC at P, Q, respectively.
Prove that the midpoint of segment P Q is the center of the incircle of triangle
ABC.
1978/5. Let {ak }(k = 1, 2, 3, ..., n, ...) be a sequence of distinct positive
integers. Prove that for all natural numbers n,
n
X n
X
ak 1
≥ .
k=1 k2 k=1 k
1978/6. An international society has its members from six different countries.
The list of members contains 1978 names, numbered 1, 2, ..., 1978. Prove that
there is at least one member whose number is the sum of the numbers of two
members from his own country, or twice as large as the number of one member
from his own country.
Twenty-first International Olympiad, 1979
1979/1. Let p and q be natural numbers such that
p 1 1 1 1 1
= 1 − + − + ··· − + .
q 2 3 4 1318 1319
Prove that p is divisible by 1979.
1979/2. A prism with pentagons A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 and B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 as top and
bottom faces is given. Each side of the two pentagons and each of the line-
segments Ai Bj for all i, j = 1, ..., 5, is colored either red or green. Every
triangle whose vertices are vertices of the prism and whose sides have all
been colored has two sides of a different color. Show that all 10 sides of the
top and bottom faces are the same color.
1979/3. Two circles in a plane intersect. Let A be one of the points of
intersection. Starting simultaneously from A two points move with constant
speeds, each point travelling along its own circle in the same sense. The two
points return to A simultaneously after one revolution. Prove that there is
a fixed point P in the plane such that, at any time, the distances from P to
the moving points are equal.
1979/4. Given a plane π, a point P in this plane and a point Q not in π,
find all points R in π such that the ratio (QP + P A)/QR is a maximum.
1979/5. Find all real numbers a for which there exist non-negative real
numbers x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 satisfying the relations
5
X 5
X 5
X
kxk = a, k 3 xk = a2 , k 5 xk = a 3 .
k=1 k=1 k=1
1979/6. Let A and E be opposite vertices of a regular octagon. A frog starts

jumping at vertex A. From any vertex of the octagon except E, it may jump
to either of the two adjacent vertices. When it reaches vertex E, the frog
stops and stays there.. Let an be the number of distinct paths of exactly n
jumps ending at E. Prove that a2n−1 = 0,
1
a2n = √ (xn−1 − y n−1 ), n = 1, 2, 3, · · · ,
2
√ √
where x = 2 + 2 and y = 2 − 2.
Note. A path of n jumps is a sequence of vertices (P0 , ..., Pn ) such that
(i) P0 = A, Pn = E;
(ii) for every i, 0 ≤ i ≤ n − 1, Pi is distinct from E;
(iii) for every i, 0 ≤ i ≤ n − 1, Pi and Pi+1 are adjacent.
Twenty-second International Olympiad, 1981
1981/1. P is a point inside a given triangle ABC.D, E, F are the feet of the
perpendiculars from P to the lines BC, CA, AB respectively. Find all P for
which
BC CA AB
+ +
PD PE PF
is least.
1981/2. Let 1 ≤ r ≤ n and consider all subsets of r elements of the set
{1, 2, ..., n}. Each of these subsets has a smallest member. Let F (n, r) denote
the arithmetic mean of these smallest numbers; prove that
n+1
F (n, r) = .
r+1
1981/3. Determine the maximum value of m3 +n3 ,where m and n are integers
satisfying m, n ∈ {1, 2, ..., 1981} and (n2 − mn − m2 )2 = 1.
1981/4. (a) For which values of n > 2 is there a set of n consecutive positive
integers such that the largest number in the set is a divisor of the least
common multiple of the remaining n − 1 numbers?
(b) For which values of n > 2 is there exactly one set having the stated
property?
1981/5. Three congruent circles have a common point O and lie inside a
given triangle. Each circle touches a pair of sides of the triangle. Prove
that the incenter and the circumcenter of the triangle and the point O are
collinear.
1981/6. The function f (x, y) satisfies
(1) f (0, y) = y + 1,
(2)f (x + 1, 0) = f (x, 1),
(3) f (x + 1, y + 1) = f (x, f (x + 1, y)),
for all non-negative integers x, y. Determine f (4, 1981).
Twenty-third International Olympiad, 1982
1982/1. The function f (n) is defined for all positive integers n and takes on
non-negative integer values. Also, for all m, n
f (m + n) − f (m) − f (n) = 0 or 1
f (2) = 0, f (3) > 0, and f (9999) = 3333.

Determine f (1982).
1982/2. A non-isosceles triangle A1 A2 A3 is given with sides a1 , a2 , a3 (ai is
the side opposite Ai ). For all i = 1, 2, 3, Mi is the midpoint of side ai , and Ti .
is the point where the incircle touches side ai . Denote by Si the reflection
of Ti in the interior bisector of angle Ai . Prove that the lines M1 , S1 , M2 S2 ,
and M3 S3 are concurrent.
1982/3. Consider the infinite sequences {xn } of positive real numbers with
the following properties:
x0 = 1, and for all i ≥ 0, xi+1 ≤ xi .
(a) Prove that for every such sequence, there is an n ≥ 1 such that
x20 x21 x2
+ + · · · + n−1 ≥ 3.999.
x1 x2 xn
(b) Find such a sequence for which
x20 x21 x2n−1

+ + ··· + < 4.
x1 x2 xn
1982/4. Prove that if n is a positive integer such that the equation
x3 − 3xy 2 + y 3 = n
has a solution in integers (x, y), then it has at least three such solutions.
Show that the equation has no solutions in integers when n = 2891.
1982/5. The diagonals AC and CE of the regular hexagon ABCDEF are
divided by the inner points M and N , respectively, so that
AM CN
= = r.
AC CE
Determine r if B, M, and N are collinear.
1982/6. Let S be a square with sides of length 100, and let L be a path
within S which does not meet itself and which is composed of line segments
A0 A1 , A1 A2 , · · · , An−1 An with A0 6= An . Suppose that for every point P of
the boundary of S there is a point of L at a distance from P not greater than
1/2. Prove that there are two points X and Y in L such that the distance
between X and Y is not greater than 1, and the length of that part of L
which lies between X and Y is not smaller than 198.
Twenty-fourth International Olympiad, 1983
1983/1. Find all functions f defined on the set of positive real numbers which
take positive real values and satisfy the conditions:
(i) f (xf (y)) = yf (x) for all positive x, y;
(ii) f (x) → 0 as x → ∞.
1983/2. Let A be one of the two distinct points of intersection of two unequal
coplanar circles C1 and C2 with centers O1 and O2 , respectively. One of the
common tangents to the circles touches C1 at P1 and C2 at P2 , while the
other touches C1 at Q1 and C2 at Q2 . Let M1 be the midpoint of P1 Q1 ,and
M2 be the midpoint of P2 Q2 . Prove that 6 O1 AO2 = 6 M1 AM2 .
1983/3. Let a, b and c be positive integers, no two of which have a common
divisor greater than 1. Show that 2abc − ab − bc − ca is the largest integer
which cannot be expressed in the form xbc + yca + zab,where x, y and z are
non-negative integers.
1983/4. Let ABC be an equilateral triangle and E the set of all points
contained in the three segments AB, BC and CA (including A, B and C).
Determine whether, for every partition of E into two disjoint subsets, at least
one of the two subsets contains the vertices of a right-angled triangle. Justify
your answer.
1983/5. Is it possible to choose 1983 distinct positive integers, all less than
or equal to 105 , no three of which are consecutive terms of an arithmetic
progression? Justify your answer.
1983/6. Let a, b and c be the lengths of the sides of a triangle. Prove that
a2 b(a − b) + b2 c(b − c) + c2 a(c − a) ≥ 0.
Determine when equality occurs.

Twenty-fifth International Olympiad, 1984
1984/1. Prove that 0 ≤ yz + zx + xy − 2xyz ≤ 7/27, where x, y and z are
non-negative real numbers for which x + y + z = 1.
1984/2. Find one pair of positive integers a and b such that:
(i) ab(a + b) is not divisible by 7;
(ii) (a + b)7 − a7 − b7 is divisible by 77 .
Justify your answer.
1984/3. In the plane two different points O and A are given. For each
point X of the plane, other than O, denote by a(X) the measure of the angle
between OA and OX in radians, counterclockwise from OA(0 ≤ a(X) < 2π).
Let C(X) be the circle with center O and radius of length OX + a(X)/OX.
Each point of the plane is colored by one of a finite number of colors. Prove
that there exists a point Y for which a(Y ) > 0 such that its color appears
on the circumference of the circle C(Y ).
1984/4. Let ABCD be a convex quadrilateral such that the line CD is a
tangent to the circle on AB as diameter. Prove that the line AB is a tangent
to the circle on CD as diameter if and only if the lines BC and AD are
parallel.
1984/5. Let d be the sum of the lengths of all the diagonals of a plane convex
polygon with n vertices (n > 3), and let p be its perimeter. Prove that
· ¸· ¸
2d n n+1
n−3< < − 2,
p 2 2
where [x] denotes the greatest integer not exceeding x.

1984/6. Let a, b, c and d be odd integers such that 0 < a < b < c < d and
ad = bc. Prove that if a + d = 2k and b + c = 2m for some integers k and m,
then a = 1.
Twenty-sixth International Olympiad, 1985
1985/1. A circle has center on the side AB of the cyclic quadrilateral ABCD.
The other three sides are tangent to the circle. Prove that AD + BC = AB.
1985/2. Let n and k be given relatively prime natural numbers, k < n. Each
number in the set M = {1, 2, ..., n − 1} is colored either blue or white. It is
given that
(i) for each i ∈ M, both i and n − i have the same color;
(ii) for each i ∈ M, i 6= k, both i and |i − k| have the same color. Prove that
all numbers in M must have the same color.
1985/3. For any polynomial P (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + ak xk with integer
coefficients, the number of coefficients which are odd is denoted by w(P ).
For i = 0, 1, ..., let Qi (x) = (1 + x)i . Prove that if i1 i2 , ..., in are integers such
that 0 ≤ i1 < i2 < · · · < in , then
w(Qi1 + Qi2 , + + Qin ) ≥ w(Qi1 ).
1985/4. Given a set M of 1985 distinct positive integers, none of which has
a prime divisor greater than 26. Prove that M contains at least one subset
of four distinct elements whose product is the fourth power of an integer.
1985/5. A circle with center O passes through the vertices A and C of triangle
ABC and intersects the segments AB and BC again at distinct points K and
N, respectively. The circumscribed circles of the triangles ABC and EBN
intersect at exactly two distinct points B and M. Prove that angle OM B is
a right angle.
1985/6. For every real number x1 , construct the sequence x1 , x2 , ... by setting
µ ¶
1
xn+1 = xn xn + for each n ≥ 1.
n
Prove that there exists exactly one value of x1 for which
0 < xn < xn+1 < 1
for every n.
27th International Mathematical Olympiad
Warsaw, Poland
Day I
July 9, 1986
1. Let d be any positive integer not equal to 2, 5, or 13. Show that one can find
distinct a, b in the set {2, 5, 13, d} such that ab − 1 is not a perfect square.
2. A triangle A1 A2 A3 and a point P0 are given in the plane. We define As = As−3

for all s ≥ 4. We construct a set of points P1 , P2 , P3 , . . . , such that Pk+1 is
the image of Pk under a rotation with center Ak+1 through angle 120◦ clockwise
(for k = 0, 1, 2, . . . ). Prove that if P1986 = P0 , then the triangle A1 A2 A3 is
equilateral.
3. To each vertex of a regular pentagon an integer is assigned in such a way that

the sum of all five numbers is positive. If three consecutive vertices are assigned
the numbers x, y, z respectively and y < 0 then the following operation is
allowed: the numbers x, y, z are replaced by x + y, −y, z + y respectively. Such
an operation is performed repeatedly as long as at least one of the five numbers
is negative. Determine whether this procedure necessarily comes to and end
after a finite number of steps.
Warsaw, Poland
Day II
July 10, 1986
4. Let A, B be adjacent vertices of a regular n-gon (n ≥ 5) in the plane having

center at O. A triangle XY Z, which is congruent to and initially conincides
with OAB, moves in the plane in such a way that Y and Z each trace out the
whole boundary of the polygon, X remaining inside the polygon. Find the locus
of X.
5. Find all functions f , defined on the non-negative real numbers and taking non-
negative real values, such that:
(i) f (xf (y))f (y) = f (x + y) for all x, y ≥ 0,

(ii) f (2) = 0,
(iii) f (x) 6= 0 for 0 ≤ x < 2.
6. One is given a finite set of points in the plane, each point having integer coor-
dinates. Is it always possible to color some of the points in the set red and the
remaining points white in such a way that for any straight line L parallel to
either one of the coordinate axes the difference (in absolute value) between the
numbers of white point and red points on L is not greater than 1?
Havana, Cuba
Day I
July 10, 1987
1. Let pn (k) be the number of permutations of the set {1, . . . , n}, n ≥ 1, which
have exactly k fixed points. Prove that
n
X
k · pn (k) = n!.
k=0
(Remark: A permutation f of a set S is a one-to-one mapping of S onto itself.

An element i in S is called a fixed point of the permutation f if f (i) = i.)
2. In an acute-angled triangle ABC the interior bisector of the angle A intersects

BC at L and intersects the circumcircle of ABC again at N . From point L
perpendiculars are drawn to AB and AC, the feet of these perpendiculars being
K and M respectively. Prove that the quadrilateral AKN M and the triangle
ABC have equal areas.
3. Let x1 , x2 , . . . , xn be real numbers satisfying x21 + x22 + · · · + x2n = 1. Prove that

for every integer k ≥ 2 there are integers a1 , a2 , . . . , an , not all 0, such that
|ai | ≤ k − 1 for all i and
√
(k − 1) n
|a1 x1 + a1 x2 + · · · + an xn | ≤ .
kn − 1
Havana, Cuba
Day II
July 11, 1987
4. Prove that there is no function f from the set of non-negative integers into itself
such that f (f (n)) = n + 1987 for every n.
5. Let n be an integer greater than or equal to 3. Prove that there is a set of n

points in the plane such that the distance between any two points is irrational
and each set of three points determines a non-degenerate triangle with rational
area.
2
6. Let n be an integer greater than or equal
p to 2. Prove 2that if k + k + n is prime
for all integers k such that 0 ≤ k ≤ n/3, then k + k + n is prime for all
integers k such that 0 ≤ k ≤ n − 2.
Canberra, Australia
Day I
1. Consider two coplanar circles of radii R and r (R > r) with the same center.
Let P be a fixed point on the smaller circle and B a variable point on the larger
circle. The line BP meets the larger circle again at C. The perpendicular l to
BP at P meets the smaller circle again at A. (If l is tangent to the circle at P
then A = P .)
(i) Find the set of values of BC 2 + CA2 + AB 2 .

(ii) Find the locus of the midpoint of BC.
2. Let n be a positive integer and let A1 , A2 , . . . , A2n+1 be subsets of a set B.

Suppose that
(a) Each Ai has exactly 2n elements,

(b) Each Ai ∩ Aj (1 ≤ i < j ≤ 2n + 1) contains exactly one element, and
(c) Every element of B belongs to at least two of the Ai .
For which values of n can one assign to every element of B one of the numbers
0 and 1 in such a way that Ai has 0 assigned to exactly n of its elements?
3. A function f is defined on the positive integers by
f (1) = 1, f (3) = 3,
f (2n) = f (n),
f (4n + 1) = 2f (2n + 1) − f (n),
f (4n + 3) = 3f (2n + 1) − 2f (n),
for all positive integers n.

Determine the number of positive integers n, less than or equal to 1988, for
which f (n) = n.
Canberra, Australia
Day II
4. Show that set of real numbers x which satisfy the inequality

70
X k 5
≥
k=1
x−k 4
is a union of disjoint intervals, the sum of whose lengths is 1988.
5. ABC is a triangle right-angled at A, and D is the foot of the altitude from A.

The straight line joining the incenters of the triangles ABD, ACD intersects
the sides AB, AC at the points K, L respectively. S and T denote the areas of
the triangles ABC and AKL respectively. Show that S ≥ 2T .
6. Let a and b be positive integers such that ab + 1 divides a2 + b2 . Show that
a2 + b2
ab + 1
is the square of an integer.
Braunschweig, Germany
Day I
1. Prove that the set {1, 2, . . . , 1989} can be expressed as the disjoint union of
subsets Ai (i = 1, 2, . . . , 117) such that:
(i) Each Ai contains 17 elements;

(ii) The sum of all the elements in each Ai is the same.
2. In an acute-angled triangle ABC the internal bisector of angle A meets the

circumcircle of the triangle again at A1 . Points B1 and C1 are defined similarly.
Let A0 be the point of intersection of the line AA1 with the external bisectors
of angles B and C. Points B0 and C0 are defined similarly. Prove that:
(i) The area of the triangle A0 B0 C0 is twice the area of the hexagon AC1 BA1 CB1 .
(ii) The area of the triangle A0 B0 C0 is at least four times the area of the
triangle ABC.
3. Let n and k be positive integers and let S be a set of n points in the plane such
that
(i) No three points of S are collinear, and

(ii) For any point P of S there are at least k points of S equidistant from P .
Prove that:
1 √
k< + 2n.
2
Braunschweig, Germany
Day II
4. Let ABCD be a convex quadrilateral such that the sides AB, AD, BC satisfy
AB = AD + BC. There exists a point P inside the quadrilateral at a distance
h from the line CD such that AP = h + AD and BP = h + BC. Show that:
1 1 1
√ ≥√ +√ .
h AD BC
5. Prove that for each positive integer n there exist n consecutive positive integers
none of which is an integral power of a prime number.
6. A permutation (x1 , x2 , . . . , xm ) of the set {1, 2, . . . , 2n}, where n is a positive

integer, is said to have property P if |xi − xi+1 | = n for at least one i in
{1, 2, . . . , 2n − 1}. Show that, for each n, there are more permutations with
property P than without.
31st International Mathematical Olympiad
Beijing, China
Day I
July 12, 1990
1. Chords AB and CD of a circle intersect at a point E inside the circle. Let M

be an interior point of the segment EB. The tangent line at E to the circle
through D, E, and M intersects the lines BC and AC at F and G, respectively.
If
AM
= t,
AB
find
EG
EF
in terms of t.
2. Let n ≥ 3 and consider a set E of 2n − 1 distinct points on a circle. Suppose

that exactly k of these points are to be colored black. Such a coloring is “good”
if there is at least one pair of black points such that the interior of one of the
arcs between them contains exactly n points from E. Find the smallest value
of k so that every such coloring of k points of E is good.
3. Determine all integers n > 1 such that

2n + 1
n2
is an integer.
31st International Mathematical Olympiad
Beijing, China
Day II
July 13, 1990
4. Let Q+ be the set of positive rational numbers. Construct a function f : Q+ →

Q+ such that
f (x)
f (xf (y)) =
y
for all x, y in Q+ .
5. Given an initial integer n0 > 1, two players, A and B, choose integers n1 , n2 ,

n3 , . . . alternately according to the following rules:
Knowing n2k , A chooses any integer n2k+1 such that
n2k ≤ n2k+1 ≤ n22k .
Knowing n2k+1 , B chooses any integer n2k+2 such that

n2k+1
n2k+2
is a prime raised to a positive integer power.
Player A wins the game by choosing the number 1990; player B wins by choosing
the number 1. For which n0 does:
(a) A have a winning strategy?

(b) B have a winning strategy?
(c) Neither player have a winning strategy?
6. Prove that there exists a convex 1990-gon with the following two properties:
(a) All angles are equal.

(b) The lengths of the 1990 sides are the numbers 12 , 22 , 32 , . . . , 19902 in some
order.
32nd International Mathematical Olympiad
First Day July 17, 1991
Time Limit: 4 12 hours
1. Given a triangle ABC, let I be the center of its inscribed circle.

The internal bisectors of the angles A, B, C meet the opposite sides in
A0 , B 0 , C 0 respectively. Prove that
1 AI · BI · CI 8
< 0 0 0
≤ .
4 AA · BB · CC 27
2. Let n > 6 be an integer and a1 , a2 , . . . , ak be all the natural numbers

less than n and relatively prime to n. If
a2 − a1 = a3 − a2 = · · · = ak − ak−1 > 0,
prove that n must be either a prime number or a power of 2.
3. Let S = {1, 2, 3, . . . , 280}. Find the smallest integer n such that each n-
element subset of S contains five numbers which are pairwise relatively
prime.
Second Day July 18, 1991

1. Suppose G is a connected graph with k edges. Prove that it is pos-

sible to label the edges 1, 2, . . . , k in such a way that at each vertex
which belongs to two or more edges, the greatest common divisor of
the integers labeling those edges is equal to 1.
[A graph consists of a set of points, called vertices, together with a set
of edges joining certain pairs of distinct vertices. Each pair of vertices
u, v belongs to at most one edge. The graph G is connected if for
each pair of distinct vertices x, y there is some sequence of vertices
x = v0 , v1 , v2 , . . . , vm = y such that each pair vi , vi+1 (0 ≤ i < m) is
joined by an edge of G.]
2. Let ABC be a triangle and P an interior point of ABC . Show that

at least one of the angles 6 P AB, 6 P BC, 6 P CA is less than or equal
to 30◦ .
3. An infinite sequence x0 , x1 , x2 , . . . of real numbers is said to be bounded
if there is a constant C such that |xi | ≤ C for every i ≥ 0.
Given any real number a > 1, construct a bounded infinite sequence
x0 , x1 , x2 , . . . such that
|xi − xj ||i − j|a ≥ 1
for every pair of distinct nonnegative integers i, j.

33rd International Mathematical Olympiad
First Day - Moscow - July 15, 1992
1. Find all integers a, b, c with 1 < a < b < c such that
(a − 1)(b − 1)(c − 1) is a divisor of abc − 1.
2. Let R denote the set of all real numbers. Find all functions f : R → R
such that
³ ´
f x2 + f (y) = y + (f (x))2 for all x, y ∈ R.
3. Consider nine points in space, no four of which are coplanar. Each pair
of points is joined by an edge (that is, a line segment) and each edge is
either colored blue or red or left uncolored. Find the smallest value of
n such that whenever exactly n edges are colored, the set of colored
edges necessarily contains a triangle all of whose edges have the same
color.
33rd International Mathematical Olympiad

Second Day - Moscow - July 15, 1992
1. In the plane let C be a circle, L a line tangent to the circle C, and

M a point on L. Find the locus of all points P with the following
property: there exists two points Q, R on L such that M is the
midpoint of QR and C is the inscribed circle of triangle P QR.
2. Let S be a finite set of points in three-dimensional space. Let Sx , Sy , Sz

be the sets consisting of the orthogonal projections of the points of S
onto the yz-plane, zx-plane, xy-plane, respectively. Prove that
|S|2 ≤ |Sx | · |Sy | · |Sz |,
where |A| denotes the number of elements in the finite set |A|. (Note:
The orthogonal projection of a point onto a plane is the foot of the
perpendicular from that point to the plane.)
3. For each positive integer n, S(n) is defined to be the greatest integer
such that, for every positive integer k ≤ S(n), n2 can be written as
the sum of k positive squares.
(a) Prove that S(n) ≤ n2 − 14 for each n ≥ 4.

(b) Find an integer n such that S(n) = n2 − 14.
(c) Prove that there are infintely many integers n such that S(n) =
n2 − 14.
First Day July 18, 1993
1. Let f (x) = xn + 5xn−1 + 3, where n > 1 is an integer. Prove that f (x)

cannot be expressed as the product of two nonconstant polynomials
with integer coefficients.
2. Let D be a point inside acute triangle ABC such that 6 ADB =

6 ACB + π/2 and AC · BD = AD · BC.
(a) Calculate the ratio (AB · CD)/(AC · BD).

(b) Prove that the tangents at C to the circumcircles of 4ACD and
4BCD are perpendicular.
3. On an infinite chessboard, a game is played as follows. At the start, n2

pieces are arranged on the chessboard in an n by n block of adjoining
squares, one piece in each square. A move in the game is a jump in
a horizontal or vertical direction over an adjacent occupied square to
an unoccupied square immediately beyond. The piece which has been
jumped over is removed.
Find those values of n for which the game can end with only one piece
remaining on the board.
Second Day July 19, 1993

1. For three points P, Q, R in the plane, we define m(P QR) as the min-
imum length of the three altitudes of 4P QR. (If the points are
collinear, we set m(P QR) = 0.)
Prove that for points A, B, C, X in the plane,
m(ABC) ≤ m(ABX) + m(AXC) + m(XBC).
2. Does there exist a function f : N → N such that f (1) = 2, f (f (n)) =

f (n) + n for all n ∈ N, and f (n) < f (n + 1) for all n ∈ N?
3. There are n lamps L0 , . . . , Ln−1 in a circle (n > 1), where we denote
Ln+k = Lk . (A lamp at all times is either on or off.) Perform steps
s0 , s1 , . . . as follows: at step si , if Li−1 is lit, switch Li from on to off or
vice versa, otherwise do nothing. Initially all lamps are on. Show that:
(a) There is a positive integer M (n) such that after M (n) steps all
the lamps are on again;
(b) If n = 2k , we can take M (n) = n2 − 1;
(c) If n = 2k + 1, we can take M (n) = n2 − n + 1.
The 35th International Mathematical Olympiad (July 13-14,
1994, Hong Kong)
1. Let m and n be positive integers. Let a1 , a2 , . . . , am be distinct elements
of {1, 2, . . . , n} such that whenever ai + aj ≤ n for some i, j, 1 ≤ i ≤ j ≤ m,
there exists k, 1 ≤ k ≤ m, with ai + aj = ak . Prove that
a1 + a2 + · · · + am n+1
≥ .
m 2
2. ABC is an isosceles triangle with AB = AC. Suppose that
1. M is the midpoint of BC and O is the point on the line AM such that
OB is perpendicular to AB;
2. Q is an arbitrary point on the segment BC different from B and C;
3. E lies on the line AB and F lies on the line AC such that E, Q, F are
distinct and collinear.
Prove that OQ is perpendicular to EF if and only if QE = QF .
3. For any positive integer k, let f (k) be the number of elements in the set
{k + 1, k + 2, . . . , 2k} whose base 2 representation has precisely three 1s.
• (a) Prove that, for each positive integer m, there exists at least one
positive integer k such that f (k) = m.
• (b) Determine all positive integers m for which there exists exactly one
k with f (k) = m.
4. Determine all ordered pairs (m, n) of positive integers such that
n3 + 1
mn − 1
is an integer.
5. Let S be the set of real numbers strictly greater than −1. Find all
functions f : S → S satisfying the two conditions:
1. f (x + f (y) + xf (y)) = y + f (x) + yf (x) for all x and y in S;
f (x)
2. x
is strictly increasing on each of the intervals −1 < x < 0 and 0 < x.
6. Show that there exists a set A of positive integers with the following
property: For any infinite set S of primes there exist two positive integers
m ∈ A and n ∈/ A each of which is a product of k distinct elements of S for
some k ≥ 2.
First Day - Toronto - July 19, 1995
1. Let A, B, C, D be four distinct points on a line, in that order. The

circles with diameters AC and BD intersect at X and Y . The line XY
meets BC at Z. Let P be a point on the line XY other than Z. The
line CP intersects the circle with diameter AC at C and M , and the
line BP intersects the circle with diameter BD at B and N . Prove
that the lines AM, DN, XY are concurrent.
2. Let a, b, c be positive real numbers such that abc = 1. Prove that

1 1 1 3
+ 3 + 3 ≥ .
a3 (b+ c) b (c + a) c (a + b) 2
3. Determine all integers n > 3 for which there exist n points A1 , . . . , An

in the plane, no three collinear, and real numbers r1 , . . . , rn such that
for 1 ≤ i < j < k ≤ n, the area of 4Ai Aj Ak is ri + rj + rk .

Second Day - Toronto - July 20, 1995
1. Find the maximum value of x0 for which there exists a sequence x0 , x1 . . . , x1995
of positive reals with x0 = x1995 , such that for i = 1, . . . , 1995,
2 1
xi−1 + = 2xi + .
xi−1 xi
2. Let ABCDEF be a convex hexagon with AB = BC = CD and DE =

EF = F A, such that 6 BCD = 6 EF A = π/3. Suppose G and H are
points in the interior of the hexagon such that 6 AGB = 6 DHE =
2π/3. Prove that AG + GB + GH + DH + HE ≥ CF .
3. Let p be an odd prime number. How many p-element subsets A of

{1, 2, . . . 2p} are there, the sum of whose elements is divisible by p?
Mumbai, India
Day I 9 a.m. - 1:30 p.m.
July 10, 1996
1. We are given a positive integer r and a rectangular board ABCD with

dimensions |AB| = 20, |BC| = 12. The rectangle is divided into a grid
of 20 × 12 unit squares. The following moves are permitted on the
board: one can move from one square to another
√ only if the distance
between the centers of the two squares is r. The task is to find a
sequence of moves leading from the square with A as a vertex to the
square with B as a vertex.
(a) Show that the task cannot be done if r is divisible by 2 or 3.

(b) Prove that the task is possible when r = 73.
(c) Can the task be done when r = 97?
2. Let P be a point inside triangle ABC such that
6 AP B − 6 ACB = 6 AP C − 6 ABC.
Let D, E be the incenters of triangles AP B, AP C, respectively. Show

that AP, BD, CE meet at a point.
3. Let S denote the set of nonnegative integers. Find all functions f from
S to itself such that
f (m + f (n)) = f (f (m)) + f (n) ∀m, n ∈ S.

Mumbai, India
Day II 9 a.m. - 1:30 p.m.
July 11, 1996
1. The positive integers a and b are such that the numbers 15a + 16b
and 16a − 15b are both squares of positive integers. What is the least
possible value that can be taken on by the smaller of these two squares?
2. Let ABCDEF be a convex hexagon such that AB is parallel to DE,

BC is parallel to EF , and CD is parallel to F A. Let RA , RC , RE denote
the circumradii of triangles F AB, BCD, DEF , respectively, and let P
denote the perimeter of the hexagon. Prove that
P
RA + RC + RE ≥ .
2
3. Let p, q, n be three positive integers with p + q < n. Let (x0 , x1 , . . . , xn )

be an (n + 1)-tuple of integers satisfying the following conditions:
(a) x0 = xn = 0.
(b) For each i with 1 ≤ i ≤ n, either xi − xi−1 = p or xi − xi−1 = −q.
Show that there exist indices i < j with (i, j) 6= (0, n), such that
xi = xj .
Mar del Plata, Argentina
Day I
July 24, 1997
1. In the plane the points with integer coordinates are the vertices of unit squares.
The squares are colored alternately black and white (as on a chessboard).
For any pair of positive integers m and n, consider a right-angled triangle whose
vertices have integer coordinates and whose legs, of lengths m and n, lie along
edges of the squares.
Let S1 be the total area of the black part of the triangle and S2 be the total
area of the white part. Let
f (m, n) = |S1 − S2 |.
(a) Calculate f (m, n) for all positive integers m and n which are either both
even or both odd.
(b) Prove that f (m, n) ≤ 21 max{m, n} for all m and n.
(c) Show that there is no constant C such that f (m, n) < C for all m and n.
2. The angle at A is the smallest angle of triangle ABC. The points B and C
divide the circumcircle of the triangle into two arcs. Let U be an interior point
of the arc between B and C which does not contain A. The perpendicular
bisectors of AB and AC meet the line AU at V and W , respectively. The lines
BV and CW meet at T . Show that
AU = T B + T C.
3. Let x1 , x2 , . . . , xn be real numbers satisfying the conditions
|x1 + x2 + · · · + xn | = 1
and
n+1
|xi | ≤ i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
2
Show that there exists a permutation y1 , y2 , . . . , yn of x1 , x2 , . . . , xn such that
n+1
|y1 + 2y2 + · · · + nyn | ≤ .
2
Mar del Plata, Argentina
Day II
July 25, 1997
4. An n × n matrix whose entries come from the set S = {1, 2, . . . , 2n − 1} is

called a silver matrix if, for each i = 1, 2, . . . , n, the ith row and the ith column
together contain all elements of S. Show that
(a) there is no silver matrix for n = 1997;

(b) silver matrices exist for infinitely many values of n.
5. Find all pairs (a, b) of integers a, b ≥ 1 that satisfy the equation

2
ab = ba .
6. For each positive integer n , let f (n) denote the number of ways of representing
n as a sum of powers of 2 with nonnegative integer exponents. Representations
which differ only in the ordering of their summands are considered to be the
same. For instance, f (4) = 4, because the number 4 can be represented in the
following four ways:
4; 2 + 2; 2 + 1 + 1; 1 + 1 + 1 + 1.
Prove that, for any integer n ≥ 3,

2 /4 2 /2
2n < f (2n ) < 2n .
Taipei, Taiwan
Day I
July 15, 1998
1. In the convex quadrilateral ABCD, the diagonals AC and BD are perpendicular

and the opposite sides AB and DC are not parallel. Suppose that the point P ,
where the perpendicular bisectors of AB and DC meet, is inside ABCD. Prove
that ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral if and only if the triangles ABP and CDP
have equal areas.
2. In a competition, there are a contestants and b judges, where b ≥ 3 is an odd

integer. Each judge rates each contestant as either “pass” or “fail”. Suppose k
is a number such that, for any two judges, their ratings coincide for at most k
contestants. Prove that k/a ≥ (b − 1)/(2b).
3. For any positive integer n, let d(n) denote the number of positive divisors
of n (including 1 and n itself). Determine all positive integers k such that
d(n2 )/d(n) = k for some n.
Taipei, Taiwai
Day II
July 16, 1998
4. Determine all pairs (a, b) of positive integers such that ab2 + b + 7 divides
a2 b + a + b.
5. Let I be the incenter of triangle ABC. Let the incircle of ABC touch the sides
BC, CA, and AB at K, L, and M , respectively. The line through B parallel
to M K meets the lines LM and LK at R and S, respectively. Prove that angle
RIS is acute.
6. Consider all functions f from the set N of all positive integers into itself sat-
isfying f (t2 f (s)) = s(f (t))2 for all s and t in N . Determine the least possible
value of f (1998).
Bucharest
Day I
July 16, 1999
1. Determine all finite sets S of at least three points in the plane which satisfy the
following condition:
for any two distinct points A and B in S, the perpendicular bisector

of the line segment AB is an axis of symmetry for S.
2. Let n be a fixed integer, with n ≥ 2.
(a) Determine the least constant C such that the inequality

Ã !4
X X
xi xj (x2i + x2j ) ≤C xi
1≤i<j≤n 1≤i≤n
holds for all real numbers x1 , · · · , xn ≥ 0.
(b) For this constant C, determine when equality holds.
3. Consider an n × n square board, where n is a fixed even positive integer. The

board is divided into n2 unit squares. We say that two different squares on the
board are adjacent if they have a common side.
N unit squares on the board are marked in such a way that every square (marked
or unmarked) on the board is adjacent to at least one marked square.
Determine the smallest possible value of N .
Bucharest
Day II
July 17, 1999
4. Determine all pairs (n, p) of positive integers such that
p is a prime,
n not exceeded 2p, and
(p − 1)n + 1 is divisible by np−1 .
5. Two circles G1 and G2 are contained inside the circle G, and are tangent to G
at the distinct points M and N , respectively. G1 passes through the center of
G2 . The line passing through the two points of intersection of G1 and G2 meets
G at A and B. The lines M A and M B meet G1 at C and D, respectively.
Prove that CD is tangent to G2 .
6. Determine all functions f : R −→ R such that
f (x − f (y)) = f (f (y)) + xf (y) + f (x) − 1
for all real numbers x, y.

41st IMO 2000
Problem 1. AB is tangent to the circles CAM N and N M BD. M lies

between C and D on the line CD, and CD is parallel to AB. The chords
N A and CM meet at P ; the chords N B and M D meet at Q. The rays CA
and DB meet at E. Prove that P E = QE.
Problem 2. A, B, C are positive reals with product 1. Prove that (A − 1 +

1 1 1
B )(B − 1 + C )(C − 1 + A ) ≤ 1.
Problem 3. k is a positive real. N is an integer greater than 1. N points

are placed on a line, not all coincident. A move is carried out as follows.
Pick any two points A and B which are not coincident. Suppose that A lies
to the right of B. Replace B by another point B 0 to the right of A such that
AB 0 = kBA. For what values of k can we move the points arbitrarily far to
the right by repeated moves?
Problem 4. 100 cards are numbered 1 to 100 (each card different) and
placed in 3 boxes (at least one card in each box). How many ways can this
be done so that if two boxes are selected and a card is taken from each, then
the knowledge of their sum alone is always sufficient to identify the third
box?
Problem 5. Can we find N divisible by just 2000 different primes, so that

N divides 2N + 1? [N may be divisible by a prime power.]
Problem 6. A1 A2 A3 is an acute-angled triangle. The foot of the altitude

from Ai is Ki and the incircle touches the side opposite Ai at Li . The line
K1 K2 is reflected in the line L1 L2 . Similarly, the line K2 K3 is reflected in
L2 L3 and K3 K1 is reflected in L3 L1 . Show that the three new lines form a
triangle with vertices on the incircle.
1
Washington, DC, United States of America

July 8–9, 2001
Problems
Each problem is worth seven points.
Problem 1
Let ABC be an acute-angled triangle with circumcentre O . Let P on BC be the foot of the altitude from A.
Suppose that BCA ABC 30 .
Prove that CAB COP 90 .
Problem 2
Prove that
a b c

1

a2 8bc b2 8ca c2 8ab
for all positive real numbers a, b and c .
Problem 3
Twenty-one girls and twenty-one boys took part in a mathematical contest.
• Each contestant solved at most six problems.

• For each girl and each boy, at least one problem was solved by both of them.
Prove that there was a problem that was solved by at least three girls and at least three boys.
Problem 4
Let n be an odd integer greater than 1, and let k1 , k2 , …, kn be given integers. For each of the n permutations
a a1 , a2 , …, an of 1, 2, …, n , let
n
Sa ki ai .
i1
Prove that there are two permutations b and c, b c, such that n is a divisor of Sb Sc.
http://imo.wolfram.com/
2 IMO 2001 Competition Problems
Problem 5
In a triangle ABC , let AP bisect BAC , with P on BC , and let BQ bisect ABC , with Q on CA.
It is known that BAC 60 and that AB BP AQ QB.
What are the possible angles of triangle ABC ?
Problem 6
Let a, b, c, d be integers with a b c d 0. Suppose that
ac bd b d a cb d a c.

Prove that ab cd is not prime.
http://imo.wolfram.com/
43rd IMO 2002
Problem 1. S is the set of all (h, k) with h, k non-negative integers such

that h + k < n. Each element of S is colored red or blue, so that if (h, k)
is red and h0 ≤ h, k 0 ≤ k, then (h0 , k 0 ) is also red. A type 1 subset of S has
n blue elements with different first member and a type 2 subset of S has n
blue elements with different second member. Show that there are the same
number of type 1 and type 2 subsets.
Problem 2. BC is a diameter of a circle center O. A is any point on

the circle with 6 AOC > 60o . EF is the chord which is the perpendicular
bisector of AO. D is the midpoint of the minor arc AB. The line through
O parallel to AD meets AC at J. Show that J is the incenter of triangle
CEF .
Problem 3. Find all pairs of integers m > 2, n > 2 such that there are
infinitely many positive integers k for which k n + k 2 − 1 divides k m + k − 1.
Problem 4. The positive divisors of the integer n > 1 are d1 < d2 < . . . <
dk , so that d1 = 1, dk = n. Let d = d1 d2 + d2 d3 + · · · + dk−1 dk . Show that
d < n2 and find all n for which d divides n2 .
Problem 5. Find all real-valued functions on the reals such that (f (x) +
f (y))((f (u) + f (v)) = f (xu − yv) + f (xv + yu) for all x, y, u, v.
Problem 6. n > 2 circles of radius 1 are drawn in the plane so that no line
meets more than two of the circles. Their centers are O1 , O2 , · · · , On . Show
that i<j 1/Oi Oj ≤ (n − 1)π/4.
P
1
44th IMO 2003
Problem 1. S is the set {1, 2, 3, . . . , 1000000}. Show that for any subset A
of S with 101 elements we can find 100 distinct elements xi of S, such that
the sets {a + xi |a ∈ A} are all pairwise disjoint.
m2
Problem 2. Find all pairs (m, n) of positive integers such that 2mn2 −n3 +1
is a positive integer.
Problem 3. A convex hexagon has the property √that for any pair of opposite
sides the distance between their midpoints is 3/2 times the sum of their
lengths Show that all the hexagon’s angles are equal.
Problem 4. ABCD is cyclic. The feet of the perpendicular from D to the

lines AB, BC, CA are P, Q, R respectively. Show that the angle bisectors of
ABC and CDA meet on the line AC iff RP = RQ.
Problem 5. Given n > 2 and reals x1 ≤ x2 ≤ · · · ≤ xn , show that

( i,j |xi − xj |)2 ≤ 32 (n2 − 1) i,j (xi − xj )2 . Show that we have equality iff
P P
the sequence is an arithmetic progression.
Problem 6. Show that for each prime p, there exists a prime q such that
np − p is not divisible by q for any positive integer n.
1
45rd IMO 2004
Problem 1. Let ABC be an acute-angled triangle with AB 6= AC. The

circle with diameter BC intersects the sides AB and AC at M and N
respectively. Denote by O the midpoint of the side BC. The bisectors of
the angles 6 BAC and 6 M ON intersect at R. Prove that the circumcircles
of the triangles BM R and CN R have a common point lying on the side
BC.
Problem 2. Find all polynomials f with real coefficients such that for all
reals a,b,c such that ab + bc + ca = 0 we have the following relations
f (a − b) + f (b − c) + f (c − a) = 2f (a + b + c).
Problem 3. Define a ”hook” to be a figure made up of six unit squares

as shown below in the picture, or any of the figures obtained by applying
rotations and reflections to this figure.
Determine all m×n rectangles that can be covered without gaps and without
overlaps with hooks such that
• the rectangle is covered without gaps and without overlaps
• no part of a hook covers area outside the rectagle.
Problem 4. Let n ≥ 3 be an integer. Let t1 , t2 , ..., tn be positive real

numbers such that
1 1 1

2
n + 1 > (t1 + t2 + ... + tn ) + + ... + .
t1 t2 tn
Show that ti , tj , tk are side lengths of a triangle for all i, j, k with
1 ≤ i < j < k ≤ n.
Problem 5. In a convex quadrilateral ABCD the diagonal BD does not

bisect the angles ABC and CDA. The point P lies inside ABCD and
satisfies
6 P BC = 6 DBA and 6 P DC = 6 BDA.
Prove that ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral if and only if AP = CP .
1
Problem 6. We call a positive integer alternating if every two consecutive
digits in its decimal representation are of different parity.
Find all positive integers n such that n has a multiple which is alternating.
2
46rd IMO 2005
Problem 1. Six points are chosen on the sides of an equilateral triangle

ABC: A1 , A2 on BC, B1 , B2 on CA and C1 , C2 on AB, such that they are
the vertices of a convex hexagon A1 A2 B1 B2 C1 C2 with equal side lengths.
Prove that the lines A1 B2 , B1 C2 and C1 A2 are concurrent.
Problem 2. Let a1 , a2 , . . . be a sequence of integers with infinitely many

positive and negative terms. Suppose that for every positive integer n the
numbers a1 , a2 , . . . , an leave n different remainders upon division by n.
Prove that every integer occurs exactly once in the sequence a1 , a2 , . . ..
Problem 3. Let x, y, z be three positive reals such that xyz ≥ 1. Prove

that
x5 − x2 y5 − y2 z5 − z2
5 2 2
+ 2 5 2
+ 2 ≥ 0.
x +y +z x +y +z x + y2 + z5
Problem 4. Determine all positive integers relatively prime to all the terms
of the infinite sequence
an = 2n + 3n + 6n − 1, n ≥ 1.
Problem 5. Let ABCD be a fixed convex quadrilateral with BC = DA

and BC not parallel with DA. Let two variable points E and F lie of the
sides BC and DA, respectively and satisfy BE = DF . The lines AC and
BD meet at P , the lines BD and EF meet at Q, the lines EF and AC meet
at R.
Prove that the circumcircles of the triangles P QR, as E and F vary, have a
common point other than P .
Problem 6. In a mathematical competition, in which 6 problems were

posed to the participants, every two of these problems were solved by more
than 25 of the contestants. Moreover, no contestant solved all the 6 problems.
Show that there are at least 2 contestants who solved exactly 5 problems
each.
1
day: 1
language: English
12 July 2006
Problem 1. Let ABC be a triangle with incentre I. A point P in the interior of the
triangle satisfies
6 P BA + 6 P CA = 6 P BC + 6 P CB.
Show that AP ≥ AI, and that equality holds if and only if P = I.
Problem 2. Let P be a regular 2006-gon. A diagonal of P is called good if its endpoints

divide the boundary of P into two parts, each composed of an odd number of sides of P .
The sides of P are also called good .
Suppose P has been dissected into triangles by 2003 diagonals, no two of which have
a common point in the interior of P . Find the maximum number of isosceles triangles
having two good sides that could appear in such a configuration.
Problem 3. Determine the least real number M such that the inequality
ab(a2 − b2 ) + bc(b2 − c2 ) + ca(c2 − a2 ) ≤ M (a2 + b2 + c2 )2
holds for all real numbers a, b and c.
Time allowed: 4 hours 30 minutes

Each problem is worth 7 points
day: 2
language: English
13 July 2006
Problem 4. Determine all pairs (x, y) of integers such that
1 + 2x + 22x+1 = y 2 .
Problem 5. Let P (x) be a polynomial of degree n > 1 with integer coefficients and let
k be a positive integer. Consider the polynomial Q(x) = P (P (. . . P (P (x)) . . .)), where P
occurs k times. Prove that there are at most n integers t such that Q(t) = t.
Problem 6. Assign to each side b of a convex polygon P the maximum area of a triangle
that has b as a side and is contained in P . Show that the sum of the areas assigned to
the sides of P is at least twice the area of P .

July 25, 2007
Problem 1. Real numbers a1 , a2 , . . . , an are given. For each i (1 ≤ i ≤ n) define
di = max{aj : 1 ≤ j ≤ i} − min{aj : i ≤ j ≤ n}
and let
d = max{di : 1 ≤ i ≤ n}.
(a) Prove that, for any real numbers x1 ≤ x2 ≤ · · · ≤ xn ,
d
max{|xi − ai | : 1 ≤ i ≤ n} ≥ . (∗)
2
(b) Show that there are real numbers x1 ≤ x2 ≤ · · · ≤ xn such that equality holds
in (∗).
Problem 2. Consider five points A, B, C, D and E such that ABCD is a parallelogram

and BCED is a cyclic quadrilateral. Let ` be a line passing through A. Suppose that
` intersects the interior of the segment DC at F and intersects line BC at G. Suppose
also that EF = EG = EC. Prove that ` is the bisector of angle DAB.
Problem 3. In a mathematical competition some competitors are friends. Friendship

is always mutual. Call a group of competitors a clique if each two of them are friends. (In
particular, any group of fewer than two competitors is a clique.) The number of members
of a clique is called its size.
Given that, in this competition, the largest size of a clique is even, prove that the
competitors can be arranged in two rooms such that the largest size of a clique contained
in one room is the same as the largest size of a clique contained in the other room.

Language: English
July 26, 2007
Problem 4. In triangle ABC the bisector of angle BCA intersects the circumcircle
again at R, the perpendicular bisector of BC at P , and the perpendicular bisector of AC
at Q. The midpoint of BC is K and the midpoint of AC is L. Prove that the triangles
RP K and RQL have the same area.
Problem 5. Let a and b be positive integers. Show that if 4ab − 1 divides (4a2 − 1)2 ,
then a = b.
Problem 6. Let n be a positive integer. Consider
S = {(x, y, z) : x, y, z ∈ {0, 1, . . . , n}, x + y + z > 0}
as a set of (n + 1)3 − 1 points in three-dimensional space. Determine the smallest possible

number of planes, the union of which contains S but does not include (0, 0, 0).

Language: English Day: 1
49th INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIAD

MADRID (SPAIN), JULY 10-22, 2008
Wednesday, July 16, 2008
Problem 1. An acute-angled triangle ABC has orthocentre H. The circle passing through H with
centre the midpoint of BC intersects the line BC at A1 and A2 . Similarly, the circle passing through
H with centre the midpoint of CA intersects the line CA at B1 and B2 , and the circle passing through
H with centre the midpoint of AB intersects the line AB at C1 and C2 . Show that A1 , A2 , B1 , B2 ,
C1 , C2 lie on a circle.
Problem 2. (a) Prove that
x2 y2 z2
+ + ≥1
(x − 1)2 (y − 1)2 (z − 1)2
for all real numbers x, y, z, each different from 1, and satisfying xyz = 1.
(b) Prove that equality holds above for infinitely many triples of rational numbers x, y, z, each
different from 1, and satisfying xyz = 1.
2
Problem 3. Prove that there exist √ infinitely many positive integers n such that n + 1 has a prime
divisor which is greater than 2n + 2n.
Language: English Time: 4 hours and 30 minutes

Language: English Day: 2
49th INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIAD

MADRID (SPAIN), JULY 10-22, 2008
Thursday, July 17, 2008
Problem 4. Find all functions f : (0, ∞) → (0, ∞) (so, f is a function from the positive real
numbers to the positive real numbers) such that
2 2
f (w) + f (x) w 2 + x2
=
f (y 2 ) + f (z 2 ) y2 + z2
for all positive real numbers w, x, y, z, satisfying wx = yz.
Problem 5. Let n and k be positive integers with k ≥ n and k − n an even number. Let 2n lamps
labelled 1, 2, . . . , 2n be given, each of which can be either on or off. Initially all the lamps are off.
We consider sequences of steps: at each step one of the lamps is switched (from on to off or from off
to on).
Let N be the number of such sequences consisting of k steps and resulting in the state where
lamps 1 through n are all on, and lamps n + 1 through 2n are all off.
Let M be the number of such sequences consisting of k steps, resulting in the state where lamps
1 through n are all on, and lamps n + 1 through 2n are all off, but where none of the lamps n + 1
through 2n is ever switched on.
Determine the ratio N/M .
Problem 6. Let ABCD be a convex quadrilateral with |BA| 6= |BC|. Denote the incircles of
triangles ABC and ADC by ω1 and ω2 respectively. Suppose that there exists a circle ω tangent to
the ray BA beyond A and to the ray BC beyond C, which is also tangent to the lines AD and CD.
Prove that the common external tangents of ω1 and ω2 intersect on ω.

Language: English
Day: 1
Problem 1. Let n be a positive integer and let a1 , . . . , ak (k ≥ 2) be distinct integers in the set
{1, . . . , n} such that n divides ai (ai+1 −1) for i = 1, . . . , k −1. Prove that n does not divide ak (a1 −1).
Problem 2. Let ABC be a triangle with circumcentre O. The points P and Q are interior points
of the sides CA and AB, respectively. Let K, L and M be the midpoints of the segments BP , CQ
and P Q, respectively, and let Γ be the circle passing through K, L and M . Suppose that the line
P Q is tangent to the circle Γ. Prove that OP = OQ.
Problem 3. Suppose that s1 , s2 , s3 , . . . is a strictly increasing sequence of positive integers such

that the subsequences
ss1 , ss2 , ss3 , . . . and ss1 +1 , ss2 +1 , ss3 +1 , . . .
are both arithmetic progressions. Prove that the sequence s1 , s2 , s3 , . . . is itself an arithmetic pro-
gression.

Language: English
Day: 2
Problem 4. Let ABC be a triangle with AB = AC. The angle bisectors of 6 CAB and 6 ABC
meet the sides BC and CA at D and E, respectively. Let K be the incentre of triangle ADC.
Suppose that 6 BEK = 45◦ . Find all possible values of 6 CAB.
Problem 5. Determine all functions f from the set of positive integers to the set of positive integers
such that, for all positive integers a and b, there exists a non-degenerate triangle with sides of lengths
a, f (b) and f (b + f (a) − 1).
(A triangle is non-degenerate if its vertices are not collinear.)
Problem 6. Let a1 , a2 , . . . , an be distinct positive integers and let M be a set of n − 1 positive

integers not containing s = a1 + a2 + · · · + an . A grasshopper is to jump along the real axis, starting
at the point 0 and making n jumps to the right with lengths a1 , a2 , . . . , an in some order. Prove that
the order can be chosen in such a way that the grasshopper never lands on any point in M .

Language: English
Day: 1
Problem 1. Determine all functions f : R → R such that the equality

Ä ä ö ù
f bxcy = f (x) f (y)
holds for all x, y ∈ R. (Here bzc denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to z.)
Problem 2. Let I be the incentre of triangle ABC and let Γ be its circumcircle. Let the line AI
˙ and F a point on the side BC such that
intersect Γ again at D. Let E be a point on the arc BDC
∠BAF = ∠CAE < 21 ∠BAC.
Finally, let G be the midpoint of the segment IF . Prove that the lines DG and EI intersect on Γ.
Problem 3. Let N be the set of positive integers. Determine all functions g : N → N such that
Ä äÄ ä
g(m) + n m + g(n)
is a perfect square for all m, n ∈ N.

Language: English
Day: 2
Problem 4. Let P be a point inside the triangle ABC. The lines AP , BP and CP intersect the
circumcircle Γ of triangle ABC again at the points K, L and M respectively. The tangent to Γ at C
intersects the line AB at S. Suppose that SC = SP . Prove that M K = M L.
Problem 5. In each of six boxes B1 , B2 , B3 , B4 , B5 , B6 there is initially one coin. There are two
types of operation allowed:
Type 1: Choose a nonempty box Bj with 1 ≤ j ≤ 5. Remove one coin from Bj and add two
coins to Bj+1 .
Type 2: Choose a nonempty box Bk with 1 ≤ k ≤ 4. Remove one coin from Bk and exchange
the contents of (possibly empty) boxes Bk+1 and Bk+2 .
Determine whether there is a finite sequence of such operations that results in boxes B1 , B2 , B3 , B4 , B5
2010 c c
being empty and box B6 containing exactly 20102010 coins. (Note that ab = a(b ) .)
Problem 6. Let a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . be a sequence of positive real numbers. Suppose that for some
positive integer s, we have
an = max{ak + an−k | 1 ≤ k ≤ n − 1}
for all n > s. Prove that there exist positive integers ` and N , with ` ≤ s and such that an = a` +an−`
for all n ≥ N .

Language: English
Day: 1
Monday, July 18, 2011
Problem 1. Given any set A = {a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 } of four distinct positive integers, we denote the sum
a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 by sA . Let nA denote the number of pairs (i, j) with 1 ≤ i < j ≤ 4 for which ai + aj
divides sA . Find all sets A of four distinct positive integers which achieve the largest possible value
of nA .
Problem 2. Let S be a finite set of at least two points in the plane. Assume that no three points
of S are collinear. A windmill is a process that starts with a line ` going through a single point
P ∈ S. The line rotates clockwise about the pivot P until the first time that the line meets some
other point belonging to S. This point, Q, takes over as the new pivot, and the line now rotates
clockwise about Q, until it next meets a point of S. This process continues indefinitely.
Show that we can choose a point P in S and a line ` going through P such that the resulting windmill
uses each point of S as a pivot infinitely many times.
Problem 3. Let f : R → R be a real-valued function defined on the set of real numbers that
satisfies
f (x + y) ≤ yf (x) + f (f (x))
for all real numbers x and y. Prove that f (x) = 0 for all x ≤ 0.

Language: English
Day: 2
Tuesday, July 19, 2011
Problem 4. Let n > 0 be an integer. We are given a balance and n weights of weight 20 ,
2 , . . . , 2 . We are to place each of the n weights on the balance, one after another, in such a
1 n−1
way that the right pan is never heavier than the left pan. At each step we choose one of the weights
that has not yet been placed on the balance, and place it on either the left pan or the right pan,
until all of the weights have been placed.
Determine the number of ways in which this can be done.
Problem 5. Let f be a function from the set of integers to the set of positive integers. Suppose
that, for any two integers m and n, the dierence f (m) − f (n) is divisible by f (m − n). Prove that,
for all integers m and n with f (m) ≤ f (n), the number f (n) is divisible by f (m).
Problem 6. Let ABC be an acute triangle with circumcircle Γ. Let ` be a tangent line to Γ, and
let `a , `b and `c be the lines obtained by reecting ` in the lines BC , CA and AB , respectively. Show
that the circumcircle of the triangle determined by the lines `a , `b and `c is tangent to the circle Γ.

Language: English
Day: 1
Problem 1. Given triangle ABC the point J is the centre of the excircle opposite the vertex A.
This excircle is tangent to the side BC at M , and to the lines AB and AC at K and L, respectively.
The lines LM and BJ meet at F , and the lines KM and CJ meet at G. Let S be the point of
intersection of the lines AF and BC, and let T be the point of intersection of the lines AG and BC.
Prove that M is the midpoint of ST .
(The excircle of ABC opposite the vertex A is the circle that is tangent to the line segment BC,
to the ray AB beyond B, and to the ray AC beyond C.)
Problem 2. Let n ≥ 3 be an integer, and let a2 , a3 , . . . , an be positive real numbers such that
a2 a3 · · · an = 1. Prove that
(1 + a2 )2 (1 + a3 )3 · · · (1 + an )n > nn .
Problem 3. The liar’s guessing game is a game played between two players A and B. The rules
of the game depend on two positive integers k and n which are known to both players.
At the start of the game A chooses integers x and N with 1 ≤ x ≤ N . Player A keeps x secret,
and truthfully tells N to player B. Player B now tries to obtain information about x by asking player
A questions as follows: each question consists of B specifying an arbitrary set S of positive integers
(possibly one specified in some previous question), and asking A whether x belongs to S. Player
B may ask as many such questions as he wishes. After each question, player A must immediately
answer it with yes or no, but is allowed to lie as many times as she wants; the only restriction is
that, among any k + 1 consecutive answers, at least one answer must be truthful.
After B has asked as many questions as he wants, he must specify a set X of at most n positive
integers. If x belongs to X, then B wins; otherwise, he loses. Prove that:
1. If n ≥ 2k , then B can guarantee a win.
2. For all sufficiently large k, there exists an integer n ≥ 1.99k such that B cannot guarantee a
win.

Language: English
Day: 2
Problem 4. Find all functions f : Z → Z such that, for all integers a, b, c that satisfy a + b + c = 0,
the following equality holds:
f (a)2 + f (b)2 + f (c)2 = 2f (a)f (b) + 2f (b)f (c) + 2f (c)f (a).
(Here Z denotes the set of integers.)
Problem 5. Let ABC ∠BCA = 90◦ , and let D be the foot of the altitude from
be a triangle with
C . Let X be a point in the interior of the segment CD. Let K be the point on the segment AX
such that BK = BC . Similarly, let L be the point on the segment BX such that AL = AC . Let M
be the point of intersection of AL and BK .
Show that M K = M L.
Problem 6. Find all positive integers n for which there exist non-negative integers a1 , a2 , . . . , an
such that
1 1 1 1 2 n
+ + · · · + an = a1 + a2 + · · · + an = 1.
2a1 2a2 2 3 3 3

Language: English
Day: 1
Problem 1. Prove that for any pair of positive integers k and n, there exist k positive integers
m1 , m2 , . . . , mk (not necessarily different) such that
2k − 1

1 1 1
1+ = 1+ 1+ ··· 1 + .
n m1 m2 mk
Problem 2. A configuration of 4027 points in the plane is called Colombian if it consists of 2013 red
points and 2014 blue points, and no three of the points of the configuration are collinear. By drawing
some lines, the plane is divided into several regions. An arrangement of lines is good for a Colombian
configuration if the following two conditions are satisfied:
• no line passes through any point of the configuration;
• no region contains points of both colours.
Find the least value of k such that for any Colombian configuration of 4027 points, there is a good
arrangement of k lines.
Problem 3. Let the excircle of triangle ABC opposite the vertex A be tangent to the side BC at the
point A1 . Define the points B1 on CA and C1 on AB analogously, using the excircles opposite B and
C, respectively. Suppose that the circumcentre of triangle A1 B1 C1 lies on the circumcircle of triangle
ABC. Prove that triangle ABC is right-angled.
The excircle of triangle ABC opposite the vertex A is the circle that is tangent to the line segment
BC, to the ray AB beyond B, and to the ray AC beyond C. The excircles opposite B and C are similarly
defined.

Language: English
Day: 2
Problem 4. Let ABC be an acute-angled triangle with orthocentre H, and let W be a point on the
side BC, lying strictly between B and C. The points M and N are the feet of the altitudes from B and
C, respectively. Denote by ω1 the circumcircle of BW N , and let X be the point on ω1 such that W X
is a diameter of ω1 . Analogously, denote by ω2 the circumcircle of CW M , and let Y be the point on ω2
such that W Y is a diameter of ω2 . Prove that X, Y and H are collinear.
Problem 5. Let Q>0 be the set of positive rational numbers. Let f : Q>0 → R be a function satisfying
the following three conditions:
(i) for all x, y ∈ Q>0 , we have f (x)f (y) ≥ f (xy);
(ii) for all x, y ∈ Q>0 , we have f (x + y) ≥ f (x) + f (y);
(iii) there exists a rational number a > 1 such that f (a) = a.
Prove that f (x) = x for all x ∈ Q>0 .
Problem 6. Let n ≥ 3 be an integer, and consider a circle with n + 1 equally spaced points marked
on it. Consider all labellings of these points with the numbers 0, 1, . . . , n such that each label is used
exactly once; two such labellings are considered to be the same if one can be obtained from the other
by a rotation of the circle. A labelling is called beautiful if, for any four labels a < b < c < d with
a + d = b + c, the chord joining the points labelled a and d does not intersect the chord joining the
points labelled b and c.
Let M be the number of beautiful labellings, and let N be the number of ordered pairs (x, y) of
positive integers such that x + y ≤ n and gcd(x, y) = 1. Prove that
M = N + 1.

Language: English
Day: 1
Problem 1. Let a0 < a1 < a2 < · · · be an innite sequence of positive integers. Prove that there
exists a unique integer n ≥ 1 such that
a0 + a1 + · · · + an
an < ≤ an+1 .
n
Problem 2. Let n ≥ 2 be an integer. Consider an n × n chessboard consisting of n2 unit squares.

A conguration of n rooks on this board is peaceful if every row and every column contains exactly
one rook. Find the greatest positive integer k such that, for each peaceful conguration of n rooks,
there is a k × k square which does not contain a rook on any of its k 2 unit squares.
Problem 3. Convex quadrilateral ABCD has ∠ABC = ∠CDA = 90◦ . Point H is the foot of the
perpendicular from A to BD. Points S and T lie on sides AB and AD, respectively, such that H
lies inside triangle SCT and
∠CHS − ∠CSB = 90◦ , ∠T HC − ∠DT C = 90◦ .
Prove that line BD is tangent to the circumcircle of triangle T SH .

Language: English
Day: 2
Problem 4. Points P and Q lie on side BC of acute-angled triangle ABC so that ∠P AB = ∠BCA
and ∠CAQ = ∠ABC . Points M and N lie on lines AP and AQ, respectively, such that P is the
midpoint of AM , and Q is the midpoint of AN . Prove that lines BM and CN intersect on the
circumcircle of triangle ABC .
Problem 5. For each positive integer n, the Bank of Cape Town issues coins of denomination n1 .
Given a nite collection of such coins (of not necessarily dierent denominations) with total value at
most 99 + 21 , prove that it is possible to split this collection into 100 or fewer groups, such that each
group has total value at most 1.
Problem 6. A set of lines in the plane is in general position if no two are parallel and no three
pass through the same point. A set of lines in general position cuts the plane into regions, some of
which have nite area; we call these its nite regions. Prove that√for all suciently large n, in any
set of n lines in general position it is possible to colour at least n of the lines blue in such a way
that none of its nite regions has a completely blue boundary.
√ √
Note: Results with n replaced by c n will be awarded points depending on the value of the
constant c.

Language: English
Day: 1
❋r✐❞❛②✱ ❏✉❧② ✶✵✱ ✷✵✶✺
Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✶✳ ❲❡ s❛② t❤❛t ❛ ✜♥✐t❡ s❡t S ♦❢ ♣♦✐♥ts ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ ✐s ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡❞ ✐❢✱ ❢♦r ❛♥② t✇♦ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t
♣♦✐♥ts A ❛♥❞ B ✐♥ S ✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛ ♣♦✐♥t C ✐♥ S s✉❝❤ t❤❛t AC = BC ✳ ❲❡ s❛② t❤❛t S ✐s ❝❡♥tr❡✲❢r❡❡ ✐❢
❢♦r ❛♥② t❤r❡❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ♣♦✐♥ts A✱ B ❛♥❞ C ✐♥ S ✱ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ♣♦✐♥t P ✐♥ S s✉❝❤ t❤❛t P A = P B = P C ✳
✭❛✮ ❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t ❢♦r ❛❧❧ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs n > 3✱ t❤❡r❡ ❡①✐sts ❛ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡❞ s❡t ❝♦♥s✐st✐♥❣ ♦❢ n ♣♦✐♥ts✳
✭❜✮ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❛❧❧ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs n > 3 ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ t❤❡r❡ ❡①✐sts ❛ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡❞ ❝❡♥tr❡✲❢r❡❡ s❡t ❝♦♥s✐st✐♥❣ ♦❢ n
♣♦✐♥ts✳
Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✷✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❛❧❧ tr✐♣❧❡s (a, b, c) ♦❢ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs s✉❝❤ t❤❛t ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs
ab − c, bc − a, ca − b
✐s ❛ ♣♦✇❡r ♦❢ 2✳
✭❆ ♣♦✇❡r ♦❢ 2 ✐s ❛♥ ✐♥t❡❣❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠ 2n ✱ ✇❤❡r❡ n ✮
✐s ❛ ♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡r✳
Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✸✳ ▲❡t ABC ❜❡ ❛♥ ❛❝✉t❡ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ ✇✐t❤ AB > AC ✳ ▲❡t Γ ❜❡ ✐ts ❝✐r❝✉♠❝✐r❝❧❡✱ H ✐ts
♦rt❤♦❝❡♥tr❡✱ ❛♥❞ F t❤❡ ❢♦♦t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛❧t✐t✉❞❡ ❢r♦♠ A✳ ▲❡t M ❜❡ t❤❡ ♠✐❞♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ BC ✳ ▲❡t Q ❜❡ t❤❡
♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ Γ s✉❝❤ t❤❛t ∠HQA = 90◦ ✱ ❛♥❞ ❧❡t K ❜❡ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ Γ s✉❝❤ t❤❛t ∠HKQ = 90◦ ✳ ❆ss✉♠❡
t❤❛t t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts A✱ B ✱ C ✱ K ❛♥❞ Q ❛r❡ ❛❧❧ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✱ ❛♥❞ ❧✐❡ ♦♥ Γ ✐♥ t❤✐s ♦r❞❡r✳
Pr♦✈❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❝✐r❝✉♠❝✐r❝❧❡s ♦❢ tr✐❛♥❣❧❡s KQH ❛♥❞ F KM ❛r❡ t❛♥❣❡♥t t♦ ❡❛❝❤ ♦t❤❡r✳
▲❛♥❣✉❛❣❡✿ ❊♥❣❧✐s❤ ❚✐♠❡✿ ✹ ❤♦✉rs ❛♥❞ ✸✵ ♠✐♥✉t❡s
❊❛❝❤ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✐s ✇♦rt❤ ✼ ♣♦✐♥ts

Language: English
Day: 2
❙❛t✉r❞❛②✱ ❏✉❧② ✶✶✱ ✷✵✶✺
Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✹✳ ❚r✐❛♥❣❧❡ ABC ❤❛s ❝✐r❝✉♠❝✐r❝❧❡ Ω ❛♥❞ ❝✐r❝✉♠❝❡♥tr❡ O✳ ❆ ❝✐r❝❧❡ Γ ✇✐t❤ ❝❡♥tr❡ A
✐♥t❡rs❡❝ts t❤❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t BC ❛t ♣♦✐♥ts D ❛♥❞ E ✱ s✉❝❤ t❤❛t B ✱ D✱ E ❛♥❞ C ❛r❡ ❛❧❧ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❛♥❞ ❧✐❡
♦♥ ❧✐♥❡ BC ✐♥ t❤✐s ♦r❞❡r✳ ▲❡t F ❛♥❞ G ❜❡ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts ♦❢ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ Γ ❛♥❞ Ω✱ s✉❝❤ t❤❛t A✱ F ✱
B ✱ C ❛♥❞ G ❧✐❡ ♦♥ Ω ✐♥ t❤✐s ♦r❞❡r✳ ▲❡t K ❜❡ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝✉♠❝✐r❝❧❡ ♦❢
tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ BDF ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t AB ✳ ▲❡t L ❜❡ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✐r❝✉♠❝✐r❝❧❡ ♦❢
tr✐❛♥❣❧❡ CGE ❛♥❞ t❤❡ s❡❣♠❡♥t CA✳
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡s F K ❛♥❞ GL ❛r❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❛♥❞ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t ❛t t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t X ✳ Pr♦✈❡ t❤❛t X ❧✐❡s ♦♥
t❤❡ ❧✐♥❡ AO✳
Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✺✳ ▲❡t R ❜❡ t❤❡ s❡t ♦❢ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ ❛❧❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s f : R → R s❛t✐s❢②✐♥❣ t❤❡
❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
f x + f (x + y) + f (xy) = x + f (x + y) + yf (x)
❢♦r ❛❧❧ r❡❛❧ ♥✉♠❜❡rs x ❛♥❞ y ✳
Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✻✳ ❚❤❡ s❡q✉❡♥❝❡ a1 , a2 , . . . ♦❢ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs s❛t✐s✜❡s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s✿

✭✐✮ 1 6 aj 6 2015 ❢♦r ❛❧❧ j > 1❀
✭✐✐✮ k + ak 6= ℓ + aℓ ❢♦r ❛❧❧ 1 6 k < ℓ✳
Pr♦✈❡ t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ❡①✐st t✇♦ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs b ❛♥❞ N s✉❝❤ t❤❛t
n
X
(aj − b) 6 10072
j=m+1
❢♦r ❛❧❧ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs m ❛♥❞ n s❛t✐s❢②✐♥❣ n > m > N ✳
▲❛♥❣✉❛❣❡✿ ❊♥❣❧✐s❤ ❚✐♠❡✿ ✹ ❤♦✉rs ❛♥❞ ✸✵ ♠✐♥✉t❡s
❊❛❝❤ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✐s ✇♦rt❤ ✼ ♣♦✐♥ts

Language: English
Day: 1
▼♦♥❞❛②✱ ❏✉❧② ✶✶✱ ✷✵✶✻
Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✶✳ ❚r✐❛♥❣❧❡ BCF ❤❛s ❛ r✐❣❤t ❛♥❣❧❡ ❛t B ✳ ▲❡t A ❜❡ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ ❧✐♥❡ CF s✉❝❤ t❤❛t
F A = F B ❛♥❞ F ❧✐❡s ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ A ❛♥❞ C ✳ P♦✐♥t D ✐s ❝❤♦s❡♥ s✉❝❤ t❤❛t DA = DC ❛♥❞ AC ✐s t❤❡
❜✐s❡❝t♦r ♦❢ ∠DAB ✳ P♦✐♥t E ✐s ❝❤♦s❡♥ s✉❝❤ t❤❛t EA = ED ❛♥❞ AD ✐s t❤❡ ❜✐s❡❝t♦r ♦❢ ∠EAC ✳ ▲❡t M
❜❡ t❤❡ ♠✐❞♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ CF ✳ ▲❡t X ❜❡ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t s✉❝❤ t❤❛t AM XE ✐s ❛ ♣❛r❛❧❧❡❧♦❣r❛♠ ✭✇❤❡r❡ AM k EX
❛♥❞ AE k M X ✮✳ Pr♦✈❡ t❤❛t ❧✐♥❡s BD✱ F X ✱ ❛♥❞ M E ❛r❡ ❝♦♥❝✉rr❡♥t✳
Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✷✳ ❋✐♥❞ ❛❧❧ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs n ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ ❡❛❝❤ ❝❡❧❧ ♦❢ ❛♥ n × n t❛❜❧❡ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ✜❧❧❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ♦♥❡
♦❢ t❤❡ ❧❡tt❡rs ■✱ ▼ ❛♥❞ ❖ ✐♥ s✉❝❤ ❛ ✇❛② t❤❛t✿
• ✐♥ ❡❛❝❤ r♦✇ ❛♥❞ ❡❛❝❤ ❝♦❧✉♠♥✱ ♦♥❡ t❤✐r❞ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡♥tr✐❡s ❛r❡ ■✱ ♦♥❡ t❤✐r❞ ❛r❡ ▼ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❡ t❤✐r❞ ❛r❡
❖ ❀ ❛♥❞
• ✐♥ ❛♥② ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✱ ✐❢ t❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ❡♥tr✐❡s ♦♥ t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ✐s ❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ t❤r❡❡✱ t❤❡♥ ♦♥❡ t❤✐r❞
♦❢ t❤❡ ❡♥tr✐❡s ❛r❡ ■✱ ♦♥❡ t❤✐r❞ ❛r❡ ▼ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❡ t❤✐r❞ ❛r❡ ❖✳
◆♦t❡✿ ❚❤❡ r♦✇s ❛♥❞ ❝♦❧✉♠♥s ♦❢ ❛♥ n × n t❛❜❧❡ ❛r❡ ❡❛❝❤ ❧❛❜❡❧❧❡❞ 1 t♦ n ✐♥ ❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ♦r❞❡r✳ ❚❤✉s
❡❛❝❤ ❝❡❧❧ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞s t♦ ❛ ♣❛✐r ♦❢ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs (i, j) ✇✐t❤ 1 6 i, j 6 n✳ ❋♦r n > 1✱ t❤❡ t❛❜❧❡ ❤❛s
4n − 2 ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧s ♦❢ t✇♦ t②♣❡s✳ ❆ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✜rst t②♣❡ ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ❝❡❧❧s (i, j) ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ i + j ✐s
❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✱ ❛♥❞ ❛ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ t②♣❡ ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ ❛❧❧ ❝❡❧❧s (i, j) ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ i − j ✐s ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳
Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✸✳ ▲❡t P = A1 A2 . . . Ak ❜❡ ❛ ❝♦♥✈❡① ♣♦❧②❣♦♥ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡✳ ❚❤❡ ✈❡rt✐❝❡s A1 ✱ A2 ✱ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✱ Ak

❤❛✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣r❛❧ ❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡s ❛♥❞ ❧✐❡ ♦♥ ❛ ❝✐r❝❧❡✳ ▲❡t S ❜❡ t❤❡ ❛r❡❛ ♦❢ P ✳ ❆♥ ♦❞❞ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡r n ✐s
❣✐✈❡♥ s✉❝❤ t❤❛t t❤❡ sq✉❛r❡s ♦❢ t❤❡ s✐❞❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤s ♦❢ P ❛r❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs ❞✐✈✐s✐❜❧❡ ❜② n✳ Pr♦✈❡ t❤❛t 2S ✐s ❛♥
✐♥t❡❣❡r ❞✐✈✐s✐❜❧❡ ❜② n✳
▲❛♥❣✉❛❣❡✿ ❊♥❣❧✐s❤ ❚✐♠❡✿ ✹ ❤♦✉rs ❛♥❞ ✸✵ ♠✐♥✉t❡s
❊❛❝❤ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✐s ✇♦rt❤ ✼ ♣♦✐♥ts

Language: English
Day: 2
❚✉❡s❞❛②✱ ❏✉❧② ✶✷✱ ✷✵✶✻
Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✹✳ ❆ s❡t ♦❢ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡rs ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❢r❛❣r❛♥t ✐❢ ✐t ❝♦♥t❛✐♥s ❛t ❧❡❛st t✇♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥ts ❛♥❞
❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ ✐ts ❡❧❡♠❡♥ts ❤❛s ❛ ♣r✐♠❡ ❢❛❝t♦r ✐♥ ❝♦♠♠♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ❛t ❧❡❛st ♦♥❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❡❧❡♠❡♥ts✳ ▲❡t
P (n) = n2 + n + 1✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❧❡❛st ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡r b s✉❝❤ t❤❛t t❤❡r❡ ❡①✐sts ❛
♥♦♥✲♥❡❣❛t✐✈❡ ✐♥t❡❣❡r a ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ t❤❡ s❡t
{P (a + 1), P (a + 2), . . . , P (a + b)}
✐s ❢r❛❣r❛♥t❄
Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✺✳ ❚❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥

(x − 1)(x − 2) · · · (x − 2016) = (x − 1)(x − 2) · · · (x − 2016)
✐s ✇r✐tt❡♥ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❜♦❛r❞✱ ✇✐t❤ ✷✵✶✻ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢❛❝t♦rs ♦♥ ❡❛❝❤ s✐❞❡✳ ❲❤❛t ✐s t❤❡ ❧❡❛st ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ k ❢♦r
✇❤✐❝❤ ✐t ✐s ♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ t♦ ❡r❛s❡ ❡①❛❝t❧② k ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ✹✵✸✷ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❢❛❝t♦rs s♦ t❤❛t ❛t ❧❡❛st ♦♥❡ ❢❛❝t♦r r❡♠❛✐♥s
♦♥ ❡❛❝❤ s✐❞❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t✐♥❣ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❤❛s ♥♦ r❡❛❧ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s❄
Pr♦❜❧❡♠ ✻✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❡ n > 2 ❧✐♥❡ s❡❣♠❡♥ts ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣❧❛♥❡ s✉❝❤ t❤❛t ❡✈❡r② t✇♦ s❡❣♠❡♥ts ❝r♦ss✱ ❛♥❞
♥♦ t❤r❡❡ s❡❣♠❡♥ts ♠❡❡t ❛t ❛ ♣♦✐♥t✳ ●❡♦✛ ❤❛s t♦ ❝❤♦♦s❡ ❛♥ ❡♥❞♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ s❡❣♠❡♥t ❛♥❞ ♣❧❛❝❡ ❛
❢r♦❣ ♦♥ ✐t✱ ❢❛❝✐♥❣ t❤❡ ♦t❤❡r ❡♥❞♣♦✐♥t✳ ❚❤❡♥ ❤❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❝❧❛♣ ❤✐s ❤❛♥❞s n − 1 t✐♠❡s✳ ❊✈❡r② t✐♠❡ ❤❡ ❝❧❛♣s✱
❡❛❝❤ ❢r♦❣ ✇✐❧❧ ✐♠♠❡❞✐❛t❡❧② ❥✉♠♣ ❢♦r✇❛r❞ t♦ t❤❡ ♥❡①t ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥ ♣♦✐♥t ♦♥ ✐ts s❡❣♠❡♥t✳ ❋r♦❣s ♥❡✈❡r
❝❤❛♥❣❡ t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡✐r ❥✉♠♣s✳ ●❡♦✛ ✇✐s❤❡s t♦ ♣❧❛❝❡ t❤❡ ❢r♦❣s ✐♥ s✉❝❤ ❛ ✇❛② t❤❛t ♥♦ t✇♦ ♦❢
t❤❡♠ ✇✐❧❧ ❡✈❡r ♦❝❝✉♣② t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥ ♣♦✐♥t ❛t t❤❡ s❛♠❡ t✐♠❡✳
✭❛✮ Pr♦✈❡ t❤❛t ●❡♦✛ ❝❛♥ ❛❧✇❛②s ❢✉❧✜❧ ❤✐s ✇✐s❤ ✐❢ n ✐s ♦❞❞✳
✭❜✮ Pr♦✈❡ t❤❛t ●❡♦✛ ❝❛♥ ♥❡✈❡r ❢✉❧✜❧ ❤✐s ✇✐s❤ ✐❢ n ✐s ❡✈❡♥✳
▲❛♥❣✉❛❣❡✿ ❊♥❣❧✐s❤ ❚✐♠❡✿ ✹ ❤♦✉rs ❛♥❞ ✸✵ ♠✐♥✉t❡s
❊❛❝❤ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠ ✐s ✇♦rt❤ ✼ ♣♦✐♥ts

English (eng), day 1
Problem 1. For each integer a0 > 1, define the sequence a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . by:

√ √
an if an is an integer,
an+1 = for each n > 0.
an + 3 otherwise,
Determine all values of a0 for which there is a number A such that an = A for infinitely many values
of n.
Problem 2. Let R be the set of real numbers. Determine all functions f : R → R such that, for
all real numbers x and y,
f (f (x)f (y)) + f (x + y) = f (xy).
Problem 3. A hunter and an invisible rabbit play a game in the Euclidean plane. The rabbit’s
starting point, A0 , and the hunter’s starting point, B0 , are the same. After n − 1 rounds of the game,
the rabbit is at point An−1 and the hunter is at point Bn−1 . In the nth round of the game, three
things occur in order.
(i) The rabbit moves invisibly to a point An such that the distance between An−1 and An is
exactly 1.
(ii) A tracking device reports a point Pn to the hunter. The only guarantee provided by the tracking
device to the hunter is that the distance between Pn and An is at most 1.
(iii) The hunter moves visibly to a point Bn such that the distance between Bn−1 and Bn is
exactly 1.
Is it always possible, no matter how the rabbit moves, and no matter what points are reported
by the tracking device, for the hunter to choose her moves so that after 109 rounds she can ensure
that the distance between her and the rabbit is at most 100?

Problem 4. Let R and S be different points on a circle Ω such that RS is not a diameter. Let `
be the tangent line to Ω at R. Point T is such that S is the midpoint of the line segment RT . Point
J is chosen on the shorter arc RS of Ω so that the circumcircle Γ of triangle JST intersects ` at two
distinct points. Let A be the common point of Γ and ` that is closer to R. Line AJ meets Ω again
at K. Prove that the line KT is tangent to Γ.
Problem 5. An integer N > 2 is given. A collection of N (N + 1) soccer players, no two of whom

are of the same height, stand in a row. Sir Alex wants to remove N (N − 1) players from this row
leaving a new row of 2N players in which the following N conditions hold:
(1) no one stands between the two tallest players,
(2) no one stands between the third and fourth tallest players,
..
.
(N ) no one stands between the two shortest players.
Show that this is always possible.
Problem 6. An ordered pair (x, y) of integers is a primitive point if the greatest common divisor
of x and y is 1. Given a finite set S of primitive points, prove that there exist a positive integer n
and integers a0 , a1 , . . . , an such that, for each (x, y) in S, we have:
a0 xn + a1 xn−1 y + a2 xn−2 y 2 + · · · + an−1 xy n−1 + an y n = 1.

Monday, July 9, 2018
Problem 1. Let Γ be the circumcircle of acute-angled triangle ABC. Points D and E lie on
segments AB and AC, respectively, such that AD = AE. The perpendicular bisectors of BD and
CE intersect the minor arcs AB and AC of Γ at points F and G, respectively. Prove that the lines
DE and F G are parallel (or are the same line).
Problem 2. Find all integers n ≥ 3 for which there exist real numbers a1 , a2 , . . . , an+2 , such that
an+1 = a1 and an+2 = a2 , and
ai ai+1 + 1 = ai+2
for i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
Problem 3. An anti-Pascal triangle is an equilateral triangular array of numbers such that, except
for the numbers in the bottom row, each number is the absolute value of the difference of the two
numbers immediately below it. For example, the following array is an anti-Pascal triangle with four
rows which contains every integer from 1 to 10.
4
2 6
5 7 1
8 3 10 9
Does there exist an anti-Pascal triangle with 2018 rows which contains every integer from 1 to
1 + 2 + · · · + 2018?

Problem 4. A site is any point (x, y) in the plane such that x and y are both positive integers less
than or equal to 20.
Initially, each of the 400 sites is unoccupied. Amy and Ben take turns placing stones with Amy
going first. On her turn, Amy places a new red stone on an√unoccupied site such that the distance
between any two sites occupied by red stones is not equal to 5. On his turn, Ben places a new blue
stone on any unoccupied site. (A site occupied by a blue stone is allowed to be at any distance from
any other occupied site.) They stop as soon as a player cannot place a stone.
Find the greatest K such that Amy can ensure that she places at least K red stones, no matter
how Ben places his blue stones.
Problem 5. Let a1 , a2 , . . . be an infinite sequence of positive integers. Suppose that there is an

integer N > 1 such that, for each n ≥ N , the number
a1 a2 an−1 an
+ + ··· + +
a2 a3 an a1
is an integer. Prove that there is a positive integer M such that am = am+1 for all m ≥ M .
Problem 6. A convex quadrilateral ABCD satisfies AB · CD = BC · DA. Point X lies inside

ABCD so that
∠XAB = ∠XCD and ∠XBC = ∠XDA.
Prove that ∠BXA + ∠DXC = 180◦ .

Problem 1. Let Z be the set of integers. Determine all functions f : Z → Z such that, for all
integers a and b,
f (2a) + 2f (b) = f (f (a + b)).
Problem 2. In triangle ABC, point A1 lies on side BC and point B1 lies on side AC. Let P and Q
be points on segments AA1 and BB1 , respectively, such that P Q is parallel to AB. Let P1 be a point
on line P B1 , such that B1 lies strictly between P and P1 , and ∠P P1 C = ∠BAC. Similarly, let Q1
be a point on line QA1 , such that A1 lies strictly between Q and Q1 , and ∠CQ1 Q = ∠CBA.
Prove that points P , Q, P1 , and Q1 are concyclic.
Problem 3. A social network has 2019 users, some pairs of whom are friends. Whenever user A
is friends with user B, user B is also friends with user A. Events of the following kind may happen
repeatedly, one at a time:
Three users A, B, and C such that A is friends with both B and C, but B and C are
not friends, change their friendship statuses such that B and C are now friends, but A is
no longer friends with B, and no longer friends with C. All other friendship statuses are
unchanged.
Initially, 1010 users have 1009 friends each, and 1009 users have 1010 friends each. Prove that there
exists a sequence of such events after which each user is friends with at most one other user.

Problem 4. Find all pairs (k, n) of positive integers such that
k! = (2n − 1)(2n − 2)(2n − 4) · · · (2n − 2n−1 ).
Problem 5. The Bank of Bath issues coins with an H on one side and a T on the other. Harry has
n of these coins arranged in a line from left to right. He repeatedly performs the following operation:
if there are exactly k > 0 coins showing H, then he turns over the k th coin from the left; otherwise,
all coins show T and he stops. For example, if n = 3 the process starting with the configuration
T HT would be T HT → HHT → HT T → T T T , which stops after three operations.
(a) Show that, for each initial configuration, Harry stops after a finite number of operations.
(b) For each initial configuration C, let L(C) be the number of operations before Harry stops. For
example, L(T HT ) = 3 and L(T T T ) = 0. Determine the average value of L(C) over all 2n
possible initial configurations C.
Problem 6. Let I be the incentre of acute triangle ABC with AB 6= AC. The incircle ω of ABC is
tangent to sides BC, CA, and AB at D, E, and F , respectively. The line through D perpendicular
to EF meets ω again at R. Line AR meets ω again at P . The circumcircles of triangles P CE
and P BF meet again at Q.
Prove that lines DI and P Q meet on the line through A perpendicular to AI.

Monday, 21. September 2020
Problem 1. Consider the convex quadrilateral ABCD. The point P is in the interior of ABCD.
The following ratio equalities hold:
∠P AD : ∠P BA : ∠DP A = 1 : 2 : 3 = ∠CBP : ∠BAP : ∠BP C.

Prove that the following three lines meet in a point: the internal bisectors of angles ∠ADP and
∠P CB and the perpendicular bisector of segment AB.
Problem 2. The real numbers a, b, c, d are such that a ≥ b ≥ c ≥ d > 0 and a + b + c + d = 1.

Prove that
(a + 2b + 3c + 4d) aa bb cc dd < 1.
Problem 3. There are 4n pebbles of weights 1, 2, 3, . . . , 4n. Each pebble is coloured in one of n
colours and there are four pebbles of each colour. Show that we can arrange the pebbles into two
piles so that the following two conditions are both satisfied:
• The total weights of both piles are the same.
• Each pile contains two pebbles of each colour.
Language: English Time: 4 hours and 30 minutes.

Each problem is worth 7 points.
Tuesday, 22. September 2020
Problem 4. There is an integer n > 1. There are n2 stations on a slope of a mountain, all at
different altitudes. Each of two cable car companies, A and B, operates k cable cars; each cable
car provides a transfer from one of the stations to a higher one (with no intermediate stops). The
k cable cars of A have k different starting points and k different finishing points, and a cable car
which starts higher also finishes higher. The same conditions hold for B. We say that two stations
are linked by a company if one can start from the lower station and reach the higher one by using
one or more cars of that company (no other movements between stations are allowed).
Determine the smallest positive integer k for which one can guarantee that there are two stations
that are linked by both companies.
Problem 5. A deck of n > 1 cards is given. A positive integer is written on each card. The deck
has the property that the arithmetic mean of the numbers on each pair of cards is also the geometric
mean of the numbers on some collection of one or more cards.
For which n does it follow that the numbers on the cards are all equal?
Problem 6. Prove that there exists a positive constant c such that the following statement is true:
Consider an integer n > 1, and a set S of n points in the plane such that the distance between
any two different points in S is at least 1. It follows that there is a line ℓ separating S such that the
distance from any point of S to ℓ is at least cn−1/3 .
(A line ℓ separates a set of points S if some segment joining two points in S crosses ℓ.)
Note. Weaker results with cn−1/3 replaced by cn−α may be awarded points depending on the value
of the constant α > 1/3.

Monday, 19. July 2021
Problem 1. Let n > 100 be an integer. Ivan writes the numbers n, n + 1, . . . , 2n each on different
cards. He then shuffles these n + 1 cards, and divides them into two piles. Prove that at least one of
the piles contains two cards such that the sum of their numbers is a perfect square.
Problem 2. Show that the inequality

∑ n √
n ∑ ∑ n √
n ∑
|xi − xj | 6 |xi + xj |
i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1
holds for all real numbers x1 , . . . , xn .
Problem 3. Let D be an interior point of the acute triangle ABC with AB > AC so that ∠DAB =
∠CAD. The point E on the segment AC satisfies ∠ADE = ∠BCD, the point F on the segment
AB satisfies ∠F DA = ∠DBC, and the point X on the line AC satisfies CX = BX. Let O1 and O2
be the circumcentres of the triangles ADC and EXD, respectively. Prove that the lines BC, EF ,
and O1 O2 are concurrent.

Tuesday, 20. July 2021
Problem 4. Let Γ be a circle with centre I, and ABCD a convex quadrilateral such that each of
the segments AB, BC, CD and DA is tangent to Γ. Let Ω be the circumcircle of the triangle AIC.
The extension of BA beyond A meets Ω at X, and the extension of BC beyond C meets Ω at Z.
The extensions of AD and CD beyond D meet Ω at Y and T , respectively. Prove that
AD + DT + T X + XA = CD + DY + Y Z + ZC.
Problem 5. Two squirrels, Bushy and Jumpy, have collected 2021 walnuts for the winter. Jumpy
numbers the walnuts from 1 through 2021, and digs 2021 little holes in a circular pattern in the
ground around their favourite tree. The next morning Jumpy notices that Bushy had placed one
walnut into each hole, but had paid no attention to the numbering. Unhappy, Jumpy decides to
reorder the walnuts by performing a sequence of 2021 moves. In the k-th move, Jumpy swaps the
positions of the two walnuts adjacent to walnut k.
Prove that there exists a value of k such that, on the k-th move, Jumpy swaps some walnuts a
and b such that a < k < b.
Problem 6. Let m > 2 be an integer, A be a finite set of (not necessarily positive) integers, and
B1 , B2 , B3 , . . . , Bm be subsets of A. Assume that for each k = 1, 2, . . . , m the sum of the elements of
Bk is mk . Prove that A contains at least m/2 elements.

The Forty-Sixth Annual William Lowell Putnam Competition
Saturday, December 7, 1985
A–1 Determine, with proof, the number of ordered triples has exactly k nonzero coefficients. Find, with proof, a
(A1 , A2 , A3 ) of sets which have the property that set of integers m1 , m2 , m3 , m4 , m5 for which this mini-
mum k is achieved.
(i) A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, and B–2 Define polynomials fn (x) for n ≥ 0 by f0 (x) = 1,
(ii) A1 ∩ A2 ∩ A3 = 0.
/ fn (0) = 0 for n ≥ 1, and
Express your answer in the form 2a 3b 5c 7d , where d
a, b, c, d are nonnegative integers. fn+1 (x) = (n + 1) fn (x + 1)
dx
A–2 Let T be an acute triangle. Inscribe a rectangle R in T for n ≥ 0. Find, with proof, the explicit factorization of
with one side along a side of T . Then inscribe a rectan- f100 (1) into powers of distinct primes.
gle S in the triangle formed by the side of R opposite the
side on the boundary of T , and the other two sides of T , B–3 Let
with one side along the side of R. For any polygon X,
a1,1 a1,2 a1,3 ...
let A(X) denote the area of X. Find the maximum value,
a2,1 a2,2 a2,3 ...
or show that no maximum exists, of A(R)+A(S)
A(T ) , where T a3,1 a3,2 a3,3 ...
ranges over all triangles and R, S over all rectangles as .. .. .. ..
above. . . . .
A–3 Let d be a real number. For each integer m ≥ 0, define be a doubly infinite array of positive integers, and sup-
a sequence {am ( j)}, j = 0, 1, 2, . . . by the condition pose each positive integer appears exactly eight times in
the array. Prove that am,n > mn for some pair of positive
am (0) = d/2m , integers (m, n).
am ( j + 1) = (am ( j))2 + 2am ( j), j ≥ 0. B–4 Let C be the unit circle x2 + y2 = 1. A point p is chosen
randomly on the circumference C and another point q
Evaluate limn→∞ an (n). is chosen randomly from the interior of C (these points
A–4 Define a sequence {ai } by a1 = 3 and ai+1 = 3ai for i ≥ are chosen independently and uniformly over their do-
1. Which integers between 00 and 99 inclusive occur as mains). Let R be the rectangle with sides parallel to the
the last two digits in the decimal expansion of infinitely x and y-axes with diagonal pq. What is the probability
many ai ? that no point of R lies outside of C?
−1 )
B–5 Evaluate 0∞ t −1/2 e−1985(t+t
R
A–5 Let Im = 02π cos(x) cos(2x) · · · cos(mx) dx. For which
R dt. You may assume that
R ∞ −x2 √
integers m, 1 ≤ m ≤ 10 is Im 6= 0? −∞ e dx = π.
A–6 If p(x) = a0 +a1 x+· · ·+am xm is a polynomial with real B–6 Let G be a finite set of real n × n matrices {Mi }, 1 ≤
coefficients ai , then set i ≤ r, which form a group under matrix multiplication.
Suppose that ∑ri=1 tr(Mi ) = 0, where tr(A) denotes the
Γ(p(x)) = a20 + a21 + · · · + a2m . trace of the matrix A. Prove that ∑ri=1 Mi is the n × n
zero matrix.
Let F(x) = 3x2 + 7x + 2. Find, with proof, a polynomial
g(x) with real coefficients such that
(i) g(0) = 1, and
(ii) Γ( f (x)n ) = Γ(g(x)n )
for every integer n ≥ 1.
B–1 Let k be the smallest positive integer for which there
exist distinct integers m1 , m2 , m3 , m4 , m5 such that the
polynomial
p(x) = (x − m1 )(x − m2 )(x − m3 )(x − m4 )(x − m5 )

The Forty-Seventh Annual William Lowell Putnam Competition
A–1 Find, with explanation, the maximum value of f (x) = Find a simple expression (not involving any sums) for
x3 − 3x on the set of all real numbers x satisfying x4 + f (1) in terms of b1 , b2 , . . . , bn and n (but independent of
36 ≤ 13x2 . a1 , a2 , . . . , an ).
B–1 Inscribe a rectangle of base b and height h in a circle
A–2 What is the units (i.e., rightmost) digit of of radius one, and inscribe an isosceles triangle in the
region of the circle cut off by one base of the rectangle
1020000

? (with that side as the base of the triangle). For what
10100 + 3 value of h do the rectangle and triangle have the same
area?
A–3 Evaluate ∑∞ 2
n=0 Arccot(n + n + 1), where Arccott for
t ≥ 0 denotes the number θ in the interval 0 < θ ≤ π/2 B–2 Prove that there are only a finite number of possibili-
with cot θ = t. ties for the ordered triple T = (x − y, y − z, z − x), where
x, y, z are complex numbers satisfying the simultaneous
A–4 A transversal of an n × n matrix A consists of n entries equations
of A, no two in the same row or column. Let f (n) be
the number of n × n matrices A satisfying the following x(x − 1) + 2yz = y(y − 1) + 2zx = z(z − 1) + 2xy,
two conditions:
and list all such triples T .
(a) Each entry αi, j of A is in the set {−1, 0, 1}.
B–3 Let Γ consist of all polynomials in x with integer co-
(b) The sum of the n entries of a transversal is the efficients. For f and g in Γ and m a positive integer,
same for all transversals of A. let f ≡ g (mod m) mean that every coefficient of f − g
An example of such a matrix A is is an integral multiple of m. Let n and p be positive
integers with p prime. Given that f , g, h, r and s are
in Γ with r f + sg ≡ 1 (mod p) and f g ≡ h (mod p),
 
−1 0 −1
A =  0 1 0 . prove that there exist F and G in Γ with F ≡ f (mod p),
0 1 0 G ≡ g (mod p), and FG ≡ h (mod pn ).
B–4 For a positive√real number r, let G(r) be the minimum
Determine with proof a formula for f (n) of the form
value of |r − m2 + 2n2 | for all integers m and n. Prove
f (n) = a1 bn1 + a2 bn2 + a3 bn3 + a4 , or disprove the assertion that limr→∞ G(r) exists and
equals 0.
where the ai ’s and bi ’s are rational numbers.
B–5 Let f (x, y, z) = x2 +y2 +z2 +xyz. Let p(x, y, z), q(x, y, z),
A–5 Suppose f1 (x), f2 (x), . . . , fn (x) are functions of n real r(x, y, z) be polynomials with real coefficients satisfying
variables x = (x1 , . . . , xn ) with continuous second-order
partial derivatives everywhere on Rn . Suppose further f (p(x, y, z), q(x, y, z), r(x, y, z)) = f (x, y, z).
that there are constants ci j such that
Prove or disprove the assertion that the sequence p, q, r
∂ fi ∂ f j consists of some permutation of ±x, ±y, ±z, where the
− = ci j number of minus signs is 0 or 2.
∂ x j ∂ xi
B–6 Suppose A, B,C, D are n × n matrices with entries in a
for all i and j, 1 ≤ i ≤ n, 1 ≤ j ≤ n. Prove that there is field F, satisfying the conditions that ABT and CDT are
a function g(x) on Rn such that fi + ∂ g/∂ xi is linear for symmetric and ADT −BCT = I. Here I is the n×n iden-
all i, 1 ≤ i ≤ n. (A linear function is one of the form tity matrix, and if M is an n × n matrix, M T is its trans-
pose. Prove that AT D −CT B = I.
a0 + a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn .)
A–6 Let a1 , a2 , . . . , an be real numbers, and let b1 , b2 , . . . , bn

be distinct positive integers. Suppose that there is a
polynomial f (x) satisfying the identity
n
(1 − x)n f (x) = 1 + ∑ ai xbi .
i=1
The Forty-Eighth Annual William Lowell Putnam Competition
A–1 Curves A, B,C and D are defined in the plane as follows: B–1 Evaluate
Z 4 p
ln(9 − x) dx

x
A = (x, y) : x2 − y2 = 2 , .
x + y2
p p
2 ln(9 − x) + ln(x + 3)

y
B = (x, y) : 2xy + 2 = 3 , B–2 Let r, s and t be integers with 0 ≤ r, 0 ≤ s and r + s ≤ t.
x + y2
Prove that
C = (x, y) : x3 − 3xy2 + 3y = 1 ,

s s s
D = (x, y) : 3x2 y − 3x − y3 = 0 . t +1

0 1
t + t + · · · + st = .
r r+1 r+s (t + 1 − s) t−s
r
Prove that A ∩ B = C ∩ D.
A–2 The sequence of digits B–3 Let F be a field in which 1 + 1 6= 0. Show that the set
of solutions to the equation x2 + y2 = 1 with x and y in
123456789101112131415161718192021 . . . F is given by (x, y) = (1, 0) and
2
is obtained by writing the positive integers in order. If r − 1 2r
(x, y) = 2 ,
the 10n -th digit in this sequence occurs in the part of r + 1 r2 + 1
the sequence in which the m-digit numbers are placed,
define f (n) to be m. For example, f (2) = 2 because the where r runs through the elements of F such that r2 6=
100th digit enters the sequence in the placement of the −1.
two-digit integer 55. Find, with proof, f (1987).
B–4 Let (x1 , y1 ) = (0.8, 0.6) and let xn+1 = xn cos yn −
A–3 For all real x, the real-valued function y = f (x) satisfies yn sin yn and yn+1 = xn sin yn + yn cos yn for n =
1, 2, 3, . . . . For each of limn→∞ xn and limn→∞ yn , prove
y00 − 2y0 + y = 2ex . that the limit exists and find it or prove that the limit
does not exist.
(a) If f (x) > 0 for all real x, must f 0 (x) > 0 for all real
x? Explain. B–5 Let On be the n-dimensional vector (0, 0, · · · , 0). Let
(b) If f 0 (x) > 0 for all real x, must f (x) > 0 for all real M be a 2n × n matrix of complex numbers such that
x? Explain. whenever (z1 , z2 , . . . , z2n )M = On , with complex zi , not
all zero, then at least one of the zi is not real. Prove
A–4 Let P be a polynomial, with real coefficients, in three that for arbitrary real numbers r1 , r2 , . . . , r2n , there are
variables and F be a function of two variables such that complex numbers w1 , w2 , . . . , wn such that
    
P(ux, uy, uz) = u2 F(y − x, z − x) for all real x, y, z, u, w1 r1
  ..   .. 
re M  .  =  .  .
and such that P(1, 0, 0) = 4, P(0, 1, 0) = 5, and
P(0, 0, 1) = 6. Also let A, B,C be complex numbers with wn rn
P(A, B,C) = 0 and |B − A| = 10. Find |C − A|.
(Note: if C is a matrix of complex numbers, re(C) is the
A–5 Let matrix whose entries are the real parts of the entries of
C.)
~ y) = −y x
G(x, , ,0 . B–6 Let F be the field of p2 elements, where p is an odd
x2 + 4y2 x2 + 4y2
prime. Suppose S is a set of (p2 − 1)/2 distinct nonzero
Prove or disprove that there is a vector-valued function elements of F with the property that for each a 6= 0 in
F, exactly one of a and −a is in S. Let N be the number
~F(x, y, z) = (M(x, y, z), N(x, y, z), P(x, y, z)) of elements in the intersection S ∩ {2a : a ∈ S}. Prove
that N is even.
with the following properties:
(i) M, N, P have continuous partial derivatives for all
(x, y, z) 6= (0, 0, 0);
(ii) Curl ~F = ~0 for all (x, y, z) 6= (0, 0, 0);
~ y).
(iii) ~F(x, y, 0) = G(x,
A–6 For each positive integer n, let a(n) be the number of
zeroes in the base 3 representation of n. For which pos-
itive real numbers x does the series
∞
xa(n)
∑ 3
n=1 n
The Forty-Ninth Annual William Lowell Putnam Competition
A–1 Let R be the region consisting of the points (x, y) of the B–2 Prove or disprove: If x and y are real numbers with y ≥ 0
cartesian plane satisfying both |x| − |y| ≤ 1 and |y| ≤ 1. and y(y + 1) ≤ (x + 1)2 , then y(y − 1) ≤ x2 .
Sketch the region R and find its area.
B–3 For every n in the set N = {1, 2, . . . } of positive
√ inte-
A–2 A not uncommon calculus mistake is to believe that the gers, let rn be the minimum value of |c − d 3| for all
product rule for derivatives says that ( f g)0 = f 0 g0 . If nonnegative integers c and d with c + d = n. Find, with
2
f (x) = ex , determine, with proof, whether there exists proof, the smallest positive real number g with rn ≤ g
an open interval (a, b) and a nonzero function g defined for all n ∈ N.
on (a, b) such that this wrong product rule is true for x
in (a, b). B–4 Prove that if ∑∞ n=1 an is a convergent series of positive
real numbers, then so is ∑∞ n/(n+1) .
n=1 (an )
A–3 Determine, with proof, the set of real numbers x for B–5 For positive integers n, let Mn be the 2n + 1 by 2n + 1
which skew-symmetric matrix for which each entry in the first
∞ x n subdiagonals below the main diagonal is 1 and each
1 1 of the remaining entries below the main diagonal is -1.
∑ csc − 1
n=1 n n Find, with proof, the rank of Mn . (According to one
definition, the rank of a matrix is the largest k such that
converges. there is a k × k submatrix with nonzero determinant.)
A–4 (a) If every point of the plane is painted one of three One may note that
colors, do there necessarily exist two points of the  
same color exactly one inch apart? 0 −1 1
(b) What if “three” is replaced by “nine”? M1 =  1 0 −1 
−1 1 0
A–5 Prove that there exists a unique function f from the set 
0 −1 −1 1 1

R+ of positive real numbers to R+ such that  1 0 −1 −1 1 
M2 =  1 1 0 −1 −1  .
 
f ( f (x)) = 6x − f (x)  −1 1 1 0 −1 
and −1 −1 1 1 0
f (x) > 0 B–6 Prove that there exist an infinite number of ordered pairs
(a, b) of integers such that for every positive integer t,
for all x > 0. the number at + b is a triangular number if and only if t
is a triangular number. (The triangular numbers are the
A–6 If a linear transformation A on an n-dimensional vector tn = n(n + 1)/2 with n in {0, 1, 2, . . . }.)
space has n + 1 eigenvectors such that any n of them are
linearly independent, does it follow that A is a scalar
multiple of the identity? Prove your answer.
B–1 A composite (positive integer) is a product ab with a
and b not necessarily distinct integers in {2, 3, 4, . . . }.
Show that every composite is expressible as xy + xz +
yz + 1, with x, y, z positive integers.
The Fiftieth Annual William Lowell Putnam Competition
A–1 How many primes among the positive integers, written B–2 Let S be a non-empty set with an associative operation
as usual in base 10, are alternating 1’s and 0’s, begin- that is left and right cancellative (xy = xz implies y = z,
ning and ending with 1? and yx = zx implies y = z). Assume that for every a in S
Z aZ b the set {an : n = 1, 2, 3, . . .} is finite. Must S be a group?
2 x2 ,a2 y2 }
A–2 Evaluate emax{b dy dx where a and b are B–3 Let f be a function on [0, ∞), differentiable and satisfy-
0 0 ing
positive.
f 0 (x) = −3 f (x) + 6 f (2x)
A–3 Prove that if
√
11z10 + 10iz9 + 10iz − 11 = 0, for x > 0. Assume that | f (x)| ≤ e− x for x ≥ 0 (so that
f (x) tends rapidly to 0 as x increases). For n a non-
then |z| = 1. (Here z is a complex number and i2 = −1.) negative integer, define
Z ∞
A–4 If α is an irrational number, 0 < α < 1, is there a fi- µn = xn f (x) dx
nite game with an honest coin such that the probabil- 0
ity of one player winning the game is α? (An honest
coin is one for which the probability of heads and the (sometimes called the nth moment of f ).
probability of tails are both 21 . A game is finite if with a) Express µn in terms of µ0 .
probability 1 it must end in a finite number of moves.) n
b) Prove that the sequence {µn 3n! } always converges,
A–5 Let m be a positive integer and let G be a regular and that the limit is 0 only if µ0 = 0.
(2m + 1)-gon inscribed in the unit circle. Show that
there is a positive constant A, independent of m, with B–4 Can a countably infinite set have an uncountable collec-
the following property. For any points p inside G there tion of non-empty subsets such that the intersection of
are two distinct vertices v1 and v2 of G such that any two of them is finite?
1 A B–5 Label the vertices of a trapezoid T (quadrilateral with

| |p − v1 | − |p − v2 | | < − . two parallel sides) inscribed in the unit circle as
m m3
A, B, C, D so that AB is parallel to CD and A, B, C, D
Here |s − t| denotes the distance between the points s are in counterclockwise order. Let s1 , s2 , and d denote
and t. the lengths of the line segments AB, CD, and OE, where
E is the point of intersection of the diagonals of T , and
A–6 Let α = 1 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · be a formal power series O is the center of the circle. Determine the least upper
with coefficients in the field of two elements. Let bound of s1 −s
d
2
over all such T for which d 6= 0, and

if every block of zeros in the binary describe all cases, if any, in which it is attained.

1 expansion of n has an even number

B–6 Let (x1 , x2 , . . . xn ) be a point chosen at random from the

an = of zeros in the block n-dimensional region defined by 0 < x1 < x2 < · · · <



 xn < 1. Let f be a continuous function on [0, 1] with
0 otherwise. f (1) = 0. Set x0 = 0 and xn+1 = 1. Show that the ex-
pected value of the Riemann sum
(For example, a36 = 1 because 36 = 1001002 and a20 =
0 because 20 = 101002 .) Prove that α 3 + xα + 1 = 0. n
∑ (xi+1 − xi ) f (xi+1 )
B–1 A dart, thrown at random, hits a square target. Assum- i=0
ing that any two parts of the target of equal area are
is 01 f (t)P(t) dt, where P is a polynomial of degree n,
R
equally likely to be hit, find the probability that the point
hit is nearer to the center
√ than to any edge. Express your independent of f , with 0 ≤ P(t) ≤ 1 for 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.
a b+c
answer in the form , where a, b, c, d are inte-
d
gers.
The 51st William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition
A–1 Let where Pj is
T0 = 2, T1 = 3, T2 = 6, (1 − z)(1 − zx)(1 − zx2 ) · · · (1 − zx j−1 )

.
(z − x)(z − x2 )(z − x3 ) · · · (z − x j )
and for n ≥ 3,
Tn = (n + 4)Tn−1 − 4nTn−2 + (4n − 8)Tn−3 . B–3 Let S be a set of 2 × 2 integer matrices whose entries ai j
(1) are all squares of integers and, (2) satisfy ai j ≤ 200.
The first few terms are Show that if S has more than 50387 (= 154 −152 −15+
2) elements, then it has two elements that commute.
2, 3, 6, 14, 40, 152, 784, 5168, 40576. B–4 Let G be a finite group of order n generated by a and b.
Prove or disprove: there is a sequence
Find, with proof, a formula for Tn of the form Tn = An +
Bn , where {An } and {Bn } are well-known sequences. g1 , g2 , g3 , . . . , g2n
√
A–2 Is
√ 2√
the limit of a sequence of numbers of the form such that
3
n − 3 m (n, m = 0, 1, 2, . . . )?
(1) every element of G occurs exactly twice, and
A–3 Prove that any convex pentagon whose vertices (no
(2) gi+1 equals gi a or gi b for i = 1, 2, . . . , 2n. (Inter-
three of which are collinear) have integer coordinates
pret g2n+1 as g1 .)
must have area greater than or equal to 5/2.
B–5 Is there an infinite sequence a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . of nonzero
A–4 Consider a paper punch that can be centered at any point
real numbers such that for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . the polynomial
of the plane and that, when operated, removes from the
plane precisely those points whose distance from the pn (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn
center is irrational. How many punches are needed to
remove every point? has exactly n distinct real roots?
A–5 If A and B are square matrices of the same size such B–6 Let S be a nonempty closed bounded convex set in the
that ABAB = 0, does it follow that BABA = 0? plane. Let K be a line and t a positive number. Let L1
and L2 be support lines for S parallel to K1 , and let L be
A–6 If X is a finite set, let X denote the number of ele-
the line parallel to K and midway between L1 and L2 .
ments in X. Call an ordered pair (S, T ) of subsets of
Let BS (K,t) be the band of points whose distance from
{1, 2, . . . , n} admissible if s > |T | for each s ∈ S, and
L is at most (t/2)w, where w is the distance between L1
t > |S| for each t ∈ T . How many admissible ordered
and L2 . What is the smallest t such that
pairs of subsets of {1, 2, . . . , 10} are there? Prove your
answer. S∩
\
BS (K,t) 6= 0/
K
B–1 Find all real-valued continuously differentiable func-
tions f on the real line such that for all x, for all S? (K runs over all lines in the plane.)
Z x
( f (x))2 = [( f (t))2 + ( f 0 (t))2 ] dt + 1990.
0
B–2 Prove that for |x| < 1, |z| > 1,

∞
1 + ∑ (1 + x j )Pj = 0,
j=1
The 52nd William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition
A–1 A 2 × 3 rectangle has vertices as (0, 0), (2, 0), (0, 3), and 3. if b1 = gk then every element in {1, 2, 4, . . . , gk }
(2, 3). It rotates 90◦ clockwise about the point (2, 0). It appears at least once as a bi .
then rotates 90◦ clockwise about the point (5, 0), then Prove that A(n) = B(n) for each n ≥ 1.
90◦ clockwise about the point (7, 0), and finally, 90◦ (For example, A(7) = 5 because the relevant sums are
clockwise about the point (10, 0). (The side originally 7, 6 + 1, 5 + 2, 4 + 3, 4 + 2 + 1, and B(7) = 5 because the
on the x-axis is now back on the x-axis.) Find the area of relevant sums are 4 + 2 + 1, 2 + 2 + 2 + 1, 2 + 2 + 1 + 1 +
the region above the x-axis and below the curve traced 1, 2 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1, 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1.)
out by the point whose initial position is (1,1).
B–1 For each integer n ≥ 0, let S(n) = n−m2 , where m is the
A–2 Let A and B be different n×n matrices with real entries. greatest integer with m2 ≤ n. Define a sequence (ak )∞k=0
If A3 = B3 and A2 B = B2 A, can A2 + B2 be invertible? by a0 = A and ak+1 = ak + S(ak ) for k ≥ 0. For what
A–3 Find all real polynomials p(x) of degree n ≥ 2 for which positive integers A is this sequence eventually constant?
there exist real numbers r1 < r2 < · · · < rn such that B–2 Suppose f and g are non-constant, differentiable, real-
1. p(ri ) = 0, i = 1, 2, . . . , n, and valued functions defined on (−∞, ∞). Furthermore,
suppose that for each pair of real numbers x and y,
r +r
2. p0 i 2i+1 = 0 i = 1, 2, . . . , n − 1,
f (x + y) = f (x) f (y) − g(x)g(y),
where p0 (x) denotes the derivative of p(x). g(x + y) = f (x)g(y) + g(x) f (y).
A–4 Does there exist an infinite sequence of closed discs If f 0 (0) = 0, prove that ( f (x))2 + (g(x))2 = 1 for all x.
D1 , D2 , D3 , . . . in the plane, with centers c1 , c2 , c3 , . . . ,
respectively, such that B–3 Does there exist a real number L such that, if m and n are
integers greater than L, then an m × n rectangle may be
1. the ci have no limit point in the finite plane, expressed as a union of 4 × 6 and 5 × 7 rectangles, any
2. the sum of the areas of the Di is finite, and two of which intersect at most along their boundaries?
3. every line in the plane intersects at least one of the B–4 Suppose p is an odd prime. Prove that
Di ?
p
A–5 Find the maximum value of p p+ j
∑ j ≡ 2 p + 1 (mod p2 ).
Z yq j=0 j
x4 + (y − y2 )2 dx
0
B–5 Let p be an odd prime and let Z p denote (the field of)
for 0 ≤ y ≤ 1. integers modulo p. How many elements are in the set
A–6 Let A(n) denote the number of sums of positive integers {x2 : x ∈ Z p } ∩ {y2 + 1 : y ∈ Z p }?
a1 + a2 + · · · + ar B–6 Let a and b be positive numbers. Find the largest num-

ber c, in terms of a and b, such that
which add up to n with
sinh ux sinh u(1 − x)
a1 > a2 + a3 , a2 > a3 + a4 , . . . , ax b1−x ≤ a +b
sinh u sinh u
ar−2 > ar−1 + ar , ar−1 > ar .
for all u with 0 < |u| ≤ c and for all x, 0 < x < 1. (Note:
Let B(n) denote the number of b1 + b2 + · · · + bs which sinh u = (eu − e−u )/2.)
add up to n, with
1. b1 ≥ b2 ≥ · · · ≥ bs ,
2. each bi is in the sequence 1, 2, 4, . . . , g j , . . . defined
by g1 = 1, g2 = 2, and g j = g j−1 + g j−2 + 1, and
The 53rd William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition
where ab is the standard binomial coefficient. (Re-

A–1 Prove that f (n) = 1 − n is the only integer-valued func-
tion defined on the integers that satisfies the following minder: For integers a and b with a ≥ 0, ab = b!(a−b)!
a!

conditions.
for 0 ≤ b ≤ a, with ab = 0 otherwise.)

(i) f ( f (n)) = n, for all integers n;

B–3 For any pair (x, y) of real numbers, a sequence
(ii) f ( f (n + 2) + 2) = n for all integers n; (an (x, y))n≥0 is defined as follows:
(iii) f (0) = 1.
a0 (x, y) = x,
A–2 Define C(α) to be the coefficient of x1992 in the power (an (x, y))2 + y2
series about x = 0 of (1 + x)α . Evaluate an+1 (x, y) = , for n ≥ 0.
2
!
Z 1 1992 Find the area of the region
1
C(−y − 1) ∑ dy.
0 k=1 y + k
{(x, y)|(an (x, y))n≥0 converges}.
A–3 For a given positive integer m, find all triples (n, x, y) B–4 Let p(x) be a nonzero polynomial of degree less than
of positive integers, with n relatively prime to m, which 1992 having no nonconstant factor in common with
satisfy x3 − x. Let
(x2 + y2 )m = (xy)n . d 1992

p(x)

f (x)
=
dx1992 x3 − x g(x)
A–4 Let f be an infinitely differentiable real-valued function
defined on the real numbers. If for polynomials f (x) and g(x). Find the smallest possi-
ble degree of f (x).
n2

1
f = 2 , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
n n +1 B–5 Let Dn denote the value of the (n − 1) × (n − 1) deter-
minant
compute the values of the derivatives f (k) (0), k =
3 1 1 1 ··· 1
 
1, 2, 3, . . . .
1 4 1 1 ··· 1 
A–5 For each positive integer n, let an = 0 (or 1) if the num- 1 1 5 1 ··· 1
 

1 1 1 6 ··· 1 .
ber of 1’s in the binary representation of n is even (or  
odd), respectively. Show that there do not exist positive  . . .. .. .. .. 
 .. .. . . . . 
integers k and m such that
1 1 1 1 ··· n+1
ak+ j = ak+m+ j = ak+2m+ j , Dn
Is the set n! n≥2
bounded?
for 0 ≤ j ≤ m − 1.
B–6 Let M be a set of real n × n matrices such that
A–6 Four points are chosen at random on the surface of a
sphere. What is the probability that the center of the (i) I ∈ M , where I is the n × n identity matrix;
sphere lies inside the tetrahedron whose vertices are at (ii) if A ∈ M and B ∈ M , then either AB ∈ M or
the four points? (It is understood that each point is in- −AB ∈ M , but not both;
dependently chosen relative to a uniform distribution on (iii) if A ∈ M and B ∈ M , then either AB = BA or
the sphere.) AB = −BA;
B–1 Let S be a set of n distinct real numbers. Let AS be the (iv) if A ∈ M and A 6= I, there is at least one B ∈ M
set of numbers that occur as averages of two distinct such that AB = −BA.
elements of S. For a given n ≥ 2, what is the smallest
possible number of elements in AS ? Prove that M contains at most n2 matrices.
B–2 For nonnegative integers n and k, define Q(n, k) to be

the coefficient of xk in the expansion of (1 + x + x2 +
x3 )n . Prove that
k
n n
Q(n, k) = ∑ ,
j=0 j k−2j
The 54th William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition
A–1 The horizontal line y = c intersects the curve y = 2x − B–1 Find the smallest positive integer n such that for every
3x3 in the first quadrant as in the figure. Find c so that integer m with 0 < m < 1993, there exists an integer k
the areas of the two shaded regions are equal. [Figure for which
not included. The first region is bounded by the y-axis,
the line y = c and the curve; the other lies under the m k m+1
< < .
curve and above the line y = c between their two points 1993 n 1994
B–2 Consider the following game played with a deck of 2n
of intersection.] cards numbered from 1 to 2n. The deck is randomly
A–2 Let (xn )n≥0 be a sequence of nonzero real numbers such shuffled and n cards are dealt to each of two players.
that xn2 − xn−1 xn+1 = 1 for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . Prove there Beginning with A, the players take turns discarding one
exists a real number a such that xn+1 = axn − xn−1 for of their remaining cards and announcing its number.
all n ≥ 1. The game ends as soon as the sum of the numbers on the
discarded cards is divisible by 2n + 1. The last person
A–3 Let Pn be the set of subsets of {1, 2, . . . , n}. Let c(n, m) to discard wins the game. Assuming optimal strategy
be the number of functions f : Pn → {1, 2, . . . , m} such by both A and B, what is the probability that A wins?
that f (A ∩ B) = min{ f (A), f (B)}. Prove that
B–3 Two real numbers x and y are chosen at random in the
m interval (0,1) with respect to the uniform distribution.
c(n, m) = ∑ jn . What is the probability that the closest integer to x/y is
j=1
even? Express the answer in the form r + sπ, where r
and s are rational numbers.
A–4 Let x1 , x2 , . . . , x19 be positive integers each of which is
less than or equal to 93. Let y1 , y2 , . . . , y93 be positive B–4 The function K(x, y) is positive and continuous for 0 ≤
integers each of which is less than or equal to 19. Prove x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1, and the functions f (x) and g(x) are
that there exists a (nonempty) sum of some xi ’s equal to positive and continuous for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1. Suppose that for
a sum of some y j ’s. all x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1,
Z 1
A–5 Show that
f (y)K(x, y) dy = g(x)
2 0
x2 − x
Z −10
3
dx+ and
−100 x − 3x + 1
Z 1 2 Z 1
11 x2 − x
dx+ g(y)K(x, y) dy = f (x).
1
101
x3 − 3x + 1 0
Z 11 2
10 x2 − x Show that f (x) = g(x) for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.
dx
101 x3 − 3x + 1
100 B–5 Show there do not exist four points in the Euclidean
is a rational number. plane such that the pairwise distances between the
points are all odd integers.
A–6 The infinite sequence of 2’s and 3’s
B–6 Let S be a set of three, not necessarily distinct, posi-
2, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, tive integers. Show that one can transform S into a set
containing 0 by a finite number of applications of the
3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, . . .
following rule: Select two of the three integers, say x
has the property that, if one forms a second sequence and y, where x ≤ y and replace them with 2x and y − x.
that records the number of 3’s between successive 2’s,
the result is identical to the given sequence. Show that
there exists a real number r such that, for any n, the nth
term of the sequence is 2 if and only if n = 1 + brmc
for some nonnegative integer m. (Note: bxc denotes the
largest integer less than or equal to x.)
A–1 Suppose that a sequence a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . satisfies 0 < an ≤ of integers, then at most 512 of the functions in F map
a2n + a2n+1 for all n ≥ 1. Prove that the series ∑∞ n=1 an A to itself.
diverges.
B–1 Find all positive integers n that are within 250 of exactly
A–2 Let A be the area of the region in the first quadrant 15 perfect squares.
bounded by the line y = 12 x, the x-axis, and the ellipse
1 2 2 B–2 For which real numbers c is there a straight line that
9 x + y = 1. Find the positive number m such that A intersects the curve
is equal to the area of the region in the first quadrant
bounded by the line y = mx, the y-axis, and the ellipse x4 + 9x3 + cx2 + 9x + 4
1 2 2
9 x + y = 1.
A–3 Show that if the points of an isosceles right triangle of in four distinct points?
side length 1 are each colored with one of four colors, B–3 Find the set of all real numbers k with the following
then there must be two points
√ of the same color whch property: For any positive, differentiable function f that
are at least a distance 2 − 2 apart. satisfies f 0 (x) > f (x) for all x, there is some number N
A–4 Let A and B be 2 × 2 matrices with integer entries such such that f (x) > ekx for all x > N.
that A, A + B, A + 2B, A + 3B, and A + 4B are all invert- B–4 For n ≥ 1, let dn be the greatest common divisor of the
ible matrices whose inverses have integer entries. Show entries of An − I, where
that A + 5B is invertible and that its inverse has integer
3 2

1 0

entries. A= and I = .
4 3 0 1
A–5 Let (rn )n≥0 be a sequence of positive real numbers such
that limn→∞ rn = 0. Let S be the set of numbers repre- Show that limn→∞ dn = ∞.
sentable as a sum B–5 For any real number α, define the function fα (x) =
bαxc. Let n be a positive integer. Show that there exists
ri1 + ri2 + · · · + ri1994 , an α such that for 1 ≤ k ≤ n,
with i1 < i2 < · · · < i1994 . Show that every nonempty in- fαk (n2 ) = n2 − k = fα k (n2 ).
terval (a, b) contains a nonempty subinterval (c, d) that
does not intersect S.
B–6 For any integer n, set
A–6 Let f1 , . . . , f10 be bijections of the set of integers such
that for each integer n, there is some composition fi1 ◦ na = 101a − 100 · 2a .
fi2 ◦ · · · ◦ fim of these functions (allowing repetitions)
which maps 0 to n. Consider the set of 1024 functions Show that for 0 ≤ a, b, c, d ≤ 99, na + nb ≡ nc + nd
(mod 10100) implies {a, b} = {c, d}.
e
F = { f1e1 ◦ f2e2 ◦ · · · ◦ f1010 },
ei = 0 or 1 for 1 ≤ i ≤ 10. ( fi0 is the identity function

and fi1 = fi .) Show that if A is any nonempty finite set
A–1 Let S be a set of real numbers which is closed under row sums a, b, c of the resulting matrix be rearranged
multiplication (that is, if a and b are in S, then so is ab). (if necessary) so that a ≤ b ≤ c. Show that for some
Let T and U be disjoint subsets of S whose union is n ≥ 1995, it is at least four times as likely that both
S. Given that the product of any three (not necessarily b = a + 1 and c = a + 2 as that a = b = c.
distinct) elements of T is in T and that the product of B–1 For a partition π of {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, let π(x) be
any three elements of U is in U, show that at least one the number of elements in the part containing x. Prove
of the two subsets T,U is closed under multiplication. that for any two partitions π and π 0 , there are two dis-
tinct numbers x and y in {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} such that
A–2 For what pairs (a, b) of positive real numbers does the π(x) = π(y) and π 0 (x) = π 0 (y). [A partition of a set S
improper integral is a collection of disjoint subsets (parts) whose union is
Z ∞ q√ √ S.]
√ √
q
x+a− x− x − x − b dx
b B–2 An ellipse, whose semi-axes have lengths aand b, rolls
without slipping on the curve y = c sin ax . How are
converge? a, b, c related, given that the ellipse completes one rev-
olution when it traverses one period of the curve?
A–3 The number d1 d2 . . . d9 has nine (not necessarily dis-
tinct) decimal digits. The number e1 e2 . . . e9 is such that B–3 To each positive integer with n2 decimal digits, we asso-
each of the nine 9-digit numbers formed by replacing ciate the determinant of the matrix obtained by writing
just one of the digits di is d1 d2 . . . d9 by the correspond- the digits in order across the rows. For example, for n =
ing digit ei (1 ≤ i ≤ 9) is divisible by 7. The number

8 6
f1 f2 . . . f9 is related to e1 e2 . . . e9 is the same way: that 2, to the integer 8617 we associate det = 50.
1 7
is, each of the nine numbers formed by replacing one of Find, as a function of n, the sum of all the determinants
the ei by the corresponding fi is divisible by 7. Show associated with n2 -digit integers. (Leading digits are as-
that, for each i, di − fi is divisible by 7. [For example, sumed to be nonzero; for example, for n = 2, there are
if d1 d2 . . . d9 = 199501996, then e6 may be 2 or 9, since 9000 determinants.)
199502996 and 199509996 are multiples of 7.]
B–4 Evaluate
A–4 Suppose we have a necklace of n beads. Each bead is s
labeled with an integer and the sum of all these labels 1
is n − 1. Prove that we can cut the necklace to form a
8 2207 − 1
.
2207 − 2207−...
string whose consecutive labels x1 , x2 , . . . , xn satisfy
√
a+b c
k Express your answer in the form d , where a, b, c, d
∑ xi ≤ k − 1 for k = 1, 2, . . . , n. are integers.
i=1
B–5 A game starts with four heaps of beans, containing 3,4,5
A–5 Let x1 , x2 , . . . , xn be differentiable (real-valued) func- and 6 beans. The two players move alternately. A move
tions of a single variable f which satisfy consists of taking either
dx1 a) one bean from a heap, provided at least two beans

= a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn are left behind in that heap, or
dt
dx2 b) a complete heap of two or three beans.
= a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn
dt
.. .. The player who takes the last heap wins. To win the
. . game, do you want to move first or second? Give a
dxn winning strategy.
= an1 x1 + an2 x2 + · · · + ann xn
dt B–6 For a positive real number α, define
for some constants ai j > 0. Suppose that for all i,
S(α) = {bnαc : n = 1, 2, 3, . . . }.
xi (t) → 0 as t → ∞. Are the functions x1 , x2 , . . . , xn nec-
essarily linearly dependent? Prove that {1, 2, 3, . . . } cannot be expressed as the dis-
A–6 Suppose that each of n people writes down the numbers joint union of three sets S(α), S(β ) and S(γ). [As usual,
1,2,3 in random order in one column of a 3 × n matrix, bxc is the greatest integer ≤ x.]
with all orders equally likely and with the orders for
different columns independent of each other. Let the
A–1 Find the least number A such that for any two squares of minimal selfish sets, that is, selfish sets none of whose
combined area 1, a rectangle of area A exists such that proper subsets is selfish.
the two squares can be packed in the rectangle (without
interior overlap). You may assume that the sides of the B–2 Show that for every positive integer n,
squares are parallel to the sides of the rectangle. 2n−1 2n+1
2n − 1 2 2n + 1 2
A–2 Let C1 and C2 be circles whose centers are 10 units < 1 · 3 · 5 · · · (2n − 1) < .
e e
apart, and whose radii are 1 and 3. Find, with proof,
the locus of all points M for which there exists points X B–3 Given that {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } = {1, 2, . . . , n}, find, with
on C1 and Y on C2 such that M is the midpoint of the proof, the largest possible value, as a function of n (with
line segment XY . n ≥ 2), of
A–3 Suppose that each of 20 students has made a choice of x1 x2 + x2 x3 + · · · + xn−1 xn + xn x1 .

anywhere from 0 to 6 courses from a total of 6 courses
offered. Prove or disprove: there are 5 students and 2 B–4 For any square matrix A, we can define sin A by the
courses such that all 5 have chosen both courses or all 5 usual power series:
have chosen neither course.
∞
(−1)n
A–4 Let S be the set of ordered triples (a, b, c) of distinct sin A = ∑ (2n + 1)! A2n+1 .
n=0
elements of a finite set A. Suppose that
Prove or disprove: there exists a 2 × 2 matrix A with
1. (a, b, c) ∈ S if and only if (b, c, a) ∈ S;
real entries such that
2. (a, b, c) ∈ S if and only if (c, b, a) ∈
/ S;
1 1996
3. (a, b, c) and (c, d, a) are both in S if and only if sin A = .
0 1
(b, c, d) and (d, a, b) are both in S.
Prove that there exists a one-to-one function g from A B–5 Given a finite string S of symbols X and O, we write
to R such that g(a) < g(b) < g(c) implies (a, b, c) ∈ S. ∆(S) for the number of X’s in S minus the number of
Note: R is the set of real numbers. O’s. For example, ∆(XOOXOOX) = −1. We call a
string S balanced if every substring T of (consecutive
A–5 If p is a prime number greater than 3 and k = b2p/3c, symbols of) S has −2 ≤ ∆(T ) ≤ 2. Thus, XOOXOOX
prove that the sum is not balanced, since it contains the substring OOXOO.

p p

p Find, with proof, the number of balanced strings of
+ +···+ length n.
1 2 k
B–6 Let (a1 , b1 ), (a2 , b2 ), . . . , (an , bn ) be the vertices of a
of binomial coefficients is divisible by p2 . convex polygon which contains the origin in its inte-
rior. Prove that there exist positive real numbers x and y
A–6 Let c > 0 be a constant. Give a complete description,
such that
with proof, of the set of all continuous functions f :
R → R such that f (x) = f (x2 + c) for all x ∈ R. Note (a1 , b1 )xa1 yb1 + (a2 , b2 )xa2 yb2 + · · ·
that R denotes the set of real numbers.
+(an , bn )xan ybn = (0, 0).
B–1 Define a selfish set to be a set which has its own cardi-
nality (number of elements) as an element. Find, with
proof, the number of subsets of {1, 2, . . . , n} which are
A–1 A rectangle, HOMF, has sides HO = 11 and OM = 5. B–1 Let {x} denote the distance between the real number
A triangle ABC has H as the intersection of the altitudes, x and the nearest integer. For each positive integer n,
O the center of the circumscribed circle, M the midpoint evaluate
of BC, and F the foot of the altitude from A. What is
6n−1
the length of BC? m m
Fn = ∑ min({ }, { }).
m=1 6n 3n
A–2 Players 1, 2, 3, . . . , n are seated around a table, and each
has a single penny. Player 1 passes a penny to player (Here min(a, b) denotes the minimum of a and b.)
2, who then passes two pennies to player 3. Player 3 B–2 Let f be a twice-differentiable real-valued function sat-
then passes one penny to Player 4, who passes two pen- isfying
nies to Player 5, and so on, players alternately passing
one penny or two to the next player who still has some f (x) + f 00 (x) = −xg(x) f 0 (x),
pennies. A player who runs out of pennies drops out
of the game and leaves the table. Find an infinite set where g(x) ≥ 0 for all real x. Prove that | f (x)| is
of numbers n for which some player ends up with all n bounded.
pennies.
B–3 For each positive integer n, write the sum ∑nm=1 1/m in
A–3 Evaluate the form pn /qn , where pn and qn are relatively prime
positive integers. Determine all n such that 5 does not
x3 x5 x7
Z ∞
x− + − +··· divide qn .
0 2 2·4 2·4·6
2 B–4 Let am,n denote the coefficient of xn in the expansion of
x4 x6

x
1 + 2 + 2 2 + 2 2 2 + · · · dx. (1 + x + x2 )m . Prove that for all [integers] k ≥ 0,
2 2 ·4 2 ·4 ·6
b 2k
3 c
A–4 Let G be a group with identity e and φ : G → G a func-
tion such that
0≤ ∑ (−1)i ak−i,i ≤ 1.
i=0
φ (g1 )φ (g2 )φ (g3 ) = φ (h1 )φ (h2 )φ (h3 ) B–5 Prove that for n ≥ 2,
whenever g1 g2 g3 = e = h1 h2 h3 . Prove that there exists n terms n − 1 terms
an element a ∈ G such that ψ(x) = aφ (x) is a homo- z}|{
2
z}|{
2··· ···2
morphism (i.e. ψ(xy) = ψ(x)ψ(y) for all x, y ∈ G). 2 ≡ 22 (mod n).
A–5 Let Nn denote the number of ordered n-tuples of pos-
itive integers (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) such that 1/a1 + 1/a2 + B–6 The dissection of the 3–4–5 triangle shown below (into
. . . + 1/an = 1. Determine whether N10 is even or odd. four congruent right triangles similar to the original) has
diameter 5/2. Find the least diameter of a dissection of
A–6 For a positive integer n and any real number c, define xk this triangle into four parts. (The diameter of a dissec-
recursively by x0 = 0, x1 = 1, and for k ≥ 0, tion is the least upper bound of the distances between
pairs of points belonging to the same part.)
cxk+1 − (n − k)xk
xk+2 = .
k+1
Fix n and then take c to be the largest value for which
xn+1 = 0. Find xk in terms of n and k, 1 ≤ k ≤ n.
A–1 A right circular cone has base of radius 1 and height 3. B–1 Find the minimum value of
A cube is inscribed in the cone so that one face of the
cube is contained in the base of the cone. What is the (x + 1/x)6 − (x6 + 1/x6 ) − 2
side-length of the cube? (x + 1/x)3 + (x3 + 1/x3 )
A–2 Let s be any arc of the unit circle lying entirely in the for x > 0.
first quadrant. Let A be the area of the region lying be-
low s and above the x-axis and let B be the area of the B–2 Given a point (a, b) with 0 < b < a, determine the min-
region lying to the right of the y-axis and to the left of imum perimeter of a triangle with one vertex at (a, b),
s. Prove that A + B depends only on the arc length, and one on the x-axis, and one on the line y = x. You may
not on the position, of s. assume that a triangle of minimum perimeter exists.
A–3 Let f be a real function on the real line with continuous B–3 let H be the unit hemisphere {(x, y, z) : x2 + y2 + z2 =
third derivative. Prove that there exists a point a such 1, z ≥ 0}, C the unit circle {(x, y, 0) : x2 + y2 = 1}, and
that P the regular pentagon inscribed in C. Determine the
surface area of that portion of H lying over the pla-
f (a) · f 0 (a) · f 00 (a) · f 000 (a) ≥ 0. nar region inside P, and write your answer in the form
A sin α + B cos β , where A, B, α, β are real numbers.
A–4 Let A1 = 0 and A2 = 1. For n > 2, the number An is de- B–4 Find necessary and sufficient conditions on positive in-
fined by concatenating the decimal expansions of An−1 tegers m and n so that
and An−2 from left to right. For example A3 = A2 A1 = mn−1
10, A4 = A3 A2 = 101, A5 = A4 A3 = 10110, and so forth. ∑ (−1)bi/mc+bi/nc = 0.
Determine all n such that 11 divides An . i=0
A–5 Let F be a finite collection of open discs in R2 whose B–5 Let N be the positive integer with 1998 decimal digits,
union contains a set E ⊆ R2 . Show that there is a pair- all of them 1; that is,
wise disjoint subcollection D1 , . . . , Dn in F such that
N = 1111 · · · 11.
E ⊆ ∪nj=1 3D j .
√
Find the thousandth digit after the decimal point of N.
Here, if D is the disc of radius r and center P, then 3D
is the disc of radius 3r and center P. B–6 Prove that, for any √
integers a, b, c, there exists a positive
integer n such that n3 + an2 + bn + c is not an integer.
A–6 Let A, B,C denote distinct points with integer coordi-
nates in R2 . Prove that if
(|AB| + |BC|)2 < 8 · [ABC] + 1
then A, B,C are three vertices of a square. Here |XY |

is the length of segment XY and [ABC] is the area of
triangle ABC.
A–1 Find polynomials f (x),g(x), and h(x), if they exist, such B–1 Right triangle ABC has right angle at C and ∠BAC = θ ;
that for all x, the point D is chosen on AB so that |AC| = |AD| = 1;
 the point E is chosen on BC so that ∠CDE = θ . The
−1
 if x < −1 perpendicular to BC at E meets AB at F. Evaluate
| f (x)| − |g(x)| + h(x) = 3x + 2 if −1 ≤ x ≤ 0 limθ →0 |EF|.

−2x + 2 if x > 0.
B–2 Let P(x) be a polynomial of degree n such that P(x) =
Q(x)P00 (x), where Q(x) is a quadratic polynomial and
A–2 Let p(x) be a polynomial that is nonnegative for all P00 (x) is the second derivative of P(x). Show that if
real x. Prove that for some k, there are polynomials P(x) has at least two distinct roots then it must have n
f1 (x), . . . , fk (x) such that distinct roots.
B–3 Let A = {(x, y) : 0 ≤ x, y < 1}. For (x, y) ∈ A, let
k
p(x) = ∑ ( f j (x))2 . S(x, y) = ∑ x m yn ,
j=1 1 ≤ m ≤2
2 n
A–3 Consider the power series expansion where the sum ranges over all pairs (m, n) of positive
∞ integers satisfying the indicated inequalities. Evaluate
1
= ∑ an xn .
1 − 2x − x 2
n=0 lim (1 − xy2 )(1 − x2 y)S(x, y).
(x,y)→(1,1),(x,y)∈A
Prove that, for each integer n ≥ 0, there is an integer m
such that B–4 Let f be a real function with a continuous third deriva-
tive such that f (x), f 0 (x), f 00 (x), f 000 (x) are positive for
a2n + a2n+1 = am . all x. Suppose that f 000 (x) ≤ f (x) for all x. Show that
f 0 (x) < 2 f (x) for all x.
A–4 Sum the series
B–5 For an integer n ≥ 3, let θ = 2π/n. Evaluate the de-
∞ ∞
m2 n terminant of the n × n matrix I + A, where I is the
∑ ∑ 3m (n3m + m3n ) . n × n identity matrix and A = (a jk ) has entries a jk =
m=1 n=1 cos( jθ + kθ ) for all j, k.
A–5 Prove that there is a constant C such that, if p(x) is a B–6 Let S be a finite set of integers, each greater than 1.
polynomial of degree 1999, then Suppose that for each integer n there is some s ∈ S such
Z 1 that gcd(s, n) = 1 or gcd(s, n) = s. Show that there exist
s,t ∈ S such that gcd(s,t) is prime.
|p(0)| ≤ C |p(x)| dx.
−1
A–6 The sequence (an )n≥1 is defined by a1 = 1, a2 = 2, a3 =

24, and, for n ≥ 4,
6a2n−1 an−3 − 8an−1 a2n−2

an = .
an−2 an−3
Show that, for all n, an is an integer multiple of n.
A–1 Let A be a positive real number. What are the possi- B–2 Prove that the expression
ble values of ∑∞j=0 x2j , given that x0 , x1 , . . . are positive
numbers for which ∑∞j=0 x j = A? gcd(m, n) n
n m
A–2 Prove that there exist infinitely many integers n such
that n, n + 1, n + 2 are each the sum of the squares of is an integer for all pairs of integers n ≥ m ≥ 1.
two integers. [Example: 0 = 02 + 02 , 1 = 02 + 12 , 2 =
12 + 12 .] B–3 Let f (t) = ∑Nj=1 a j sin(2π jt), where each a j is real and
aN is not equal to 0. Let Nk denote the number of zeroes
k
A–3 The octagon P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 is inscribed in a circle, (including multiplicities) of ddt kf . Prove that
with the vertices around the circumference in the given
order. Given that the polygon P1 P3 P5 P7 is a square of N0 ≤ N1 ≤ N2 ≤ · · · and lim Nk = 2N.
area 5, and the polygon P2 P4 P6 P8 is a rectangle of area k→∞
4, find the maximum possible area of the octagon.
[Editorial clarification: only zeroes in [0, 1) should be
A–4 Show that the improper integral counted.]
Z B B–4 Let f (x) be a continuous function such that f (2x2 −
2
lim sin(x) sin(x ) dx 1) = 2x f (x) for all x. Show that f (x) = 0 for −1 ≤
B→∞ 0
x ≤ 1.
converges. B–5 Let S0 be a finite set of positive integers. We define
finite sets S1 , S2 , . . . of positive integers as follows: the
A–5 Three distinct points with integer coordinates lie in the integer a is in Sn+1 if and only if exactly one of a − 1 or
plane on a circle of radius r > 0. Show that two of these a is in Sn . Show that there exist infinitely many integers
points are separated by a distance of at least r1/3 . N for which SN = S0 ∪ {N + a : a ∈ S0 }.
A–6 Let f (x) be a polynomial with integer coefficients. De- B–6 Let B be a set of more than 2n+1 /n distinct points
fine a sequence a0 , a1 , . . . of integers such that a0 = 0 with coordinates of the form (±1, ±1, . . . , ±1) in n-
and an+1 = f (an ) for all n ≥ 0. Prove that if there exists dimensional space with n ≥ 3. Show that there are three
a positive integer m for which am = 0 then either a1 = 0 distinct points in B which are the vertices of an equilat-
or a2 = 0. eral triangle.
B–1 Let a j , b j , c j be integers for 1 ≤ j ≤ N. Assume for each
j, at least one of a j , b j , c j is odd. Show that there exist
integers r, s, t such that ra j + sb j +tc j is odd for at least
4N/7 values of j, 1 ≤ j ≤ N.
A1 Consider a set S and a binary operation ∗, i.e., for each numbers on the red squares is equal to the sum of the
a, b ∈ S, a ∗ b ∈ S. Assume (a ∗ b) ∗ a = b for all a, b ∈ S. numbers on the black squares.
Prove that a ∗ (b ∗ a) = b for all a, b ∈ S.
B2 Find all pairs of real numbers (x, y) satisfying the sys-
A2 You have coins C1 ,C2 , . . . ,Cn . For each k, Ck is biased tem of equations
so that, when tossed, it has probability 1/(2k + 1) of
falling heads. If the n coins are tossed, what is the 1 1
+ = (x2 + 3y2 )(3x2 + y2 )
probability that the number of heads is odd? Express x 2y
the answer as a rational function of n. 1 1
− = 2(y4 − x4 ).
x 2y
A3 For each integer m, consider the polynomial
Pm (x) = x4 − (2m + 4)x2 + (m − 2)2 . positive integer n, let hni denote the closest in-
B3 For any √
teger to n. Evaluate
For what values of m is Pm (x) the product of two non-
constant polynomials with integer coefficients?
∞
2hni + 2−hni
∑ .
n=1 2n
A4 Triangle ABC has an area 1. Points E, F, G lie, respec- B4 Let S denote the set of rational numbers different from
tively, on sides BC, CA, AB such that AE bisects BF at {−1, 0, 1}. Define f : S → S by f (x) = x − 1/x. Prove
point R, BF bisects CG at point S, and CG bisects AE or disprove that
at point T . Find the area of the triangle RST .
∞
f (n) (S) = 0,
\
A5 Prove that there are unique positive integers a, n such /
that an+1 − (a + 1)n = 2001. n=1
A6 Can an arc of a parabola inside a circle of radius 1 have where f (n) denotes f composed with itself n times.
a length greater than 4?
B5 Let a and b be real numbers in the interval (0, 1/2),
B1 Let n be an even positive integer. Write the numbers and let g be a continuous real-valued function such that
1, 2, . . . , n2 in the squares of an n × n grid so that the g(g(x)) = ag(x) + bx for all real x. Prove that g(x) = cx
k-th row, from left to right, is for some constant c.
(k − 1)n + 1, (k − 1)n + 2, . . . , (k − 1)n + n. B6 Assume that (an )n≥1 is an increasing sequence of pos-
itive real numbers such that lim an /n = 0. Must there
Color the squares of the grid so that half of the squares exist infinitely many positive integers n such that an−i +
in each row and in each column are red and the other an+i < 2an for i = 1, 2, . . . , n − 1?
half are black (a checkerboard coloring is one possi-
bility). Prove that for each coloring, the sum of the
A1 Let k be a fixed positive integer. The n-th derivative of Each player, in turn, signs his or her
n (x)
1
xk −1
has the form (xkP−1) n+1 where Pn (x) is a polynomial.
name on a previously unsigned face. The
winner is the player who first succeeds in
Find Pn (1).
signing three faces that share a common
A2 Given any five points on a sphere, show that some four vertex.
of them must lie on a closed hemisphere.
Show that the player who signs first will always win by
A3 Let n ≥ 2 be an integer and Tn be the number of non- playing as well as possible.
empty subsets S of {1, 2, 3, . . . , n} with the property that B3 Show that, for all integers n > 1,
the average of the elements of S is an integer. Prove that
1 n

Tn − n is always even. 1 1 1
< − 1− < .
2ne e n ne
A4 In Determinant Tic-Tac-Toe, Player 1 enters a 1 in an
empty 3 × 3 matrix. Player 0 counters with a 0 in a va- B4 An integer n, unknown to you, has been randomly
cant position, and play continues in turn until the 3 × 3 chosen in the interval [1, 2002] with uniform probabil-
matrix is completed with five 1’s and four 0’s. Player ity. Your objective is to select n in an odd number of
0 wins if the determinant is 0 and player 1 wins other- guesses. After each incorrect guess, you are informed
wise. Assuming both players pursue optimal strategies, whether n is higher or lower, and you must guess an in-
who will win and how? teger on your next turn among the numbers that are still
A5 Define a sequence by a0 = 1, together with the rules feasibly correct. Show that you have a strategy so that
a2n+1 = an and a2n+2 = an +an+1 for each integer n ≥ 0. the chance of winning is greater than 2/3.
Prove that every positive rational number appears in the B5 A palindrome in base b is a positive integer whose base-
set b digits read the same backwards and forwards; for ex-

an−1

1 1 2 1 3
ample, 2002 is a 4-digit palindrome in base 10. Note
:n≥1 = , , , , ,... . that 200 is not a palindrome in base 10, but it is the 3-
an 1 2 1 3 2
digit palindrome 242 in base 9, and 404 in base 7. Prove
that there is an integer which is a 3-digit palindrome in
A6 Fix an integer b ≥ 2. Let f (1) = 1, f (2) = 2, and for base b for at least 2002 different values of b.
each n ≥ 3, define f (n) = n f (d), where d is the number
of base-b digits of n. For which values of b does B6 Let p be a prime number. Prove that the determinant of
the matrix
∞
1
∑ f (n)

x y z

n=1  xp yp zp 
2 2 2
converge? xp yp zp
B1 Shanille O’Keal shoots free throws on a basketball is congruent modulo p to a product of polynomials of
court. She hits the first and misses the second, and the form ax + by + cz, where a, b, c are integers. (We
thereafter the probability that she hits the next shot is say two integer polynomials are congruent modulo p if
equal to the proportion of shots she has hit so far. What corresponding coefficients are congruent modulo p.)
is the probability she hits exactly 50 of her first 100
shots?
B2 Consider a polyhedron with at least five faces such that
exactly three edges emerge from each of its vertices.
Two players play the following game:
A1 Let n be a fixed positive integer. How many ways are B2 Let n be a positive integer. Starting with the sequence
there to write n as a sum of positive integers, 1, 21 , 31 , . . . , 1n , form a new sequence of n − 1 entries
3 5 2n−1
4 , 12 , . . . , 2n(n−1) by taking the averages of two consec-
n = a1 + a2 + · · · + ak ,
utive entries in the first sequence. Repeat the averaging
with k an arbitrary positive integer and a1 ≤ a2 ≤ · · · ≤ of neighbors on the second sequence to obtain a third
ak ≤ a1 + 1? For example, with n = 4 there are four sequence of n−2 entries, and continue until the final se-
ways: 4, 2+2, 1+1+2, 1+1+1+1. quence produced consists of a single number xn . Show
that xn < 2/n.
A2 Let a1 , a2 , . . . , an and b1 , b2 , . . . , bn be nonnegative real
numbers. Show that B3 Show that for each positive integer n,
n
(a1 a2 · · · an )1/n + (b1 b2 · · · bn )1/n n! = ∏ lcm{1, 2, . . . , bn/ic}.
i=1
≤ [(a1 + b1 )(a2 + b2 ) · · · (an + bn )]1/n .
(Here lcm denotes the least common multiple, and bxc
A3 Find the minimum value of denotes the greatest integer ≤ x.)
| sin x + cos x + tan x + cot x + sec x + csc x| B4 Let f (z) = az4 + bz3 + cz2 + dz + e = a(z − r1 )(z −
r2 )(z − r3 )(z − r4 ) where a, b, c, d, e are integers, a 6= 0.
for real numbers x. Show that if r1 + r2 is a rational number and r1 + r2 6=
r3 + r4 , then r1 r2 is a rational number.
A4 Suppose that a, b, c, A, B,C are real numbers, a 6= 0 and
A 6= 0, such that B5 Let A, B, and C be equidistant points on the circumfer-
ence of a circle of unit radius centered at O, and let P
|ax2 + bx + c| ≤ |Ax2 + Bx +C| be any point in the circle’s interior. Let a, b, c be the
distance from P to A, B,C, respectively. Show that there
for all real numbers x. Show that is a triangle with side lengths a, b, c, and that the area of
this triangle depends only on the distance from P to O.
|b2 − 4ac| ≤ |B2 − 4AC|.
B6 Let f (x) be a continuous real-valued function defined
A5 A Dyck n-path is a lattice path of n upsteps (1, 1) and n on the interval [0, 1]. Show that
downsteps (1, −1) that starts at the origin O and never Z 1Z 1 Z 1
dips below the x-axis. A return is a maximal sequence | f (x) + f (y)| dx dy ≥ | f (x)| dx.
of contiguous downsteps that terminates on the x-axis. 0 0 0
For example, the Dyck 5-path illustrated has two re-
turns, of length 3 and 1 respectively.
Show that there is a one-to-one correspondence be-

tween the Dyck n-paths with no return of even length
and the Dyck (n − 1)-paths.
A6 For a set S of nonnegative integers, let rS (n) denote the
number of ordered pairs (s1 , s2 ) such that s1 ∈ S, s2 ∈ S,
s1 6= s2 , and s1 + s2 = n. Is it possible to partition the
nonnegative integers into two sets A and B in such a way
that rA (n) = rB (n) for all n ?
B1 Do there exist polynomials a(x), b(x), c(y), d(y) such
that
1 + xy + x2 y2 = a(x)c(y) + b(x)d(y)
holds identically?
A1 Basketball star Shanille O’Keal’s team statistician B1 Let P(x) = cn xn + cn−1 xn−1 + · · · + c0 be a polynomial
keeps track of the number, S(N), of successful free with integer coefficients. Suppose that r is a rational
throws she has made in her first N attempts of the sea- number such that P(r) = 0. Show that the n numbers
son. Early in the season, S(N) was less than 80% of N,
but by the end of the season, S(N) was more than 80% cn r, cn r2 + cn−1 r, cn r3 + cn−1 r2 + cn−2 r,
of N. Was there necessarily a moment in between when . . . , cn rn + cn−1 rn−1 + · · · + c1 r
S(N) was exactly 80% of N?
A2 For i = 1, 2 let Ti be a triangle with side lengths ai , bi , ci , are integers.
and area Ai . Suppose that a1 ≤ a2 , b1 ≤ b2 , c1 ≤ c2 , and B2 Let m and n be positive integers. Show that
that T2 is an acute triangle. Does it follow that A1 ≤ A2 ? (m + n)! m! n!
m+n
< m n.
A3 Define a sequence {un }∞
by u0 = u1 = u2 = 1, and
n=0
(m + n) m n
thereafter by the condition that
B3 Determine all real numbers a > 0 for which there exists
un un+1 a nonnegative continuous function f (x) defined on [0, a]
det = n!
un+2 un+3 with the property that the region
for all n ≥ 0. Show that un is an integer for all n. (By R = {(x, y); 0 ≤ x ≤ a, 0 ≤ y ≤ f (x)}
convention, 0! = 1.)
has perimeter k units and area k square units for some
A4 Show that for any positive integer n there is an integer N real number k.
such that the product x1 x2 · · · xn can be expressed iden-
tically in the form B4 Let n be a positive integer, n ≥ 2, and put θ = 2π/n. De-
fine points Pk = (k, 0) in the xy-plane, for k = 1, 2, . . . , n.
N Let Rk be the map that rotates the plane counterclock-
x1 x2 · · · xn = ∑ ci (ai1 x1 + ai2 x2 + · · · + ain xn )n wise by the angle θ about the point Pk . Let R denote
i=1
the map obtained by applying, in order, R1 , then R2 , . . . ,
where the ci are rational numbers and each ai j is one of then Rn . For an arbitrary point (x, y), find, and simplify,
the numbers −1, 0, 1. the coordinates of R(x, y).
A5 An m × n checkerboard is colored randomly: each B5 Evaluate

square is independently assigned red or black with xn
1 + xn+1
∞
probability 1/2. We say that two squares, p and q, are lim .
in the same connected monochromatic region if there is x→1− n=0
∏ 1 + xn
a sequence of squares, all of the same color, starting at
p and ending at q, in which successive squares in the B6 Let A be a non-empty set of positive integers, and let
sequence share a common side. Show that the expected N(x) denote the number of elements of A not exceed-
number of connected monochromatic regions is greater ing x. Let B denote the set of positive integers b that
than mn/8. can be written in the form b = a − a0 with a ∈ A and
a0 ∈ A . Let b1 < b2 < · · · be the members of B, listed
A6 Suppose that f (x, y) is a continuous real-valued func-
in increasing order. Show that if the sequence bi+1 − bi
tion on the unit square 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1. Show that
is unbounded, then
Z 1 Z 1 2 Z 1 Z 1 2
f (x, y)dx dy + f (x, y)dy dx lim N(x)/x = 0.
x→∞
0 0 0 0
Z 1 Z 1
2 Z 1Z 1
≤ f (x, y)dx dy + [ f (x, y)]2 dx dy.
0 0 0 0
A1 Show that every positive integer is a sum of one or more B2 Find all positive integers n, k1 , . . . , kn such that k1 +· · ·+
numbers of the form 2r 3s , where r and s are nonnegative kn = 5n − 4 and
integers and no summand divides another. (For exam-
ple, 23 = 9 + 8 + 6.) 1 1
+ · · · + = 1.
k1 kn
A2 Let S = {(a, b)|a = 1, 2, . . . , n, b = 1, 2, 3}. A rook tour
of S is a polygonal path made up of line segments con- B3 Find all differentiable functions f : (0, ∞) → (0, ∞) for
necting points p1 , p2 , . . . , p3n in sequence such that which there is a positive real number a such that
(i) pi ∈ S, a x
f0 =
(ii) pi and pi+1 are a unit distance apart, for 1 ≤ i < x f (x)
3n,
for all x > 0.
(iii) for each p ∈ S there is a unique i such that pi = p.
How many rook tours are there that begin at (1, 1) B4 For positive integers m and n, let f (m, n) denote the
and end at (n, 1)? number of n-tuples (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) of integers such that
|x1 |+|x2 |+· · ·+|xn | ≤ m. Show that f (m, n) = f (n, m).
(An example of such a rook tour for n = 5 was depicted B5 Let P(x1 , . . . , xn ) denote a polynomial with real coeffi-
in the original.) cients in the variables x1 , . . . , xn , and suppose that
A3 Let p(z) be a polynomial of degree n all of whose zeros 2
∂2

have absolute value 1 in the complex plane. Put g(z) = ∂
+ · · · + 2 P(x1 , . . . , xn ) = 0 (identically)
p(z)/zn/2 . Show that all zeros of g0 (z) = 0 have absolute ∂ x12 ∂ xn
value 1.
and that
A4 Let H be an n × n matrix all of whose entries are ±1
and whose rows are mutually orthogonal. Suppose H x12 + · · · + xn2 divides P(x1 , . . . , xn ).
has an a × b submatrix whose entries are all 1. Show
Show that P = 0 identically.
that ab ≤ n.
R 1 ln(x+1) B6 Let Sn denote the set of all permutations of the numbers
A5 Evaluate dx.
0 x2 +1 1, 2, . . . , n. For π ∈ Sn , let σ (π) = 1 if π is an even
A6 Let n be given, n ≥ 4, and suppose that P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn permutation and σ (π) = −1 if π is an odd permutation.
are n randomly, independently and uniformly, chosen Also, let ν(π) denote the number of fixed points of π.
points on a circle. Consider the convex n-gon whose Show that
vertices are the Pi . What is the probability that at least σ (π) n
one of the vertex angles of this polygon is acute? ∑ = (−1)n+1 .
π∈Sn ν(π) + 1 n + 1
B1 Find a nonzero polynomial P(x, y) such that
P(bac, b2ac) = 0 for all real numbers a. (Note:
bνc is the greatest integer less than or equal to ν.)
A–1 Find the volume of the region of points (x, y, z) such that B–1 Show that the curve x3 + 3xy + y3 = 1 contains only one
set of three distinct points, A, B, and C, which are ver-
(x2 + y2 + z2 + 8)2 ≤ 36(x2 + y2 ). tices of an equilateral triangle, and find its area.
B–2 Prove that, for every set X = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } of n real
A–2 Alice and Bob play a game in which they take turns
numbers, there exists a non-empty subset S of X and an
removing stones from a heap that initially has n stones.
integer m such that
The number of stones removed at each turn must be one
less than a prime number. The winner is the player who
takes the last stone. Alice plays first. Prove that there 1
m+ ∑s ≤ .
are infinitely many n such that Bob has a winning strat- s∈S n + 1
egy. (For example, if n = 17, then Alice might take 6 B–3 Let S be a finite set of points in the plane. A linear parti-
leaving 11; then Bob might take 1 leaving 10; then Al- tion of S is an unordered pair {A, B} of subsets of S such
ice can take the remaining stones to win.) that A ∪ B = S, A ∩ B = 0, / and A and B lie on opposite
sides of some straight line disjoint from S (A or B may
A–3 Let 1, 2, 3, . . . , 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012, 2016, . . . be empty). Let LS be the number of linear partitions of
be a sequence defined by xk = k for k = 1, 2, . . . , 2006 S. For each positive integer n, find the maximum of LS
and xk+1 = xk + xk−2005 for k ≥ 2006. Show that the over all sets S of n points.
sequence has 2005 consecutive terms each divisible by
2006. B–4 Let Z denote the set of points in Rn whose coordinates
are 0 or 1. (Thus Z has 2n elements, which are the ver-
A–4 Let S = {1, 2, . . . , n} for some integer n > 1. Say a per- tices of a unit hypercube in Rn .) Given a vector sub-
mutation π of S has a local maximum at k ∈ S if space V of Rn , let Z(V ) denote the number of members
of Z that lie in V . Let k be given, 0 ≤ k ≤ n. Find the
(i) π(k) > π(k + 1) for k = 1;
maximum, over all vector subspaces V ⊆ Rn of dimen-
(ii) π(k − 1) < π(k) and π(k) > π(k + 1) for 1 < k < sion k, of the number of points in V ∩ Z. [Editorial note:
n; the proposers probably intended to write Z(V ) instead
(iii) π(k − 1) < π(k) for k = n. of “the number of points in V ∩ Z”, but this changes
nothing.]
(For example, if n = 5 and π takes values at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
of 2, 1, 4, 5, 3, then π has a local maximum of 2 at k = B–5 For each continuous function f : [0, 1] → R, let I( f ) =
R1 2 R1 2
1, and a local maximum of 5 at k = 4.) What is the 0 x f (x) dx and J(x) = 0 x ( f (x)) dx. Find the maxi-
average number of local maxima of a permutation of S, mum value of I( f ) − J( f ) over all such functions f .
averaging over all permutations of S?
B–6 Let k be an integer greater than 1. Suppose a0 > 0, and
A–5 Let n be a positive odd integer and let θ be a real num- define
ber such that θ /π is irrational. Set ak = tan(θ + kπ/n),
1
k = 1, 2, . . . , n. Prove that an+1 = an + √
k a
n
a1 + a2 + · · · + an
a1 a2 · · · an for n > 0. Evaluate
is an integer, and determine its value. ak+1

n
lim .
n→∞ nk
A–6 Four points are chosen uniformly and independently at
random in the interior of a given circle. Find the proba-
bility that they are the vertices of a convex quadrilateral.
A–1 Find all values of α for which the curves y = αx2 + f ( f (n) + 1) if and only if n = 1. [Editor’s note: one
1 1
αx+ 24 and x = αy2 +αy+ 24 are tangent to each other. must assume f is nonconstant.]
A–2 Find the least possible area of a convex set in the plane B–2 Suppose that f : [0, 1] → R has a continuous derivative
that intersects both branches of the hyperbola xy = 1 and that 01 f (x) dx = 0. Prove that for every α ∈ (0, 1),
R
and both branches of the hyperbola xy = −1. (A set S
in the plane is called convex if for any two points in S 1
Z α
the line segment connecting them is contained in S.) f (x) dx ≤ max | f 0 (x)|.
0 8 0≤x≤1
A–3 Let k be a positive integer. Suppose that the integers √
1, 2, 3, . . . , 3k + 1 are written down in random order. B–3 Let x0 = 1 and for n ≥ 0, let xn+1 = 3xn + bxn 5c. In
What is the probability that at no time during this pro- particular, x1 = 5, x2 = 26, x3 = 136, x4 = 712. Find a
cess, the sum of the integers that have been written up closed-form expression for x2007 . (bac means the largest
to that time is a positive integer divisible by 3? Your integer ≤ a.)
answer should be in closed form, but may include fac-
B–4 Let n be a positive integer. Find the number of pairs
torials.
P, Q of polynomials with real coefficients such that
A–4 A repunit is a positive integer whose digits in base 10
are all ones. Find all polynomials f with real coeffi- (P(X))2 + (Q(X))2 = X 2n + 1
cients such that if n is a repunit, then so is f (n).
and deg P > deg Q.
A–5 Suppose that a finite group has exactly n elements of B–5 Let k be a positive integer. Prove that there exist polyno-
order p, where p is a prime. Prove that either n = 0 or mials P0 (n), P1 (n), . . . , Pk−1 (n) (which may depend on
p divides n + 1. k) such that for any integer n,
A–6 A triangulation T of a polygon P is a finite collection j n kk jnk j n kk−1

= P0 (n) + P1 (n) + · · · + Pk−1 (n) .
of triangles whose union is P, and such that the inter- k k k
section of any two triangles is either empty, or a shared
vertex, or a shared side. Moreover, each side is a side (bac means the largest integer ≤ a.)
of exactly one triangle in T . Say that T is admissible
B–6 For each positive integer n, let f (n) be the number of
if every internal vertex is shared by 6 or more triangles.
ways to make n! cents using an unordered collection of
For example, [figure omitted.] Prove that there is an in-
coins, each worth k! cents for some k, 1 ≤ k ≤ n. Prove
teger Mn , depending only on n, such that any admissible
that for some constant C, independent of n,
triangulation of a polygon P with n sides has at most Mn
triangles. 2 /2−Cn 2 /4 2 /2+Cn 2 /4
nn e−n ≤ f (n) ≤ nn e−n .
B–1 Let f be a polynomial with positive integer coefficients.
Prove that if n is a positive integer, then f (n) divides
A1 Let f : R2 → R be a function such that f (x, y)+ f (y, z)+ (The elements of G in the sequence are not required to
f (z, x) = 0 for all real numbers x, y, and z. Prove that be distinct. A subsequence of a sequence is obtained
there exists a function g : R → R such that f (x, y) = by selecting some of the terms, not necessarily consec-
g(x) − g(y) for all real numbers x and y. utive, without reordering them; for example, 4, 4, 2 is a
subsequence of 2, 4, 6, 4, 2, but 2, 2, 4 is not.)
A2 Alan and Barbara play a game in which they take turns
filling entries of an initially empty 2008 × 2008 array. B1 What is the maximum number of rational points that can
Alan plays first. At each turn, a player chooses a real lie on a circle in R2 whose center is not a rational point?
number and places it in a vacant entry. The game ends (A rational point is a point both of whose coordinates
when all the entries are filled. Alan wins if the determi- are rational numbers.)
nant of the resulting matrix is nonzero; Barbara wins if
it is zero. Which player has a winning strategy? B2 RLet F0 (x) = ln x. For n ≥ 0 and x > 0, let Fn+1 (x) =
x
0 Fn (t) dt. Evaluate
A3 Start with a finite sequence a1 , a2 , . . . , an of positive in-
tegers. If possible, choose two indices j < k such that a j n!Fn (1)
lim .
does not divide ak , and replace a j and ak by gcd(a j , ak ) n→∞ ln n
and lcm(a j , ak ), respectively. Prove that if this process B3 What is the largest possible radius of a circle contained
is repeated, it must eventually stop and the final se- in a 4-dimensional hypercube of side length 1?
quence does not depend on the choices made. (Note: B4 Let p be a prime number. Let h(x) be a polynomial with
gcd means greatest common divisor and lcm means integer coefficients such that h(0), h(1), . . . , h(p2 − 1)
least common multiple.) are distinct modulo p2 . Show that h(0), h(1), . . . , h(p3 −
A4 Define f : R → R by 1) are distinct modulo p3 .
( B5 Find all continuously differentiable functions f : R → R
x if x ≤ e such that for every rational number q, the number f (q)
f (x) =
x f (ln x) if x > e. is rational and has the same denominator as q. (The
denominator of a rational number q is the unique posi-
1
Does ∑∞
n=1 f (n) converge? tive integer b such that q = a/b for some integer a with
gcd(a, b) = 1.) (Note: gcd means greatest common di-
A5 Let n ≥ 3 be an integer. Let f (x) and g(x) be poly- visor.)
nomials with real coefficients such that the points
( f (1), g(1)), ( f (2), g(2)), . . . , ( f (n), g(n)) in R2 are the B6 Let n and k be positive integers. Say that a permutation
vertices of a regular n-gon in counterclockwise order. σ of {1, 2, . . . , n} is k-limited if |σ (i) − i| ≤ k for all
Prove that at least one of f (x) and g(x) has degree i. Prove that the number of k-limited permutations of
greater than or equal to n − 1. {1, 2, . . . , n} is odd if and only if n ≡ 0 or 1 (mod 2k +1).
A6 Prove that there exists a constant c > 0 such that in ev-

ery nontrivial finite group G there exists a sequence of
length at most c log |G| with the property that each el-
ement of G equals the product of some subsequence.
A1 Let f be a real-valued function on the plane such that for B1 Show that every positive rational number can be written
every square ABCD in the plane, f (A) + f (B) + f (C) + as a quotient of products of factorials of (not necessarily
f (D) = 0. Does it follow that f (P) = 0 for all points P distinct) primes. For example,
in the plane?
10 2! · 5!
A2 Functions f , g, h are differentiable on some open inter- = .
9 3! · 3! · 3!
val around 0 and satisfy the equations and initial condi-
tions
B2 A game involves jumping to the right on the real number
1 line. If a and b are real numbers and b > a, the cost of
f 0 = 2 f 2 gh + , f (0) = 1, jumping from a to b is b3 − ab2 . For what real numbers
gh
4 c can one travel from 0 to 1 in a finite number of jumps
0 2
g = f g h + , g(0) = 1, with total cost exactly c?
fh
1 B3 Call a subset S of {1, 2, . . . , n} mediocre if it has the fol-
h0 = 3 f gh2 + , h(0) = 1.
fg lowing property: Whenever a and b are elements of S
whose average is an integer, that average is also an ele-
Find an explicit formula for f (x), valid in some open ment of S. Let A(n) be the number of mediocre subsets
interval around 0. of {1, 2, . . . , n}. [For instance, every subset of {1, 2, 3}
except {1, 3} is mediocre, so A(3) = 7.] Find all posi-
A3 Let dn be the determinant of the n × n matrix whose tive integers n such that A(n + 2) − 2A(n + 1) + A(n) =
entries, from left to right and then from top to bottom, 1.
are cos 1, cos 2, . . . , cos n2 . (For example,
B4 Say that a polynomial with real coefficients in two vari-
cos 1 cos 2 cos 3 ables, x, y, is balanced if the average value of the poly-
d3 = cos 4 cos 5 cos 6 . nomial on each circle centered at the origin is 0. The
cos 7 cos 8 cos 9 balanced polynomials of degree at most 2009 form a
vector space V over R. Find the dimension of V .
The argument of cos is always in radians, not degrees.)
Evaluate limn→∞ dn . B5 Let f : (1, ∞) → R be a differentiable function such that
A4 Let S be a set of rational numbers such that x2 − f (x)2

f 0 (x) = for all x > 1.
(a) 0 ∈ S; x2 ( f (x)2 + 1)
(b) If x ∈ S then x + 1 ∈ S and x − 1 ∈ S; and Prove that limx→∞ f (x) = ∞.
1
(c) If x ∈ S and x 6∈ {0, 1}, then x(x−1) ∈ S.
B6 Prove that for every positive integer n, there is a se-
Must S contain all rational numbers? quence of integers a0 , a1 , . . . , a2009 with a0 = 0 and
a2009 = n such that each term after a0 is either an ear-
A5 Is there a finite abelian group G such that the product of lier term plus 2k for some nonnegative integer k, or of
the orders of all its elements is 22009 ? the form b mod c for some earlier positive terms b and c.
[Here b mod c denotes the remainder when b is divided
A6 Let f : [0, 1]2 → R be a continuous function on the by c, so 0 ≤ (b mod c) < c.]
closed unit square such that ∂∂ xf and ∂∂ yf exist and are
continuous on the interior (0, 1)2 . Let a = 01 f (0, y) dy,
R
b = 01 f (1, y) dy, c = 01 f (x, 0) dx, d = 01 f (x, 1) dx.

R R R
Prove or disprove: There must be a point (x0 , y0 ) in

(0, 1)2 such that
∂f ∂f
(x0 , y0 ) = b − a and (x0 , y0 ) = d − c.
∂x ∂y
A1 Given a positive integer n, what is the largest k such that B1 Is there an infinite sequence of real numbers
the numbers 1, 2, . . . , n can be put into k boxes so that a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . such that
the sum of the numbers in each box is the same? [When
n = 8, the example {1, 2, 3, 6}, {4, 8}, {5, 7} shows that am m m
1 + a2 + a3 + · · · = m
the largest k is at least 3.]
for every positive integer m?
A2 Find all differentiable functions f : R → R such that
B2 Given that A, B, and C are noncollinear points in the
f (x + n) − f (x) plane with integer coordinates such that the distances
f 0 (x) = AB, AC, and BC are integers, what is the smallest possi-
n
ble value of AB?
for all real numbers x and all positive integers n.
B3 There are 2010 boxes labeled B1 , B2 , . . . , B2010 , and
A3 Suppose that the function h : R2 → R has continuous 2010n balls have been distributed among them, for
partial derivatives and satisfies the equation some positive integer n. You may redistribute the balls
by a sequence of moves, each of which consists of
∂h ∂h choosing an i and moving exactly i balls from box Bi
h(x, y) = a (x, y) + b (x, y)
∂x ∂y into any one other box. For which values of n is it possi-
ble to reach the distribution with exactly n balls in each
for some constants a, b. Prove that if there is a constant
box, regardless of the initial distribution of balls?
M such that |h(x, y)| ≤ M for all (x, y) ∈ R2 , then h is
identically zero. B4 Find all pairs of polynomials p(x) and q(x) with real
coefficients for which
A4 Prove that for each positive integer n, the number
10n n
1010 + 1010 + 10n − 1 is not prime. p(x)q(x + 1) − p(x + 1)q(x) = 1.
A5 Let G be a group, with operation ∗. Suppose that
B5 Is there a strictly increasing function f : R → R such
(i) G is a subset of R3 (but ∗ need not be related to that f 0 (x) = f ( f (x)) for all x?
addition of vectors);
B6 Let A be an n × n matrix of real numbers for some n ≥
(ii) For each a, b ∈ G, either a × b = a ∗ b or a × b = 0 1. For each positive integer k, let A[k] be the matrix
(or both), where × is the usual cross product in obtained by raising each entry to the kth power. Show
R3 . that if Ak = A[k] for k = 1, 2, . . . , n + 1, then Ak = A[k] for
Prove that a × b = 0 for all a, b ∈ G. all k ≥ 1.
A6 Let f : [0, ∞) → R be a strictly decreasing continu-

ous function such that limx→∞ f (x) = 0. Prove that
R ∞ f (x)− f (x+1)
0 f (x) dx diverges.
A1 Define a growing spiral in the plane to be a sequence

of points with integer coordinates P0 = (0, 0), P1 , . . . , Pn
1 2

such that n ≥ 2 and: 1
lim ∑ Prob(g = x) −
m→∞ b2m n
x∈G
– the directed line segments P0 P1 , P1 P2 , . . . , Pn−1 Pn
are in the successive coordinate directions east is positive and finite.
(for P0 P1 ), north, west, south, east, etc.;
– the lengths of these line segments are positive and B1 Let h and k be positive integers. Prove that for every
strictly increasing. ε > 0, there are positive integers m and n such that
√ √
[Picture omitted.] How many of the points (x, y) with ε < |h m − k n| < 2ε.
integer coordinates 0 ≤ x ≤ 2011, 0 ≤ y ≤ 2011 cannot
be the last point, Pn of any growing spiral? B2 Let S be the set of all ordered triples (p, q, r) of prime
numbers for which at least one rational number x satis-
A2 Let a1 , a2 , . . . and b1 , b2 , . . . be sequences of positive fies px2 + qx + r = 0. Which primes appear in seven or
real numbers such that a1 = b1 = 1 and bn = bn−1 an − 2 more elements of S?
for n = 2, 3, . . . . Assume that the sequence (b j ) is
bounded. Prove that B3 Let f and g be (real-valued) functions defined on an
∞ open interval containing 0, with g nonzero and contin-
1 uous at 0. If f g and f /g are differentiable at 0, must f
S= ∑ a1 ...an
n=1 be differentiable at 0?
converges, and evaluate S. B4 In a tournament, 2011 players meet 2011 times to play
a multiplayer game. Every game is played by all 2011
A3 Find a real number c and a positive number L for which players together and ends with each of the players either
R π/2 r winning or losing. The standings are kept in two 2011×
rc 0 x sin x dx 2011 matrices, T = (Thk ) and W = (Whk ). Initially, T =
lim R π/2 = L.
r→∞ xr cos x dx W = 0. After every game, for every (h, k) (including for
0
h = k), if players h and k tied (that is, both won or both
lost), the entry Thk is increased by 1, while if player h
A4 For which positive integers n is there an n × n matrix
won and player k lost, the entry Whk is increased by 1
with integer entries such that every dot product of a row
and Wkh is decreased by 1.
with itself is even, while every dot product of two dif-
ferent rows is odd? Prove that at the end of the tournament, det(T + iW ) is
a non-negative integer divisible by 22010 .
A5 Let F : R2 → R and g : R → R be twice continuously
differentiable functions with the following properties: B5 Let a1 , a2 , . . . be real numbers. Suppose that there is a
constant A such that for all n,
– F(u, u) = 0 for every u ∈ R;
!2
n
– for every x ∈ R, g(x) > 0 and x2 g(x) ≤ 1; 1
Z ∞
∑ 2
dx ≤ An.
– for every (u, v) ∈ R2 , the vector ∇F(u, v) is either −∞ i=1 1 + (x − ai )
0 or parallel to the vector hg(u), −g(v)i.
Prove there is a constant B > 0 such that for all n,
Prove that there exists a constant C such that for every
n
n ≥ 2 and any x1 , . . . , xn+1 ∈ R, we have
∑ (1 + (ai − a j )2 ) ≥ Bn3 .
C i, j=1
min |F(xi , x j )| ≤ .
i6= j n
B6 Let p be an odd prime. Show that for at least (p + 1)/2
A6 Let G be an abelian group with n elements, and let values of n in {0, 1, 2, . . . , p − 1},
p−1
{g1 = e, g2 , . . . , gk } $ G
∑ k!nk is not divisible by p.
k=0
be a (not necessarily minimal) set of distinct generators
of G. A special die, which randomly selects one of the
elements g1 , g2 , ..., gk with equal probability, is rolled m
times and the selected elements are multiplied to pro-
duce an element g ∈ G. Prove that there exists a real
number b ∈ (0, 1) such that
A1 Let d1 , d2 , . . . , d12 be real numbers in the open interval (i) The functions f1 (x) = ex − 1 and f2 (x) = ln(x + 1)
(1, 12). Show that there exist distinct indices i, j, k such are in S;
that di , d j , dk are the side lengths of an acute triangle. (ii) If f (x) and g(x) are in S, the functions f (x) + g(x)
A2 Let ∗ be a commutative and associative binary operation and f (g(x)) are in S;
on a set S. Assume that for every x and y in S, there (iii) If f (x) and g(x) are in S and f (x) ≥ g(x) for all
exists z in S such that x ∗ z = y. (This z may depend on x ≥ 0, then the function f (x) − g(x) is in S.
x and y.) Show that if a, b, c are in S and a ∗ c = b ∗ c,
then a = b. Prove that if f (x) and g(x) are in S, then the function
f (x)g(x) is also in S.
A3 Let f : [−1, 1] → R be a continuous function such that B2 Let P be a given (non-degenerate) polyhedron. Prove
2
2 that there is a constant c(P) > 0 with the following
(i) f (x) = 2−x
2 f x
2−x2
for every x in [−1, 1], property: If a collection of n balls whose volumes sum
to V contains the entire surface of P, then n > c(P)/V 2 .
(ii) f (0) = 1, and
√f (x)
B3 A round-robin tournament of 2n teams lasted for 2n − 1
(iii) limx→1− exists and is finite.
1−x days, as follows. On each day, every team played one
game against another team, with one team winning and
Prove that f is unique, and express f (x) in closed form.
one team losing in each of the n games. Over the course
A4 Let q and r be integers with q > 0, and let A and B be of the tournament, each team played every other team
intervals on the real line. Let T be the set of all b + mq exactly once. Can one necessarily choose one winning
where b and m are integers with b in B, and let S be team from each day without choosing any team more
the set of all integers a in A such that ra is in T . Show than once?
that if the product of the lengths of A and B is less than
B4 Suppose that a0 = 1 and that an+1 = an + e−an for n =
q, then S is the intersection of A with some arithmetic
0, 1, 2, . . . . Does an − log n have a finite limit as n → ∞?
progression.
(Here log n = loge n = ln n.)
A5 Let F p denote the field of integers modulo a prime p,
B5 Prove that, for any two bounded functions g1 , g2 : R →
and let n be a positive integer. Let v be a fixed vec-
[1, ∞), there exist functions h1 , h2 : R → R such that, for
tor in Fnp , let M be an n × n matrix with entries of F p ,
every x ∈ R,
and define G : Fnp → Fnp by G(x) = v + Mx. Let G(k)
denote the k-fold composition of G with itself, that is, sup(g1 (s)x g2 (s)) = max(xh1 (t) + h2 (t)).
G(1) (x) = G(x) and G(k+1) (x) = G(G(k) (x)). Determine s∈R t∈R
all pairs p, n for which there exist v and M such that the
pn vectors G(k) (0), k = 1, 2, . . . , pn are distinct. B6 Let p be an odd prime number such that p ≡ 2 (mod 3).
Define a permutation π of the residue classes modulo p
A6 Let f (x, y) be a continuous, real-valued function on R2 . by π(x) ≡ x3 (mod p). Show that π is an even permu-
Suppose that, for every rectangular region R of area 1, tation if and only if p ≡ 3 (mod 4).
the double integral of f (x, y) over R equals 0. Must
f (x, y) be identically 0?
B1 Let S be a class of functions from [0, ∞) to [0, ∞) that
satisfies:
A1 Recall that a regular icosahedron is a convex polyhe- b

dron having 12 vertices and 20 faces; the faces are con- w(a, b)
-2 -1 0 1 2
gruent equilateral triangles. On each face of a regular
-2 -1 -2 2 -2 -1
icosahedron is written a nonnegative integer such that
the sum of all 20 integers is 39. Show that there are -1 -2 4 -4 4 -2
two faces that share a vertex and have the same integer a 0 2 -4 12 -4 2
written on them. 1 -2 4 -4 4 -2
A2 Let S be the set of all positive integers that are not 2 -1 -2 2 -2 -1
perfect squares. For n in S, consider choices of inte-
gers a1 , a2 , . . . , ar such that n < a1 < a2 < · · · < ar and For every finite subset S of Z × Z, define
n · a1 · a2 · · · ar is a perfect square, and let f (n) be the
minumum of ar over all such choices. For example, A(S) = ∑ w(s − s0 ).
(s,s0 )∈S×S
2 · 3 · 6 is a perfect square, while 2 · 3, 2 · 4, 2 · 5, 2 · 3 · 4,
2 · 3 · 5, 2 · 4 · 5, and 2 · 3 · 4 · 5 are not, and so f (2) = 6. Prove that if S is any finite nonempty subset of
Show that the function f from S to the integers is one- Z × Z, then A(S) > 0. (For example, if S =
to-one. {(0, 1), (0, 2), (2, 0), (3, 1)}, then the terms in A(S) are
A3 Suppose that the real numbers a0 , a1 , . . . , an and x, with 12, 12, 12, 12, 4, 4, 0, 0, 0, 0, −1, −1, −2, −2, −4, −4.)
0 < x < 1, satisfy B1 For positive integers n, let the numbers c(n) be de-
a0 a1 an termined by the rules c(1) = 1, c(2n) = c(n), and
+ +···+ = 0. c(2n + 1) = (−1)n c(n). Find the value of
1 − x 1 − x2 1 − xn+1
Prove that there exists a real number y with 0 < y < 1 2013
such that ∑ c(n)c(n + 2).
n=1
a0 + a1 y + · · · + an yn = 0.
B2 Let C = ∞
S
N=1 CN , where CN denotes the set of those
‘cosine polynomials’ of the form
A4 A finite collection of digits 0 and 1 is written around a
circle. An arc of length L ≥ 0 consists of L consecutive N
digits around the circle. For each arc w, let Z(w) and f (x) = 1 + ∑ an cos(2πnx)
N(w) denote the number of 0’s in w and the number of n=1
1’s in w, respectively. Assume that |Z(w) − Z(w0 )| ≤ 1
for any two arcs w, w0 of the same length. Suppose that for which:
some arcs w1 , . . . , wk have the property that (i) f (x) ≥ 0 for all real x, and
1 k
1 k (ii) an = 0 whenever n is a multiple of 3.
Z= ∑ Z(w j ) and N = k ∑ N(w j )
k j=1 j=1 Determine the maximum value of f (0) as f ranges
through C, and prove that this maximum is attained.
are both integers. Prove that there exists an arc w with
Z(w) = Z and N(w) = N. B3 Let P be a nonempty collection of subsets of {1, . . . , n}
such that:
A5 For m ≥ 3, a list of m3 real numbers ai jk (1 ≤ i << j <

k ≤ m) is said to be area definite for Rn if the inequality (i) if S, S0 ∈ P, then S ∪ S0 ∈ P and S ∩ S0 ∈ P, and
(ii) if S ∈ P and S 6= 0,
/ then there is a subset T ⊂ S
∑ ai jk · Area(∆Ai A j Ak ) ≥ 0 such that T ∈ P and T contains exactly one fewer
1≤i< j<k≤m
element than S.
holds for every choice of m points A1 , . . . , Am in Rn . For Suppose that f : P → R is a function such that f (0)
/ =0
example, the list of four numbers a123 = a124 = a134 = and
1, a234 = −1 is area definite for R2 . Prove that if a list
of m3 numbers is area definite for R2 , then it is area f (S ∪ S0 ) = f (S) + f (S0 ) − f (S ∩ S0 ) for all S, S0 ∈ P.
definite for R3 .
Must there exist real numbers f1 , . . . , fn such that
A6 Define a function w : Z × Z → Z as follows. For
|a| , |b| ≤ 2, let w(a, b) be as in the table shown; oth- f (S) = ∑ fi
erwise, let w(a, b) = 0. i∈S
for every S ∈ P?
2
B4 For any continuous real-valued function f defined on ing first. The playing area consists of n spaces, arranged
the interval [0, 1], let in a line. Initially all spaces are empty. At each turn, a
Z 1 Z 1 player either
µ( f ) = f (x) dx, Var( f ) = ( f (x) − µ( f ))2 dx, – places a stone in an empty space, or
0 0
M( f ) = max | f (x)| . – removes a stone from a nonempty space s, places
0≤x≤1 a stone in the nearest empty space to the left of
s (if such a space exists), and places a stone in
Show that if f and g are continuous real-valued func-
the nearest empty space to the right of s (if such a
tions defined on the interval [0, 1], then
space exists).
Var( f g) ≤ 2Var( f )M(g)2 + 2Var(g)M( f )2 . Furthermore, a move is permitted only if the resulting
position has not occurred previously in the game. A
B5 Let X = {1, 2, . . . , n}, and let k ∈ X. Show that there player loses if he or she is unable to move. Assuming
are exactly k · nn−1 functions f : X → X such that for that both players play optimally throughout the game,
every x ∈ X there is a j ≥ 0 such that f ( j) (x) ≤ k. [Here what moves may Alice make on her first turn?
f ( j) denotes the jth iterate of f , so that f (0) (x) = x and
f ( j+1) (x) = f ( f ( j) (x)).]
B6 Let n ≥ 1 be an odd integer. Alice and Bob play the fol-
lowing game, taking alternating turns, with Alice play-
A1 Prove that every nonzero coefficient of the Taylor series B2 Suppose that f is a function on the interval [1, 3] such
of that −1 ≤ f (x) ≤ 1 for all x and 13 f (x) dx = 0. How
R
large can 13 f (x)

R
(1 − x + x2 )ex x dx be?
B3 Let A be an m × n matrix with rational entries. Sup-
about x = 0 is a rational number whose numerator (in pose that there are at least m + n distinct prime numbers
lowest terms) is either 1 or a prime number. among the absolute values of the entries of A. Show that
the rank of A is at least 2.
A2 Let A be the n × n matrix whose entry in the i-th row
and j-th column is B4 Show that for each positive integer n, all the roots of the
polynomial
1
min(i, j) n
∑ 2k(n−k) xk
for 1 ≤ i, j ≤ n. Compute det(A). k=0
A3 Let a0 = 5/2 and ak = a2k−1 − 2 for k ≥ 1. Compute are real numbers.
∞ B5 In the 75th annual Putnam Games, participants compete

1 at mathematical games. Patniss and Keeta play a game
∏ 1 −
k=0 ak in which they take turns choosing an element from the
group of invertible n × n matrices with entries in the
in closed form. field Z/pZ of integers modulo p, where n is a fixed
A4 Suppose X is a random variable that takeson only non- positive integer and p is a fixed prime number. The
2 rules of the game are:
3 integer values, with E [X] = 1, E X = 2, and
negative
E X = 5. (Here E [y] denotes the expectation of the (1) A player cannot choose an element that has been
random variable Y .) Determine the smallest possible chosen by either player on any previous turn.
value of the probability of the event X = 0.
(2) A player can only choose an element that com-
A5 Let mutes with all previously chosen elements.
(3) A player who cannot choose an element on his/her
Pn (x) = 1 + 2x + 3x2 + · · · + nxn−1 . turn loses the game.
Prove that the polynomials Pj (x) and Pk (x) are relatively Patniss takes the first turn. Which player has a winning
prime for all positive integers j and k with j 6= k. strategy? (Your answer may depend on n and p.)
A6 Let n be a positive integer. What is the largest k B6 Let f : [0, 1] → R be a function for which there exists a
for which there exist n × n matrices M1 , . . . , Mk and constant K > 0 such that | f (x) − f (y)| ≤ K |x − y| for all
N1 , . . . , Nk with real entries such that for all i and j, the x, y ∈ [0, 1]. Suppose also that for each rational number
matrix product Mi N j has a zero entry somewhere on its r ∈ [0, 1], there exist integers a and b such that f (r) =
diagonal if and only if i 6= j? a + br. Prove that there exist finitely many intervals
I1 , . . . , InSsuch that f is a linear function on each Ii and
B1 A base 10 over-expansion of a positive integer N is an [0, 1] = ni=1 Ii .
expression of the form
N = dk 10k + dk−1 10k−1 + · · · + d0 100
with dk 6= 0 and di ∈ {0, 1, 2, . . . , 10} for all i. For

instance, the integer N = 10 has two base 10 over-
expansions: 10 = 10 · 100 and the usual base 10 expan-
sion 10 = 1 · 101 + 0 · 100 . Which positive integers have
a unique base 10 over-expansion?
A1 Let A and B be points on the same branch of the hyper- four numbers off the list. Repeat with the three smallest
bola xy = 1. Suppose that P is a point lying between remaining numbers 4, 5, 7 and their sum 16. Continue
A and B on this hyperbola, such that the area of the tri- in this way, crossing off the three smallest remaining
angle APB is as large as possible. Show that the re- numbers and their sum, and consider the sequence of
gion bounded by the hyperbola and the chord AP has sums produced: 6, 16, 27, 36, . . . . Prove or disprove that
the same area as the region bounded by the hyperbola there is some number in the sequence whose base 10
and the chord PB. representation ends with 2015.
A2 Let a0 = 1, a1 = 2, and an = 4an−1 − an−2 for n ≥ 2. B3 Let S be the set of all 2 × 2 real matrices
Find an odd prime factor of a2015 .
a b

M=
A3 Compute c d
2015 2015
! whose entries a, b, c, d (in that order) form an arithmetic
2πiab/2015 progression. Find all matrices M in S for which there is
log2 ∏ ∏ (1 + e )
a=1 b=1 some integer k > 1 such that M k is also in S.
Here i is the imaginary unit (that is, i2 = −1). B4 Let T be the set of all triples (a, b, c) of positive integers
for which there exist triangles with side lengths a, b, c.
A4 For each real number x, let Express
1 2a
f (x) = ∑ n
, ∑
n∈Sx 2 3b 5c
(a,b,c)∈T
where Sx is the set of positive integers n for which bnxc as a rational number in lowest terms.
is even. What is the largest real number L such that
f (x) ≥ L for all x ∈ [0, 1)? (As usual, bzc denotes the B5 Let Pn be the number of permutations π of {1, 2, . . . , n}
greatest integer less than or equal to z.) such that
A5 Let q be an odd positive integer, and let Nq denote |i − j| = 1 implies |π(i) − π( j)| ≤ 2
the number of integers a such that 0 < a < q/4 and
gcd(a, q) = 1. Show that Nq is odd if and only if q is for all i, j in {1, 2, . . . , n}. Show that for n ≥ 2, the quan-
of the form pk with k a positive integer and p a prime tity
congruent to 5 or 7 modulo 8.
Pn+5 − Pn+4 − Pn+3 + Pn
A6 Let n be a positive integer. Suppose that A, B, and M are
n×n matrices with real entries such that AM = MB, and does not depend on n, and find its value.
such that A and B have the same characteristic polyno-
mial. Prove that det(A − MX) = det(B − XM) for every B6 For each positive integer k, let A(k)√ be the number of
n × n matrix X with real entries. odd divisors of k in the interval [1, 2k). Evaluate
∞
B1 Let f be a three times differentiable function (defined A(k)
on R and real-valued) such that f has at least five dis- ∑ (−1)k−1 k
.
k=1
tinct real zeros. Prove that f + 6 f 0 + 12 f 00 + 8 f 000 has at
least two distinct real zeros.
B2 Given a list of the positive integers 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . , take the
first three numbers 1, 2, 3 and their sum 6 and cross all
A1 Find the smallest positive integer j such that for every A6 Find the smallest constant C such that for every real
polynomial p(x) with integer coefficients and for every polynomial P(x) of degree 3 that has a root in the in-
integer k, the integer terval [0, 1],
dj
Z 1
p( j) (k) = p(x) |P(x)| dx ≤ C max |P(x)| .
dx j x=k 0 x∈[0,1]
(the j-th derivative of p(x) at k) is divisible by 2016. B1 Let x0 , x1 , x2 , . . . be the sequence such that x0 = 1 and
A2 Given a positive integer n, let M(n) be the largest inte- for n ≥ 0,
ger m such that
xn+1 = ln(exn − xn )

m m−1
> . (as usual, the function ln is the natural logarithm). Show
n−1 n that the infinite series
Evaluate x0 + x1 + x2 + · · ·
M(n)
lim . converges and find its sum.
n→∞ n
B2 Define a positive integer n to be squarish if either n is
A3 Suppose that f is a function from R to R such that itself a perfect square or the distance from n to the near-
est perfect square is a perfect square. For example, 2016
1
f (x) + f 1 − = arctan x is squarish, because the nearest perfect square to 2016
x is 452 = 2025 and 2025 − 2016 = 9 is a perfect square.
(Of the positive integers between 1 and 10, only 6 and
for all real x 6= 0. (As usual, y = arctan x means −π/2 < 7 are not squarish.)
y < π/2 and tan y = x.) Find
For a positive integer N, let S(N) be the number of
Z 1
squarish integers between 1 and N, inclusive. Find pos-
f (x) dx. itive constants α and β such that
0
S(N)
A4 Consider a (2m − 1) × (2n − 1) rectangular region, lim = β,
N→∞ N α
where m and n are integers such that m, n ≥ 4. This
region is to be tiled using tiles of the two types shown: or show that no such constants exist.
B3 Suppose that S is a finite set of points in the plane such
that the area of triangle 4ABC is at most 1 whenever A,
B, and C are in S. Show that there exists a triangle of
area 4 that (together with its interior) covers the set S.
B4 Let A be a 2n × 2n matrix, with entries chosen indepen-
(The dotted lines divide the tiles into 1 × 1 squares.) dently at random. Every entry is chosen to be 0 or 1,
The tiles may be rotated and reflected, as long as their each with probability 1/2. Find the expected value of
sides are parallel to the sides of the rectangular region. det(A − At ) (as a function of n), where At is the trans-
They must all fit within the region, and they must cover pose of A.
it completely without overlapping. B5 Find all functions f from the interval (1, ∞) to (1, ∞)
What is the minimum number of tiles required to tile with the following property: if x, y ∈ (1, ∞) and x2 ≤
the region? y ≤ x3 , then ( f (x))2 ≤ f (y) ≤ ( f (x))3 .
A5 Suppose that G is a finite group generated by the two B6 Evaluate

elements g and h, where the order of g is odd. Show
that every element of G can be written in the form
∞
(−1)k−1 ∞ 1
∑ k ∑ k2n + 1 .
k=1 n=0
gm1 hn1 gm2 hn2 · · · gmr hnr
with 1 ≤ r ≤ |G| and m1 , n1 , m2 , n2 , . . . , mr , nr ∈

{−1, 1}. (Here |G| is the number of elements of G.)
A1 Let S be the smallest set of positive integers such that are there to paint each edge red, white, or blue such that
each of the 20 triangular faces of the icosahedron has
(a) 2 is in S, two edges of the same color and a third edge of a dif-
(b) n is in S whenever n2 is in S, and ferent color? [Note: the top matter on each exam paper
(c) (n + 5)2 is in S whenever n is in S. included the logo of the Mathematical Association of
America, which is itself an icosahedron.]
Which positive integers are not in S?
B1 Let L1 and L2 be distinct lines in the plane. Prove that
(The set S is “smallest” in the sense that S is contained L1 and L2 intersect if and only if, for every real number
in any other such set.) λ 6= 0 and every point P not on L1 or L2 , there exist
−→ −→
A2 Let Q0 (x) = 1, Q1 (x) = x, and points A1 on L1 and A2 on L2 such that PA2 = λ PA1 .
B2 Suppose that a positive integer N can be expressed as
(Qn−1 (x))2 − 1
Qn (x) = the sum of k consecutive positive integers
Qn−2 (x)
N = a + (a + 1) + (a + 2) + · · · + (a + k − 1)
for all n ≥ 2. Show that, whenever n is a positive integer,
Qn (x) is equal to a polynomial with integer coefficients. for k = 2017 but for no other values of k > 1. Consid-
A3 Let a and b be real numbers with a < b, and let f and ering all positive integers N with this property, what is
g be continuous functions from [a, b] to (0, ∞) such that the smallest positive integer a that occurs in any of these
Rb Rb expressions?
a f (x) dx = a g(x) dx but f 6= g. For every positive
integer n, define B3 Suppose that f (x) = ∑∞ i
i=0 ci x is a power series for
which each coefficient ci is 0 or 1. Show that if
( f (x))n+1
Z b
In = dx. f (2/3) = 3/2, then f (1/2) must be irrational.
a (g(x))n
B4 Evaluate the sum
Show that I1 , I2 , I3 , . . . is an increasing sequence with ∞
limn→∞ In = ∞. ln(4k + 2) ln(4k + 3) ln(4k + 4) ln(4k + 5)
∑ 3 · 4k + 2 − 4k + 3 − 4k + 4 − 4k + 5
k=0
A4 A class with 2N students took a quiz, on which the pos-
ln 2 ln 3 ln 4 ln 5 ln 6 ln 7
sible scores were 0, 1, . . . , 10. Each of these scores oc- = 3· − − − +3· −
curred at least once, and the average score was exactly 2 3 4 5 6 7
7.4. Show that the class can be divided into two groups ln 8 ln 9 ln 10
− − +3· −··· .
of N students in such a way that the average score for 8 9 10
each group was exactly 7.4. (As usual, ln x denotes the natural logarithm of x.)
A5 Each of the integers from 1 to n is written on a separate B5 A line in the plane of a triangle T is called an equal-
card, and then the cards are combined into a deck and izer if it divides T into two regions having equal area
shuffled. Three players, A, B, and C, take turns in the and equal perimeter. Find positive integers a > b > c,
order A, B,C, A, . . . choosing one card at random from with a as small as possible, such that there exists a trian-
the deck. (Each card in the deck is equally likely to gle with side lengths a, b, c that has exactly two distinct
be chosen.) After a card is chosen, that card and all equalizers.
higher-numbered cards are removed from the deck, and
the remaining cards are reshuffled before the next turn. B6 Find the number of ordered 64-tuples (x0 , x1 , . . . , x63 )
Play continues until one of the three players wins the such that x0 , x1 , . . . , x63 are distinct elements of
game by drawing the card numbered 1. {1, 2, . . . , 2017} and
Show that for each of the three players, there are arbi-
trarily large values of n for which that player has the x0 + x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 + · · · + 63x63
highest probability among the three players of winning
is divisible by 2017.
the game.
A6 The 30 edges of a regular icosahedron are distinguished
by labeling them 1, 2, . . . , 30. How many different ways
A1 Find all ordered pairs (a, b) of positive integers for is a rational number.
which
B1 Let P be the set of vectors defined by
1 1 3
+ = .
a b 2018 a
P= 0 ≤ a ≤ 2, 0 ≤ b ≤ 100, and a, b ∈ Z .
b
A2 Let S1 , S2 , . . . , S2n −1 be the nonempty subsets of
{1, 2, . . . , n} in some order, and let M be the (2n − 1) × Find all v ∈ P such that the set P \ {v} obtained by
(2n − 1) matrix whose (i, j) entry is omitting vector v from P can be partitioned into two
( sets of equal size and equal sum.
0 if Si ∩ S j = 0;
/ B2 Let n be a positive integer, and let fn (z) = n+(n−1)z+
mi j = (n − 2)z2 + · · · + zn−1 . Prove that fn has no roots in the
1 otherwise.
closed unit disk {z ∈ C : |z| ≤ 1}.
Calculate the determinant of M. B3 Find all positive integers n < 10100 for which simulta-
neously n divides 2n , n − 1 divides 2n − 1, and n − 2
A3 Determine the greatest possible value of ∑10 i=1 cos(3xi ) divides 2n − 2.
for real numbers x1 , x2 , . . . , x10 satisfying ∑10
i=1 cos(xi ) =
0. B4 Given a real number a, we define a sequence by x0 = 1,
x1 = x2 = a, and xn+1 = 2xn xn−1 −xn−2 for n ≥ 2. Prove
A4 Let m and n be positive integers with gcd(m, n) = 1, and
that if xn = 0 for some n, then the sequence is periodic.
let
B5 Let f = ( f1 , f2 ) be a function from R2 to R2 with con-
mk m(k − 1)
ak = − tinuous partial derivatives ∂∂ xfij that are positive every-
n n
where. Suppose that
for k = 1, 2, . . . , n. Suppose that g and h are elements in 2
a group G and that ∂ f1 ∂ f2 1 ∂ f1 ∂ f2
− + >0
a1 a2 an
∂ x1 ∂ x2 4 ∂ x2 ∂ x1
gh gh · · · gh = e,
everywhere. Prove that f is one-to-one.
where e is the identity element. Show that gh = hg. (As
usual, bxc denotes the greatest integer less than or equal B6 Let S be the set of sequences of length 2018 whose
to x.) terms are in the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10} and sum to 3860.
Prove that the cardinality of S is at most
A5 Let f : R → R be an infinitely differentiable function
2018
satisfying f (0) = 0, f (1) = 1, and f (x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈

3860 2018
R. Show that there exist a positive integer n and a real 2 · .
2048
number x such that f (n) (x) < 0.
A6 Suppose that A, B,C, and D are distinct points, no three
of which lie on a line, in the Euclidean plane. Show that
if the squares of the lengths of the line segments AB,
AC, AD, BC, BD, and CD are rational numbers, then the
quotient
area(4ABC)
area(4ABD)
A1 Determine all possible values of the expression B1 Denote by Z2 the set of all points (x, y) in the plane with
integer coordinates. For each integer n ≥ 0, let Pn be the
A3 + B3 +C3 − 3ABC subset of Z2 consisting of the point (0, 0) together with
all points (x, y) such that x2 + y2 = 2k for some integer
where A, B, and C are nonnegative integers. k ≤ n. Determine, as a function of n, the number of
A2 In the triangle 4ABC, let G be the centroid, and let I four-point subsets of Pn whose elements are the vertices
be the center of the inscribed circle. Let α and β be of a square.
the angles at the vertices A and B, respectively. Sup- B2 For all n ≥ 1, let
pose that the segment IG is parallel to AB and that
β = 2 tan−1 (1/3). Find α.

(2k−1)π
n−1 sin 2n
an = ∑ .
A3 Given real numbers b0 , b1 , . . . , b2019 with b2019 6= 0, let

(k−1)π kπ
k=1 cos2 2n cos2 2n
z1 , z2 , . . . , z2019 be the roots in the complex plane of the
polynomial
Determine
2019 an
P(z) = ∑ bk zk . lim
n→∞ n3
.
k=0
Let µ = (|z1 | + · · · + |z2019 |)/2019 be the average of the B3 Let Q be an n-by-n real orthogonal matrix, and let
distances from z1 , z2 , . . . , z2019 to the origin. Determine u ∈ Rn be a unit column vector (that is, uT u = 1). Let
the largest constant M such that µ ≥ M for all choices P = I − 2uuT , where I is the n-by-n identity matrix.
of b0 , b1 , . . . , b2019 that satisfy Show that if 1 is not an eigenvalue of Q, then 1 is an
eigenvalue of PQ.
1 ≤ b0 < b1 < b2 < · · · < b2019 ≤ 2019.
B4 Let F be the set of functions f (x, y) that are twice con-
tinuously differentiable for x ≥ 1, y ≥ 1 and that satisfy
A4 Let f be a continuous real-valued function on R3 .
Sup- the following two equations (where subscripts denote
pose that for every sphere S of radius 1, the integral of partial derivatives):
f (x, y, z) over the surface of S equals 0. Must f (x, y, z)
be identically 0? x fx + y fy = xy ln(xy),
A5 Let p be an odd prime number, and let F p denote the x2 fxx + y2 fyy = xy.
field of integers modulo p. Let F p [x] be the ring of poly-
nomials over F p , and let q(x) ∈ F p [x] be given by For each f ∈ F , let
p−1 m( f ) = min ( f (s + 1, s + 1) − f (s + 1, s) − f (s, s + 1) + f (s, s)) .

s≥1
q(x) = ∑ ak xk ,
k=1
Determine m( f ), and show that it is independent of the
where choice of f .
ak = k(p−1)/2 mod p. B5 Let Fm be the mth Fibonacci number, defined by F1 =

F2 = 1 and Fm = Fm−1 + Fm−2 for all m ≥ 3. Let p(x) be
Find the greatest nonnegative integer n such that (x − the polynomial of degree 1008 such that p(2n + 1) =
1)n divides q(x) in F p [x]. F2n+1 for n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , 1008. Find integers j and k
such that p(2019) = Fj − Fk .
A6 Let g be a real-valued function that is continuous on
the closed interval [0, 1] and twice differentiable on the B6 Let Zn be the integer lattice in Rn . Two points in Zn
open interval (0, 1). Suppose that for some real number are called neighbors if they differ by exactly 1 in one
r > 1, coordinate and are equal in all other coordinates. For
which integers n ≥ 1 does there exist a set of points
g(x) S ⊂ Zn satisfying the following two conditions?
lim = 0.
x→0+ xr
(1) If p is in S, then none of the neighbors of p is in S.
Prove that either (2) If p ∈ Zn is not in S, then exactly one of the neigh-
bors of p is in S.
lim g0 (x) = 0 or lim sup xr |g00 (x)| = ∞.
x→0+ x→0+
Saturday, February 20, 2021
A1 How many positive integers N satisfy all of the follow- B1 For a positive integer n, define d(n) to be the sum of the
ing three conditions? digits of n when written in binary (for example, d(13) =
1 + 1 + 0 + 1 = 3). Let
(i) N is divisible by 2020.
2020
(ii) N has at most 2020 decimal digits.
(iii) The decimal digits of N are a string of consecutive
S= ∑ (−1)d(k) k3 .
k=1
ones followed by a string of consecutive zeros.
Determine S modulo 2020.
A2 Let k be a nonnegative integer. Evaluate
B2 Let k and n be integers with 1 ≤ k < n. Alice and Bob
k play a game with k pegs in a line of n holes. At the
k− j k + j
∑ 2 . beginning of the game, the pegs occupy the k leftmost
j=0 j
holes. A legal move consists of moving a single peg to
any vacant hole that is further to the right. The play-
A3 Let a0 = π/2, and let an = sin(an−1 ) for n ≥ 1. Deter- ers alternate moves, with Alice playing first. The game
mine whether ends when the pegs are in the k rightmost holes, so who-
∞ ever is next to play cannot move and therefore loses.
∑ a2n For what values of n and k does Alice have a winning
n=1 strategy?
converges. B3 Let x0 = 1, and let δ be some constant satisfying 0 <
δ < 1. Iteratively, for n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , a point xn+1 is
A4 Consider a horizontal strip of N +2 squares in which the
chosen uniformly from the interval [0, xn ]. Let Z be the
first and the last square are black and the remaining N
smallest value of n for which xn < δ . Find the expected
squares are all white. Choose a white square uniformly
value of Z, as a function of δ .
at random, choose one of its two neighbors with equal
probability, and color this neighboring square black if it B4 Let n be a positive integer, and let Vn be the set of inte-
is not already black. Repeat this process until all the re- ger (2n + 1)-tuples v = (s0 , s1 , · · · , s2n−1 , s2n ) for which
maining white squares have only black neighbors. Let s0 = s2n = 0 and |s j − s j−1 | = 1 for j = 1, 2, · · · , 2n. De-
w(N) be the expected number of white squares remain- fine
ing. Find
2n−1
w(N) q(v) = 1 + ∑ 3s j ,
lim . j=1
N→∞ N
1
and let M(n) be the average of over all v ∈ Vn . Eval-
A5 Let an be the number of sets S of positive integers for q(v)
which uate M(2020).
B5 For j ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4}, let z j be a complex number with
∑ Fk = n, |z j | = 1 and z j 6= 1. Prove that
k∈S
where the Fibonacci sequence (Fk )k≥1 satisfies Fk+2 = 3 − z1 − z2 − z3 − z4 + z1 z2 z3 z4 6= 0.

Fk+1 +Fk and begins F1 = 1, F2 = 1, F3 = 2, F4 = 3. Find
the largest integer n such that an = 2020. B6 Let n be a positive integer. Prove that
A6 For a positive integer N, let fN 1 be the function defined n √
by ∑ (−1)bk( 2−1)c
≥ 0.
k=1
N
N + 1/2 − n (As usual, bxc denotes the greatest integer less than or
fN (x) = ∑ (N + 1)(2n + 1) sin((2n + 1)x).
n=0 equal to x.)
Determine the smallest constant M such that fN (x) ≤ M

for all N and all real x.
1 Corrected from FN in the source.

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First International Olympiad, 1959

where p is a real parameter.

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 = 0

with unknowns x1 , x2 , x3 . The coefficients satisfy the conditions:

|a1 − a2 | x2 + |a1 − a3 | x3 + |a1 − a4 | x4 = 1

where a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 are four different real numbers.

is satisfied. Give necessary and sufficient conditions for equality.

(AB + BC + CA)2 ≤ 6(AD2 + BD2 + CD2 ).

For what tetrahedra does equality hold?

Prove that, if z1 , z2 , · · · , zn is any permutation of y1 , y2 , · · · , yn , then

P (tx, ty) = tn P (x, y)

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1q xq = 0

u0 = 2, u1 = 5/2, un+1 = un (u2n−1 − 2) − u1 for n = 1, 2, · · ·

where [x] denotes the greatest integer ≤ x.

f (1) < f (2) < · · · < f (n) < · · · ,

g(1) < g(2) < · · · < g(n) < · · · ,

1979/6. Let A and E be opposite vertices of a regular octagon. A frog starts

f (2) = 0, f (3) > 0, and f (9999) = 3333.

x0 = 1, and for all i ≥ 0, xi+1 ≤ xi .

x20 x21 x2n−1

a2 b(a − b) + b2 c(b − c) + c2 a(c − a) ≥ 0.

Determine when equality occurs.

where [x] denotes the greatest integer not exceeding x.

w(Qi1 + Qi2 , + + Qin ) ≥ w(Qi1 ).

0 < xn < xn+1 < 1

2. A triangle A1 A2 A3 and a point P0 are given in the plane. We define As = As−3

3. To each vertex of a regular pentagon an integer is assigned in such a way that

4. Let A, B be adjacent vertices of a regular n-gon (n ≥ 5) in the plane having

(i) f (xf (y))f (y) = f (x + y) for all x, y ≥ 0,

(Remark: A permutation f of a set S is a one-to-one mapping of S onto itself.

2. In an acute-angled triangle ABC the interior bisector of the angle A intersects

3. Let x1 , x2 , . . . , xn be real numbers satisfying x21 + x22 + · · · + x2n = 1. Prove that

5. Let n be an integer greater than or equal to 3. Prove that there is a set of n

(i) Find the set of values of BC 2 + CA2 + AB 2 .

2. Let n be a positive integer and let A1 , A2 , . . . , A2n+1 be subsets of a set B.

(a) Each Ai has exactly 2n elements,

3. A function f is defined on the positive integers by

for all positive integers n.

4. Show that set of real numbers x which satisfy the inequality

is a union of disjoint intervals, the sum of whose lengths is 1988.

5. ABC is a triangle right-angled at A, and D is the foot of the altitude from A.

6. Let a and b be positive integers such that ab + 1 divides a2 + b2 . Show that

(i) Each Ai contains 17 elements;

2. In an acute-angled triangle ABC the internal bisector of angle A meets the

(i) No three points of S are collinear, and

6. A permutation (x1 , x2 , . . . , xm ) of the set {1, 2, . . . , 2n}, where n is a positive

1. Chords AB and CD of a circle intersect at a point E inside the circle. Let M

2. Let n ≥ 3 and consider a set E of 2n − 1 distinct points on a circle. Suppose

3. Determine all integers n > 1 such that

4. Let Q+ be the set of positive rational numbers. Construct a function f : Q+ →

5. Given an initial integer n0 > 1, two players, A and B, choose integers n1 , n2 ,

n2k ≤ n2k+1 ≤ n22k .

Knowing n2k+1 , B chooses any integer n2k+2 such that

(a) A have a winning strategy?

(a) All angles are equal.

1. Given a triangle ABC, let I be the center of its inscribed circle.

2. Let n > 6 be an integer and a1 , a2 , . . . , ak be all the natural numbers

prove that n must be either a prime number or a power of 2.

Second Day July 18, 1991

It is known that BAC 60 and that AB BP AQ QB.

ac bd b d a cb d a c.