Subject : Thermodynamic II II ‫ دﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﻚ اﻟﺤﺮارة‬: ‫ﻣﻮﺿﻮع‬

Weekly Hours : Theoretical: 2 UNITS: 5 5‫ اﻟﻮﺣﺪات ؛‬2: ‫ ﻧﻈﺮي‬: ‫اﻟﺴﺎﻋﺎت اﻷﺳﺒﻮﻋﻴﺔ‬

Tutorial: 1 1 : ‫ﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸﺔ‬
Experimental : 1 1: ‫ﻋﻤﻠﻲ‬

week Contents ‫اﻟﻤﺤﺘﻮﻳﺎت‬ ‫اﻷﺳﺒﻮع‬

1. Definitions , phase change , pure substance ‫ اﻟﻤﺎدة اﻟﻨﻘﻴﺔ‬/ ‫ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ اﻟﻄﻮر‬/ ‫ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻔﺎت‬ .1
2. = = .2
3. Steam tables ‫ﺟﺪاول اﻟﺒﺨﺎر‬ .3
4. T-s , P v diagrams and h- s chart h-s ‫ او ﻣﺨﻄﻂ‬p-v، T-s ‫رﺳﻮﻣﺎت‬ .4
5. Steam process ‫إﺟﺮاءات اﻟﺒﺨﺎر‬ .5
6. = = .6
7. Dryness fraction measurement ‫ﻗﻴﺎس ﻧﺴﺒﺔ اﻟﺠﻔﺎف‬ .7
8. = = .8
9. Steam cycles Carnot cycle ‫دورات اﻟﺒﺨﺎر دورة آﺎرﻧﻮ‬ .9
10. Rankine cycles ‫دورة راﻧﻜﻦ‬ .10
11. Ranking cycle with superheat ‫دورة راﻧﻜﻦ ذو اﻟﺘﺴﺨﻴﻦ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻲ‬ .11
The effect of steam condition on thermal
12. ‫ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﺒﺨﺎر ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻜﻔﺎءة اﻟﺤﺮارة‬ .12
efficiency
13. Reheat cycle ‫دورة اﻋﺎدة اﻟﺘﺴﺨﻴﻦ‬ .13
14. Regenerative cycle , open feed heater ‫ ﻣﺴﺨﻦ ﺗﻐﺬﻳﺔ ﻣﻔﺘﻮح‬/ ‫دورة إﻋﺎدة اﻟﺘﻨﺸﻴﻂ‬ .14
15. Regenerative cycle , closed feed heater ‫ ﻣﺴﺨﻦ ﺗﻐﺬﻳﺔ ﻣﻐﻠﻖ‬/ ‫دورة إﻋﺎدة اﻟﺘﻨﺸﻴﻂ‬ .15
16. Air standard cycle ; Otto cycle ‫ دورة اوﺗﻮ‬: ‫دورات اﻟﻬﻮاء اﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ‬ .16
17. Air standard cycle ; Diesel cycle ‫ دورة دﻳﺰل‬: ‫دورات اﻟﻬﻮاء اﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ‬ .17
18. Air standard cycle ; Daul cycle ‫ اﻟﺪورة اﻟﻤﺰدوﺟﺔ‬: ‫دورات اﻟﻬﻮاء اﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ‬ .18
Mean effective pressure , and comparison ‫ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ اﻟﻀﻐﻂ اﻟﻔﻌﺎل واﻟﻤﻘﺎرﻧﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ دورات اﻟﻬﻮاء‬
19. ‫اﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ‬
.19
between air standard cycles
20. Simple gas turbine cycle ; Brayton cycle ‫دورة اﻟﺘﻮرﺑﻴﻦ اﻟﻐﺎزي اﻟﺒﺴﻴﻄﺔ دورة ﺑﺮاﺗﻦ‬ .20
21. Reciprocating compressors ‫اﻟﻀﻮاﻏﻂ اﻟﺘﺮددﻳﺔ‬ .21
22. The condition for minimum work ‫ﺷﺮط اﻟﺸﻐﻞ اﻷدﻧﻰ‬ .22
23. Isothermal efficiency ‫اﻟﻜﻔﺎءة اﻟﺤﺮارﻳﺔ‬ .23

24. Effect of clearance volume ‫ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﺣﺠﻢ اﻟﺨﻠﻮص‬ .24

25. Volumetric efficiency ‫اﻟﻜﻔﺎءة اﻟﺤﺠﻤﻴﺔ‬ .25

26. Actual indicator diagram ‫اﻟﻤﺨﻄﻂ اﻹرﺷﺎدي اﻟﺤﻘﻴﻘﻲ‬ .26
‫ إﺿﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﻤﺒﺮد – اﻟﺪاﺧﻠﻲ‬: ‫اﻟﻀﺎﻏﻂ ﻣﺘﻌﺪد اﻟﻤﺮاﺣﻞ‬
27. Multi – stage compressor :Plus inter cooler ( ‫) اﻟﺒﻴﻨﻲ‬
.27
28. The ideal inter mediate pressure ‫اﻟﻀﻐﻂ اﻟﻤﺜﺎﻟﻲ اﻷوﺳﻂ‬ .28
29. Energy balance for two – stage machine
‫ﻣﻌﺎدﻟﺔ اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻟﻀﺎﻏﻂ ذو ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺘﻴﻦ ﻣﻊ ﻣﺒﺮد ﺑﻴﻨﻲ‬ .29
with inter – cooler
The steady flow analysis of the compressor
30. ‫ﺗﺤﻠﻴﻞ اﻟﺠﺮﻳﺎن اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺮ ﻷﺟﺮاء اﻻﻧﻀﻐﺎط‬ .30
process
University of technology - Mechanical Engineering Department
Thermodynamic II, 2nd year
Steam engineering
Prepared by: Dr. Arkan Kh. Altayee & Dr. Aabdulkareem A.
Almusawi

References:-
1. Applied Thermodynamics for Engineering Technologists, by
Estop, T. D. and McConky, A.
2. Engineering Thermodynamics, Work and heat Transfer, by
Rogers, C. F. C. and Mayhew, Y. R.
3. Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 3/e, by Yunus
A. Cengel and Michael A. Boles

Fundamentals:

Steam: is water vapor at or above the boiling point. Steam has the widest
application as working fluid due the following reasonable reasons:-
1. Water is the most widely spread substance in nature.
2. Water and steam possess relatively good thermodynamic properties.
3. Water and steam do not have harmful effect on metal and living
organisms.

Evaporation: - is the process of vapor formation that occurs only from the
surface of the liquid and it takes place at any temperature.

Boiling: - is the process of vigorous vapor formation throughout the entire

mass of the liquid when a certain amount of heat is transferred to the liquid
through the walls of the confining vessel.

Condensation: - is the process of transition from vapor to a liquid phase.

Saturation temperature: - is the temperature at which the boiling occurs at a

certain given pressure. (T = Ts , p = p s )

1
Unsaturated water: - water where its temperature is below the saturated
temperature. (T < Ts )

Saturated steam: - also called “dry steam” is water liquid where it is

completely evaporated, changed from liquid to vapor, at (T = Ts , p = p s ).

Wet steam: - it is a mixture of saturated water and saturated steam

at (T = Ts , p = p s ).

Superheated steam: - is a steam at temperature higher than the saturated

temperature (T > Ts ).
The student should learn about the following processes: Fusion
(melting), Vaporization, Sublimation and Freezing (Solidification).

Changes of phase of matter of pure substance

Conceder a block of ice at low temperature in a piston-cylinder

arrangement, as in figure (01), at constant pressure of (1 atm ). As it is
successively heated up, it under goes the phase changes shown in figure
(02).

Figure (01) piston-cylinder arrangement

2
 Figure (02) phase change due to heating

For other pure substance

other than water, the behavior is
the same as in figure (02).
However, at low temperature, the
behavior of water is different
from that for other pure
substance, as show in figure (03).
Water gains a maximum volume
at ( t = 4 o C ).

Figure (03): Phase change difference for

pure water and other pure substance.

For engineering purpose, figure (02) is more related then figure (03).
Heating Process (A-B-C-D-E-F-G), which is under constant pressure, can be
repeated for different pressure from a value below triple point
( Tt = 273.16 K , p t = 0.006112 bar ) to a value above critical value
( Tc = 647.3 K , p c = 221.2 bar , v c = 0.00317 m 3 / kg ).

Triple point is…

Critical point is...

3
 Figure (04) shows
different heating processes
under different pressures.
Arrows (1) for
boiling, (2) for sublimation
and (3) for fusion denote
the variation of
temperature under different
pressures, see figure (05).

Figure (04): Phase change for

different heating processes under
different pressures for pure water
and other pure substance.

Figure (05): variations of boiling,

sublimation and fusion temperatures
with pressure for pure water and
other pure substance starting from
triple point.

4
 Figure (06): T-v diagram for pure water.

Figures (06) and

(07), which are
identical to figure (04-
a), are used to denote
saturation lines. This
(T-v) diagram, which is
drawn from experiment
Results, is used to draw
a more useful (T-s) and
(p-v) diagrams.

Figure (07): T-v diagram for pure water.

5
 T-s and p-v diagrams:

T-v diagram can be transposed into a more useful (T-s) and (p-v)
diagrams.

Figure (08): p-v diagram,

where unsaturated water
(liquid), wet steam (Liquid-
vapour mixture) and
superheated steam regions
are denoted. In addition,
saturated liquid line and
saturated (dry) steam line
are presented. Critical point
and triple point line are
also clear.

Figure (09): Temperature-

entropy diagram for steam.
This diagram is useful to
represent different steam cycle
processes. Constant pressure
lines and constant volume
lines are represented.

6
Determining Parameter of State of Steam and Basic Relations

Steam table:- the one used here is arranged by G.F.C. Rogers and
Y.R. Mayhew

1) Unsaturated water region: - All the specific properties of saturated

liquid are given in page (10), or simply can be approximated by saturated
water properties.

2) Saturated liquid: - All the specific properties of saturated liquid are

given as ( v f , u f , h f , s f ) at page (2) where saturated temperature ( t s ) is the
known value and pages (3, 4 and 5) where saturated pressure is the known
value.

3) Saturated vapour: - All the specific properties of saturated vapour are

given as ( v g , u g , h g , s g ) at page (2) where saturated pressure ( p s ) is the
known value and pages (3, 4 and 5) where saturated pressure is the known
value.

4) Superheated steam region: - All the specific properties are given as

( v g , u g , h g , s g ) at pages (6, 7, 8 and 9) where two properties should be
known. Usually properties are presented for different temperatures at each
pressure. For values of pressure and temperatures that are not presented, one
should interpolate the needed values from the existed values.

5) Wet steam region: - also called two phase (liquid-vapour) region.

Properties of wet steam at this are have intermediate values between
saturated liquid properties and saturated vapour properties. The dominant
properties depend on the position of the point in this region to which line it
is closer, i.e. depend on the ratio of dry steam amount to the total steam. This
ratio is called dryness ratio or simply quality (x).
At this region, lines of constant pressures and constant
temperatures are coincided. Therefore, they are not independent on
each other. And for this reason they are regarded as a single
property and anther property is needed to extract other properties.

7
 dry steam mass
Dryness ratio, x =
total steam mass

At point (1) mixture volume ( V1 )

is: -
V1 = VLiquid + VVapour … (01)
V1 = m 1 v 1 = m f v f + m g v g … (02)
mf mg
v1 = vf + vg … (03)
m1 m1
m1 = m f + m g … (04)
⎛ mg ⎞ m Figure (09): T-s diagram for steam.
v 1 = ⎜⎜1 − ⎟v f + g v g … (05)
⎝ m 1 ⎟⎠ m1 Evaluation of wet steam properties
v 1 = (1 − x 1 )v f + x 1 v g … (06)
v1 = v f + x 1 ( v g − v f ) … (07)

For moderate pressures, the specific volume of liquid is much smaller

than the specific volume of vapour,( v g >> v f ) , than:-
v1 = x 1 v g … (08)

Similarly for other properties:-

u 1 = u f + x 1 u fg … (09)
h 1 = h f + x 1 h fg … (10)
s 1 = s f + x 1s fg … (11)

Extracting steam properties by interpolation:-

Steam table cannot contain infinite data, then the between values are
evaluated by interpolation from previous and next values.

Steam basic relation: -

Steam properties can be evaluated from the following simple relations.

8
Unsaturated water:

For specific enthalpy

h w = h o + q senseble ;
( h o ) is the enthalpy at ( t = 0.01 o C , triple point) which is chosen to be zero.
In addition, also ( u o = 0, s o = 0 ). Where ( q sensable ) is the sensible heat
needed to raise water temperature. So,
t
h w = q sens. = ∫ c w , p dt = [c w ,p ] 0t (t w − 0 ) , ( t in o C )
0
For specific internal energy:

uw = hw

[c w , p ] 0t = 4.187 kJ kg.K as a mean value

For liquids the difference between ( c p ) and ( c v ) is very small. Moreover,
the variation of is small for normal pressures and temperatures. For practical
purpose, this variation is negligible and a mean value is used.

For entropy:

Δs = s w − s o
dq 1 T T
dT
dq = Tds ⇒ ds = = ∫ c w , p dT = 4.168∫
T T0 0
T
T
s w = 4.187 Ln w , where ( T ) in K.
273.3

Saturated water:

h f = h w ; u f = u w ; s f = s w at saturation temperature.

Wet steam:

h = h f + x h fg
h fg = h g − h f

9
u = u f + x u fg
u fg = u g − u f
u g = h g − (p s v g )
s = s f + x s fg
h fg
s fg =
Ts
( h fg ) is the latent heat for evaporation. At wet steam region, the specific heat
at constant pressure is variable due to gradual phase change. It sound that
( h g ) should be evaluated experimentally.

Saturated steam:

h = h f + h fg
u = u f + u fg
s = s f + s fg

Super heated steam:

h = h f + h fg + h sup
t sup
t sup
h sup = ∫ c sup,p dt = [c sup,p ] ts × t sup
ts

u = u f + u fg + u sup

u sup = h sup − p s v sup

s = s f + s fg + s sup
h sup
s sup =
Tsup

10
(h-s) diagram, also called mollier chart:-

This chart is useful for solving problems in thermodynamics. The

chart has constant pressure lines, constant temperature lines and constant
quality lines.
It is useful to analyze isentropic, steady state processes such as
isentropic compressions or expansions processes that occurred in nozzles,
diffusers, turbines and compressors. Where these processes are represented
by vertical line.
It is also useful to represent throttling processes (constant enthalpy
processes) which are occurred for example in throttling valves, expansion
valves. These processes are represented by horizontal line.

Figure (10): h-s (mollier) diagram for steam.

11
Reversible non-flow steam processes:-

1) constant volume processes: -

q12 − w 12 = Δu
dq = du + pdv
q12 = u 2 − u 1

Figure (11): constant volume process

2) constant pressure processes: -

q12 − w 12 = u 2 − u 1
w 12 = pΔv = pv 2 − pv1

∴ q12 = h 2 − h 1

Figure (12): constant volume process

3) constant temperature (isothermal) processes: -

dq = Tds
q12 = T (s 2 − s1 )
w 12 = q12 − Δu

Figure (13): isothermal process

4) isentropic (adiabatic ,reversible) processes: -

dq = 0
ds = 0 ⇒ s1 = s 2
w 12 = Δu = u 2 − u 1
also
dw = pdv
p1 v1γ = p 2 v 2γ Figure (14): isotropic process

1
 p1 v 1 − p 2 v 2
w 12 =
γ −1
At wet region ( γ ≈ 1.125 ) and at superheated region ( γ ≈ 1.3 ).

5) Polytrophic
processes: -

p1 v1n = p 2 v n2
p v − p2v2
w 12 = 1 1
n −1 Figure (15): polytropic process
p v − p2v2
q12 = (u 2 − u 1 ) + 1 1
n −1

Throttling process:-

Flow process within several devices in thermodynamics causes no

heat and work exchanging, and change of kinetic and potential energies is
considered negligible, see fig (16). This process is called throttling process.

Figure (16): throttling devices

2
 Throttling process is highly irreversible
due friction loses. From steady flow energy
equation (SFEE)

q − w = Δh + Δp.e. + Δk.e.
q=0;w=0
Δp.e. = g(z 2 − z1 ) = 0
Figure 17: flow in throttling valve
Δk.e. = 0.5(C 22 − C12 ) = 0
∴ Δh = 0
i.e. h 2 = h 1
Throttling process is a constant
enthalpy process, which is an
adiabatic irreversible process.

Throttling process is
represented in p-v, T-s and h-s
diagrams as shown in figures (18),
(19) and (20).

Figure (18): p-v diagram

Figure (19): T-s diagram Figure (20): h-s diagram

3
Measurement of dryness fraction of wet steam

Throttling calorimeter:

Figure 21: throttling calorimeter, where throttling process is drawn on h-s diagram

A sample of wet steam at ( p1 ) is taken from the main through

sampling tube. It is throttled by throttling valve to ( p 2 ) and temperature
( t 2 ), so that the steam leavening the throttling valve is superheated steam.

h1 = h 2
h 1 = h f 1 + x 1h fg1
h − h f1
x1 = 2 , which is the dryness fraction of wert steam in the main.
h fg1
This method can be used only if ( x 1 ≥ 0.95 ), otherwise, the throttling
process is represented by process (3-4), which is not useful.

4
Separating and throttling calorimeter:-

In this calorimeter, the moisture is first extracted from the steam

sample in separating calorimeter to increase dryness fraction above (0.95).
Pressure and temperature are remaining constant. The sample is then passes
through throttling calorimeter where it expands to superheated steam region
to ( p 3 ) and ( t 3 ).the value of ( h 3 ) is read then from superheated steam table.

Figure 22: separation-throttling calorimeter.

Figure 23: representation of two processes of separation-

throttling calorimeter on T-s and h-s diagrams.

5
p1 = p 2 ; And steam at (2) is still wet after separation but with less
moisture.

h 2 = h 3 = h f 1 + x 2 h fg1
h − h f1
x2 = 3
h fg1
m total = m1 + m 2

m 2 = m3

mass of dry steam

x1 =
total mass

mass of dry steam

x2 =
m2

∴ mass of dry steam = x 2 m 2

x 2m2
x1 =
m1 + m 2

Also from heat balance where the calorimeter is treated as a system, then:

m total * h 1 = m 1 h f 1 + m 2 h 2

m1 h f 1 + m 2 h 2
h1 =
m1 + m 2

h1 − h f 1
x2 =
h fg1

6
 Non-steady flow energy equation:-

& 1 , u1
m & in
W
c1 , p 1
v1 , z 1 m ′, u ′
m ′′, u ′′ & 2,u2
m
&
Q c2 , p2
in
Figure 24: non-steady flow energy equation. v2 , z2

For the open system shown, the flow is non-steady. This means that
the entered mass of worked fluid and the entered energies to the open system
do not equal to exit mass and energies with time. The difference causes the
mass and the energy of the system to change.

& in + m ⎛ c ⎞
Energy Entering the System = Q & 1 ⎜ u 1 + 1 + gz1 + p1 v1 ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
& in + m ⎛ c ⎞
Energy Leaving the System = W & 2 ⎜ u 2 + 2 + gz 2 + p 2 v 2 ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
Increase of the Energy of System, E = E ′′ − E ′ = m ′′u ′′ − m ′u ′

Energy Entering the System − Energy Leaving the System =

Increase of the Energy of System
⎡& ⎛ c1 ⎞⎤ ⎡ & ⎛ c2 ⎞⎤
⎢ Q in + m& 1 ⎜ u 1 + + gz 1 + p 1 v 1 ⎟ −
⎥ ⎢ Win + &
m 2 ⎜ u 2 + + gz 2 + p 2 v 2 ⎟⎥ =
⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦ ⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
[m& ′′u ′′ − m& ′u ′]
This equation is satisfying the conservation of energy. For conservation of
mass:-

&1 −m
m & ′′ − m
&2 =m &′

7
 Application of steady flow energy equation:-

The steady flow energy equation has the following form.

⎡& ⎛ c ⎞⎤ ⎡ & ⎛ c ⎞⎤
⎢Q in + m
& 1 ⎜ u 1 + 1 + gz 1 + p1 v1 ⎟⎥ − ⎢ Win + m
& 2 ⎜ u 2 + 2 + gz 2 + p 2 v 2 ⎟⎥ = 0
⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦ ⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦

a) Boilers and condensers:-

`

Figure 25: Condenser. Figure 26: Boiler.

For condensers; work exchange is For boilers; work exchange is zero,
zero, ΔPE and ΔKE is also zero, ΔPE and ΔKE is also zero,
then:- then:-

q out = h 1 − h 2 q in = h 2 − h 1
b) Turbines and compressors:-

Figure 28: Compressor.

Figure 27: Turbine.

Turbines; for isentropic expansion heat Compressors; for isentropic expansion

transfer is zero. Change of potential and heat transfer is zero. Change of potential
kinetic energies is zero also, then; and kinetic energies is zero also, then;
8
w out = h 1 − h 2 w in = h 2 − h 1
 c) Nozzles and diffusers:-

Figure 29: Nozzle. Figure 30: Diffuser.

In nozzles, the expansion is assumed In diffusers, the expansion is assumed
isentropic to obtain maximum velocity. isentropic to obtain maximum pressure.
There is no work and heat transfer and There is no work and heat transfer and
change of potential energy is negligible, change of potential energy is negligible,
then:- then:-

2
(
1 2
)
c 2 − c12 = h 1 − h 2 (
1 2
2
)
c1 − c 22 = h 2 − h 1
And nozzle efficiency is: And diffuser efficiency is:
c 22 p 2 − p1
ηN = ηD =
c′ 22 p 2 − p1
p 2 − p1 is pressure rise due to acual
c 2 is the final velocity due to actual
process.
process.
p ′2 − p1 is pressure rise due to isentropic
c′2 is the final velocity due to isentropic
process.
process

Isentropic efficiency:-

The isentropic efficiency is very important

tool to relate isentropic expansion to actual
expansion and isentropic compression to
actual compression.
h ′2 − h 1
ηise,comp. = to find ( h 2 ).
h 2 − h1
h − h4
ηise,exp . = 3 to find ( h 4 ).
h 3 − h ′4

9
Steam cycles:-

Carnot cycle:-

This cycle is hypothetical cycle, which is

used in steam field for explanation and
comparison purpose only. The cycle is composed
from the following processes:-

(1-2): is an isothermal processes where heat is

added through a boiler at maximum
temperature.
(2-3):is isentropic process where work is
extracted through turbine.

(3-4): is an isothermal process where heat is

rejected through a condenser at minimum
Figure 31: Carnot cycle.
temperature.
(2-3): is isentropic process where work is added
through water pump.

Although Carnot cycle has the maximum possible efficiency, but its
work ratio is low. Furthermore the pump needed to pump water-steam
mixture from (4) to (1) is complex, expensive and consumes high work., so
it is impractical for steam power plants.

workout put
η carnot =
heat added
w
= net
q in
w out − w in
=
q in
w
work ratio = net
w out

1
Rankin cycle:-

It is the ideal steam cycle, where steam is condensed

completely into water at (3). Therefore, pump needed to pump
saturated water from (3) to (4) is simple ordinary one and the woke
needed is also small, which means that it has a high work ratio.

(1-2): isentropic expansion through the

turbine.

(2-3) Heat is rejected at constant pressure and

steam is condensed. Point (2) may lies on dry
steam line or to the lift or to the right from
this line along ( p c = c ) line.

(3-4) isentropic compression, where water

pump exerts work to lift water from condenser
pressure to boiler pressure.
Figure 32: simple ideal Rankine cycle.
(4-1) heat addition at constant pressure.

Work out put:

w out = h 1 − h 2

Heat added:
q in = h 1 − h 4

Pump work:
w pump = h 4 − h 3

Heat rejected:
q out = h 2 − h 3

Figure 33: Steam power plant based on simple

and ideal Rankine cycle.

2
Net work out put:

w net = w turbine − w pump

= w out − w in

Rankine thermal efficiency:

Net work output w − w in

ηR = = out
heatadded q in
(h 1 − h 2 ) − (h 3 − h 4 )
=
h1 − h 3
In many cases, w pump << w turbine , then:
h − h2
ηR = 1
h1 − h 3
Pump work is also being expressed in terms of boiler and condenser
pressures. Taking into consideration that there is no heat transfer then:

dq = du + pdv = 0
dh = du + pdv + vdp

Liquids incompressible fluids at moderated pressures i.e. have a constant

volume, then:

∫ dh = ∫ vdp ⇒ Δh = vΔp
w pump = v water (p b − p c )

Work ratio:

It is another comparison criterion of performance in steam power plants. It is

define as the ratio of net output work to the total produced work. The higher
the value the best the plant for the same output power.
w net
work ratio =
w out

3
Specific steam consumption:

It is the amount of steam per unit time to produce one unit power. (s.s.c.) is
also a comparison criterion in steam power plants. The lower the value the
best the plant for the same output power. It gives a direct indication to the
relative size of the plant components.

m& s kg h
s.s.c. =
Pout kW

(m& s ) is steam mass flow rate in kilogram per hour required. However,
steam mass flow rate is usually measured in kilogram per second so it should
be multiply by (3600).
( Pout ) is output power in kilowatt.
& s * 3600
m
s.s.c. =
& s w net
m
3600 kg
=
w net kW.h

4
Influence of Steam Condition on Power Plant Performance:-

The effect of the inlet

and outlet steam conditions
in turbine has a great effect
on cycle thermal efficiency,
work ratio and s.s.c. by
comparison with Carnot
steam cycle that the
efficiency is increased as
the mean temperature at
which heat is added is
increased or as the
temperature at which heat is rejected is decreased. In addition,
efficiency is improved by increasing boiler pressure or decreasing
condenser pressure.
Increasing boiler temperature or pressure is limited, either by
thermal stresses or hoop stresses due to metallurgical limitation.
Decreasing condenser temperature or pressure is limited by
cooling water temperature (river water temperature) or pumping
functionality of building vacuum pressure at condenser side.

5
Rankine cycle with superheating:

In order to increase cycle

thermal efficiency, the mean
temperature at which heat is added
should be increased. One method to
do so is by increasing heating
temperature so that the produced
steam becomes super-heated.
This method has the advantage
of moving point (2) closer to dry
steam line where. This means that
either the steam leaving the turbine is of higher dryness fraction or dry or
even a bit little superheated, i.e. very low moisture contain. This moisture
contain at the final stages of turbine could harm the turbine blade.

h1 − h 2
ηR =
h1 − h 4
w net (h1 − h 2 ) − (h 4 − h 3 )
work ratio = =
w out h1 − h 4

3600 kg
s.s.c. =
w net kW.h

6
Rankine cycle with reheater:

There is a limit for

increasing boiler temperature.
Moreover, one long expansion
process may result in a wet steam
of low quality. Besides one
heavy, high number of stages is
not preferable. Instead of that
two-turbines (may be three) are
used. The first one is high-
pressure turbine (HPT) and the
second one is low-pressure
turbine (LPT). The expansion
process is subdivided into two
shorter processes. The steam leaving the (HPT) is heated again to energize it
to higher enthalpy. The heating system is called reheating. The reheating is
accomplished either in separate heating system near the turbines or at the
main furnace of the boiler. The steam condition at (LPT) exit is actually very
close to saturated steam line.

For perfect reheat: p 3 = p boiler 4 ; T3 = Tboiler

w out = (h 1 − h 2 ) + (h 3 − h 4 )
w in = (h 6 − h 5 )
q in = (h 1 − h 6 ) + (h 3 − h 4 )
q out = (h 4 − h 5)
w w − w in
η R = net = out
q in q in
w
work ratio = net
w out
3600 kg
s.s.c. =
w net kW.h

7
Regenerative Rankine Cycle:

Increasing cycle efficiency further is

possible by increasing the temperature of
the feed water that enters the boiler, which
led to the increase of mean temperature. It
is impractical to take feed water to pass
through the turbine, counter clockwise, in
order to gain higher temperature by means
of a heat exchanger. However, it is
practical to take some hot steam from the
turbine to heat the feed water. Increasing
feed water temperature before boiler called
regeneration, i.e. increase its enthalpy.
The process of taking some hot steam from the
turbine called turbine bleeding. That is why some
pointed mined called this cycle as “bleeding cycle”.
The Area shaded ( 7 ′ - 7 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 4′ ) which is
heat extracted from turbine, is equal to the area shaded
( 8′ - 8 - 1 - 6 - 5 - 5′ ) which is the heat gained by feed
water to raise its temperature to saturated temperature
at boiler pressure.

For optimum cycle performance, the

value of pressure along the turbine at which
the stem is bled is important. Almost that the
bleeding pressure value is at a temperature
( t s,bleed ), which is the mean temperature
between ( t s,boiler ) at boiler pressure and
( t s,condenser ) at condenser pressure. The
interval ( Δt s ) temperature is evaluated as:
t s , B − t s ,C
Δt s = ; Where n is the number of
n +1
heaters. For one feed-water heaters:
t s,B + t s.C
t s,bleed
2

8
Regenerative Rankine Cycle with Open Feed Water Heater:

Hot steam at ( p 7 ) from turbine of mass

fraction (m) is mixed with condensate
water at ( p 4 ) of mass fraction (1-m) in an
open feed water heater chamber.

From heat balance

h 5 = mh 7 + (1 − m)h 4
h − h4
m= 5
h7 − h4
w out = (h 1 − h 7 ) + (1 − m)(h 7 − h 2 )
w in = (h 4 − h 3 ) + (h 6 − h 5 )
q in = (h 1 − h 6 )
q out = (h 2 − h 3)
w w − w in
η R = net = out
q in q in
w
work ratio = net
w out
3600 kg
s.s.c. =
w net kW.h
Number of (OFWH) is up to five or more in order to increase cycle
efficiency, maintaining work ratio but with some penalty in (s.s.c.). The
disadvantage of such method is that each OFWH needs feed pump and for
further number of heaters the rise of cycle efficiency is dispensed with.

9
Regenerative Rankine Cycle with Closed Feed Water Heater:

For this cycle, no extra fee water pumps are needed. Moreover bled
steam pressure may not equal to incoming water since the open type is a heat
exchanger system and no mixing is occurred. There are two type of
(CFWH). They are :

1. Cascaded backward closed feed water heater.

2. Cascaded forward ward closed feed water heater.

Cascaded back ward closed feed water heater:

This is the usual type used.

Liquid at ( p 7 ) of high pressure is
throttling to lower pressure, for
example ( p 8 ).
p6 = p7 = p bleed
p 2 = p3 = p8
t5 = t7
h7 = h8 ≈ h5
h4 = h3 + w 34
From heat balance:

h 5 + mh 7 = mh 6 + h 4
h − h4
m= 5
h6 − h7
w out = (h 1 − h 6 ) + (1 − m)(h 6 − h 2 )
w in = (h 4 − h 3 )
q in = (h 1 − h 5 )
q out = (1 − m)(h 2 − h 8 ) + (h 8 − h 3 )

10
 Cascaded back ward closed feed water heater:

This type demands a mixing chamber

and one extra feedwater pump.

p 7 = p 8 = p bleed
h 7 from (h - s) chart .
h 4 = h 3 + w 34
t5 = t8
h8 ≈ h5
h 9 = h 8 + w 89

From heat balance:

Closed feed-water heater:

(1 − m)h 5 + mh 8 = mh 7 + (1 − m)h 4
h5 − h4
m=
h7 + h5 − h8 − h 4

Mixing camber: to evaluate ( h 6 ):

h 6 = mh 9 + (1 − m)h 5

w out = (h 1 − h 6 ) + (1 − m)(h 6 − h 2 )
w in = (h 4 − h 3 )
q in = (h 1 − h 5 )
q out = (1 − m)(h 2 − h 8 ) + (h 8 − h 3 )
11
Example:
o
The thermal power plant shown operates between (10 MPa , 450 C ) and
( 0.035 bar ) . Draw (T-s) diagram and find plant performance.

12