273

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Physiological adaptations to soccer specific endurance

training in professional youth soccer players
K McMillan, J Helgerud, R Macdonald, J Hoff
...............................................................................................................................
Br J Sports Med 2005;39:273–277. doi: 10.1136/bjsm.2004.012526

Background: Improved oxygen uptake improves soccer performance as regards distance covered,
involvements with the ball, and number of sprints. Large improvements in oxygen uptake have been shown
using interval running. A similar physiological load arising from interval running could be obtained using
the soccer ball in training.
Objectives: The main aim was to study physiological adaptations to a 10 week high intensity aerobic
interval training program performed by professional youth soccer players, using a soccer specific ball
dribbling track.
Methods: Eleven youth soccer players with a mean (SD) age of 16.9 (0.4) years performed high intensity
See end of article for aerobic interval training sessions twice per week for 10 weeks in addition to normal soccer training. The
authors’ affiliations specific aerobic training consisted of four sets of 4 min work periods dribbling a soccer ball around a
.......................
specially designed track at 90–95% of maximal heart frequency, with a 3 min recovery jog at 70% of
Correspondence to: maximal heart frequency between intervals.
Kenny McMillan, Glasgow Results: Mean Vo2max improved significantly from 63.4 (5.6) to 69.8 (6.6) ml kg21 min21, or 183.3
Celtic Football Club, (13.2) to 201.5 (16.2) ml kg20.75 min21 (p,0.001). Squat jump and counter movement jump height
Medical Department, 95
Kerrydale Street, Glasgow increased significantly from 37.7 (6.2) to 40.3 (6.1) cm and 52.0 (4.0) to 53.4 (4.2) cm, respectively
G40 3RE, UK; (p,0.05). No significant changes in body mass, running economy, rate of force development, or 10 m
kennymcmillan@hotmail. sprint times occurred.
com
Conclusion: Performing high intensity 4 min intervals dribbling a soccer ball around a specially designed
Accepted 20 July 2004 track together with regular soccer training is effective for improving the Vo2max of soccer players, with no
....................... negative interference effects on strength, jumping ability, and sprinting performance.

higher than 70 ml kg21 min21 for modern soccer players

D
ue to its acyclical nature and intensity, soccer is
classified as a high intensity intermittent team sport.1 have been recently reported.7 15 24
During competitive soccer match play, elite players The importance of Vo2max in soccer has been reflected by
cover a distance of about 10–12 km2–5 at an average intensity rank correlation of the most successful teams in the
close to the anaerobic threshold, being 80–90% of maximal Hungarian 1st Division Championship.26 Wisløff et al24
heart frequency (Hfmax) or 70–80% of maximal oxygen supported this aerobic power-success relationship by demon-
uptake (Vo2max).3 6 7 It is estimated that aerobic metabolism strating a clear difference in Vo2max between the top team
provides 90% of the energy cost of soccer match play.1 Rosenborg (67.6 ml kg21 min21) and a lower placed team
Therefore, it is a prerequisite in the modern game for the Strindheim (59.9 ml kg21 min21) in the Norwegian elite
elite soccer player to have high aerobic endurance fitness. division. The observation of a high correlation between
Pate and Kriska8 have described a model that incorporates Vo2max and distance covered during match play supports the
the three major factors that account for inter-individual adoption of training regimes that raise the Vo2max of soccer
variance in aerobic endurance performance, namely Vo2max, players to high levels.7 27 28 Smaros28 reported that in addition
lactate threshold (LT), and work economy (C), with to the strong correlation with the total distance covered in the
numerous studies supporting this model.7 9–13 The physiolo- game (r = 0.89), Vo2max also influenced the number of sprints
gical elements of this model can be used when studying the attempted during a match. It has been recently shown that by
physiological profiles of soccer players and the physiological improving the mean Vo2max of youth soccer players by 11%
adaptations to specific training interventions. over an 8 week period, a 20% increase in total distance
Vo2max is considered to be the most important component covered during competitive match play was manifested,
of endurance performance.14 15 Small alterations in LT occur along with a 23% increase in involvements with the ball
in response to running interventions when LT is expressed as and a 100% increase in the number of sprints performed by
a percentage of Vo2max.7 Minor changes have been shown for each player.7
running economy (CR) after running interventions, although In activities that involve dynamic work with large muscle
CR is positively influenced by maximal strength training mass utilisation, as in playing soccer, it is generally assumed
based on maximal mobilisation of force and rate of force that Vo2max is primarily limited by maximal cardiac output.29
development (RFD).16 Whereas untrained subjects are limited peripherally, trained
The mean Vo2max of elite soccer players is normally individuals are primarily limited centrally, with the maximal
reported to be between 55 and 68 ml kg21 min21.14 17–24
These moderate to high values are similar to those found Abbreviations: 1RM, one repetition maximum; C, work economy; CMJ,
counter movement jump; CR, running economy; Hf, heart frequency;
in other team sports,25 but are substantially lower than Hfmax, maximal heart frequency; LT, lactate threshold; RFD, rate of force
elite endurance performers where values close to development; SD, standard deviation; SJ, squat jump; Vo2max, maximal
90 ml kg21 min21 have been found.15 Individual values oxygen uptake

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274 McMillan, Helgerud, Macdonald, et al

stroke volume of the heart being accepted as the major window from the pre-test was used to obtain changes in RFD
limiting factor of Vo2max.30 31 Increased stroke volume has at the post-test.35 One repetition maximum (1RM) strength
recently been shown up to the level of Vo2max.32 was then obtained as the maximal weight the subjects were
Hoff and Helgerud15 thus argue that continuous interval able to raise in a half squat (90˚ angle in the knee joint
training for 3–8 min with a working intensity of 90–95% of between femur and tibia). Testing was carried out using 5 kg
Hfmax should increase Vo2max by increasing the maximal stages and 1–2 min between each trial. 1RM was normally
cardiac output by improving stroke volume. Recently, determined using three to five trials.
Helgerud et al7 33 showed the effectiveness of such a training Then 5 min after completion of the strength testing, each
regime, significantly increasing mean Vo2max and CR of soccer player commenced treadmill testing of CR and Vo2max. CR was
players using running and treadmill running as training measured at 9 km h21 at a treadmill inclination of 5.5%. The
modes, respectively. Similar physiological load could be average value of oxygen uptake (Vo2max) between 4 and
obtained by using a specifically designed soccer track where 4.5 min was used to calculate CR. The velocity of the treadmill
the subjects dribble a soccer ball instead of regular running.34 was then increased by 1 km h21 every minute to a level that
This might however raise different problems in terms of the brought the subject close to exhaustion after approximately
subjects and coaches’ control of intensity, control of the ball, 5–6 min. Inclination of the treadmill was kept constant at
etc, that might influence training execution and response. 5.5%. Heart frequency (Hf) was determined using short range
The main aim of this study was to intervene in a radio telemetry (Polar Accurex Plus, Polar Electro, Kempele,
professional youth soccer team using high intensity interval Finland). The highest Hf measured throughout the test was
training with the players dribbling a soccer ball around a recorded as Hfmax. Vo2max, minute ventilation, and breathing
specifically designed track. An improvement in Vo2max of frequency were measured using a Cortex Metamax II device
similar magnitude as that attained by Helgerud et al7 for (Cortex, Leipzig, Germany), a portable metabolic test system
youth players and by Helgerud et al33 for Champions League that has been previously validated.36
players was hypothesised, with no adverse effects on On the following day, each player’s sprint acceleration was
sprinting and jumping ability. A secondary aim of this study assessed over a 10 m distance.37 After a 15 min warm up,
was to present normative physiological data on professional each player carried out three maximal sprints from a static
youth soccer players. position (0 m behind first photocell), with each trial
separated by 3 min of rest. The sprint tests were performed
METHODS on an indoor running track and 10 m sprint time was
Subjects recorded using photocells (Newtest Powertimer, Oulu,
Sixteen male youth soccer players from Celtic Football Club’s Finland).
U-17’s Youth Academy squad (Glasgow, Scotland, UK)
participated in the study. The players studied were all full Training intervention
time professional soccer players and trained on a daily basis. The aerobic training intervention consisted of interval
Seven of the players tested are of international standard for training, comprising four bouts of 4 min work periods
their age group. Each subject reviewed and signed consent dribbling a soccer ball (Mitre ISO League, Mitre, Wilmslow,
forms in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and the Cheshire, UK) around a specially designed track34 (fig 1) on
Human Research Review Committee at the Norwegian an artificial field-turf pitch. Training cones used in the
University of Science and Technology prior to the study. dribbling circuit were 0.3 m high and 0.15 m wide. Hurdle
Subjects were informed about the test protocols, but without height was set at 0.5 m. Working intensity was at 90–95% of
being informed about the aim of the study. The players’ each player’s Hfmax, with work periods separated by 3 min of
physical characteristics are presented in table 1. jogging at 70% of Hfmax. All players wore a Polar Team
System heart rate belt and monitor (Polar Electro) through-
Testing out the interval training. The interval training was performed
Each player’s mass and height were recorded upon entering two times a week at the end of the soccer training session, on
the laboratory. The players then performed a 10 min warm the same days and time of day throughout the intervention
up on a treadmill (Technogym RunRace, Gambettola, Italy) period. No emphasis was placed on improving strength,
at an intensity of approximately 60–70% of Vo2max. Squat sprinting, or jumping performance throughout the interven-
jump (SJ) height with no arm swing, counter movement tion period. The 10 week intervention period was carried out
jump (CMJ) height with no arm swing, and RFD were directly after the off-season intermission period, encompass-
determined using a force platform (Kistler, Winterthur, ing the 6 week pre-season preparation period and the first
Switzerland). Jumping height was determined as the centre 4 weeks of the competitive season.
of mass displacement calculated from force-time character-
istics and body mass. The best jump from three attempts was Allometric scaling
recorded. A 2 min rest period was allowed between efforts. Oxygen uptake is a measure of power and, in order to be
Hands were placed on the hips during the jump tests. RFD independent of absolute body mass, should be expressed in
was calculated from an SJ performed from a position with a
ml per kg lean body mass raised to a power of 0.67.38 Vo2max
90˚ angle in the knee joint (between femur and tibia). RFD
expressed as ml kg21 min21 implies 1 : 1 linearity between
was calculated as the force from 10 to 90% of peak external
oxygen uptake and body mass, which is not the case.39 When
force registered from the force platform divided by the time
expressing Vo2max as ml kg21 min21, light individuals are
used to exert that force. The same start and peak force
over-estimated in terms of work capacity and heavy
individuals are under-estimated. The opposite is true when
evaluating the oxygen cost of running at sub-maximal
Table 1 Physical characteristics of players (n = 11) workloads. When comparisons amongst people of different
Age (years) Height (cm) Mass (kg) Hfmax (beats min21)
body mass are made for running, oxygen uptake should be
expressed as ml kg20.75 min21.13 39 Expressing Vo2max in
16.9 (0.4) 177.0 (6.4) 70.6 (8.1) 199 (8) relation to the power 0.67 or 0.75 may not be critical as long
as the unit approximates the theoretical value and not the
Values are mean (SD).
traditional body mass.13

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Endurance training in professional youth soccer players 275

25 m

30 m

6m

10 m

7m

10 m
7m

10 m
7m
55 m

10 m
18 m

2m B

15 m

10 m

Start

Figure 1 Soccer specific dribbling track used for high intensity interval training sessions. Players dribble a soccer ball around the track, lift the soccer
ball over the hurdles, and jump over the hurdles. Players dribble backwards with the soccer ball between points A and B.

Statistical analysis (5.6) to 69.8 (6.6) ml kg21 min21, or 183.3 (13.2) to 201.5
All results are reported as means and standard deviations (16.2) ml kg20.75 min21. Mean body mass was unchanged
(SD) calculated by conventional procedures. Differences from after the intervention period.
pre- to post-training were calculated using a t test, with When treadmill running at 9 km h21 at an inclination of
results accepted as significant at p,0.05. Changes from pre- 5.5%, CR was unchanged by the intervention. However, mean
to post-training in Vo2max and CR given in per cent are Hf at this workload decreased significantly from 162 (14) to
calculated on the basis of the unit ml kg20.75 min21. 154 (14) beats min21 (p,0.05).
No significant changes in RFD and 10 m sprint perfor-
RESULTS mance were evident. SJ and CMJ height increased from 37.7
During the 10 week, twice a week intervention, the players in (6.2) to 40.3 (6.1) cm and 52.0 (4) to 53.4 (4.2) cm,
this study completed 16 (80%) of the scheduled 20 interval respectively (p,0.05).
training sessions. Four sessions were uncompleted due to the
players competing in a 1 week tournament and mid-week DISCUSSION
competitive matches. Five players of the 16 assessed pre- The training intervention used in this study elevated mean
intervention were withdrawn from the study due to injuries Vo2max by 6.4 ml kg21 min21 or 9.0%. Mean Vo2max
not connected with the training intervention (three players) increased from a typical soccer player value of 63.4 (5.6)
and unavailability at the post-intervention session (two to 69.8 (6.6) ml kg21 min21, or 183.3 (13.2) to 201.5
players). (16.2) ml kg20.75 min21. Removing the goalkeeper’s Vo2max
The 10 week aerobic training intervention manifested value from the pre- and post-intervention results shows
significant improvements in Vo2max (table 2) of 9% an improvement in mean Vo2max from 64.7 (3.9) to
(p,0.001). The mean Vo2max increased from 4.45 (0.37) to 70.9 (5.7) ml kg21 min21, or 186.3 (9.2) to 204.0
4.87 (0.45) l min21, which equates to a change from 63.4 (14.8) ml kg20.75 min21 for the outfield players (n = 10).

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276 McMillan, Helgerud, Macdonald, et al

Table 2 Pre- and post-training intervention The authors of this study are aware that this study would
physiological results (n = 11) have benefited from data from a control group. The use of
controls is difficult, if not impossible, when dealing with
Pre-training Post-training professional soccer clubs and players. However, control group
Body mass (kg) 70.6 (8.1) 70.2 (8.2)
data from a previous study by Helgerud et al7 can be referred
Vo2max to. The control group performed additional technical training
l min21 4.45 (0.37) 4.87 (0.45)** whilst the training group performed high intensity aerobic
ml kg21 min21 63.4 (5.6) 69.8 (6.6)** interval training (464 min intervals at 90–95% Hfmax) twice a
ml kg20.75 min21 183.3 (13.2) 201.5 (16.2)**
CR (9 km h21, 5.5% inclination)
week for 8 weeks. The Vo2max of the training group improved
ml kg20.75 m21 0.85 (0.06) 0.85 (0.05) by 11% over the 8 week intervention, but the Vo2max of the
Hf (beats min21) 162 (14) 154 (14)* control group was unchanged (58.4 (4.3) to 59.5
Strength (4.4) ml kg21 min21).
1RM half squat (kg) – 129.1 (11.4)
Relative strength – 1.85 (0.12)
The CR of the players in this study was not significantly
(kg kg(bm)21) changed after the training intervention. This is in contrast to
Relative strength – 7.49 (0.39) the findings of Helgerud et al7 who reported an improved CR
(kg kg(bm)20.67) of 6.7% in junior players, but of only 3.7% when using
Sprint test
10 m (s) 1.96 (0.07) 1.96 (0.06)
treadmill training with elite players,33 with the latter
Force platform tests improvement explained by gains arising from concurrent
RFD (N s21) 3553 (1492) 3654 (1487) maximal strength training. It should be noted that the
SJ (cm) 37.7 (6.2) 40.3 (6.1)* training intervention of Helgerud et al7 involved straight line
CMJ (cm) 52.0 (4) 53.4 (4.2)*
running only, therefore an improved CR may be expected for
*p,0.05, **p,0.001, significantly different from pre-intervention value. junior players with relatively low endurance values on the
basis of more running practice. The aerobic endurance
intervention in the present study was carried out dribbling
a soccer ball around a specially designed track.34 Dribbling a
Helgerud et al7 used 4 min intervals at 90–95% Hfmax with soccer ball around the track raises the oxygen demand when
youth soccer players over an 8 week training period and compared to running,41 as does the frequent changes in
promoted a Vo2max increase of 11%, an increase from 58.1 direction and pace involved. Hoff et al34 reported that a mean
(4.5) to 64.3 (3.9) ml kg21 min21. Although the players in exercise intensity of 93.5% Hfmax when dribbling a soccer ball
the present study had a mean Vo2max score greater than the around the track corresponded to 91.7% Vo2max. CR was
post-intervention values found by Helgerud et al,7 large unchanged in the present study, but it can be postulated that
improvements in Vo2max were still attained. The training soccer specific work economy may have improved somewhat,
intervention of Helgerud et al7 manifested improvements in with relevant gains not detectable by conventional treadmill
Vo2max of 0.67% per training session, compared to 0.56% in testing.7
the present study. The somewhat greater efficiency of Although CR was unchanged after the intervention period,
Helgerud’s intervention may be due to the lower initial mean Hf for treadmill running at 9 km h21 at 5.5%
aerobic fitness levels of the Norwegian junior players in that inclination decreased significantly from 162 (14) to 154
experiment. (14) beats min21 (p,0.001). This decrease in Hf could be
The initial and post-intervention mean Vo2max values of attributed to an increased Vo2max. A reduction in sub-
the Scottish youth players assessed in the present study maximal Hf of approximately 10 beats min21 is indica-
are greater than those of Norwegian youth players of similar tive of an increase in Vo2max of approximately
age7 and also of Spanish Premier Liga soccer players.40 3–5 ml kg21 min21.7 13 33
Indeed, the Vo2max of the Scottish players in this study are Several authors have concluded that endurance training
comparable to elite Norwegian Champions League soccer inhibits or interferes with strength42–45 and therefore power
players, who possessed a mean (SD) Vo2max of 200.2 performance.46 1RM half squat strength was measured pre-
(8.4) ml kg20.75 min21, which are the highest oxygen uptake and post-intervention in the present study, but due to the
values reported for a soccer team.24 It is suggested that the players being limited by technique and apprehension as they
modern 75 kg soccer player should have a Vo2max above were not familiar with this exercise movement, the recorded
70 ml kg21 min21, or 205 ml kg20.75 min21.15 Five players values for the pre-intervention assessment results were
in this study attained a Vo2max greater than artificially low. During the final 4 weeks of the endurance
205 ml kg20.75 min21 after the intervention period, with training intervention period technical training for carrying
none of the players possessing this level of aerobic fitness out a safe half squat was performed twice a week using an
pre-intervention. unloaded Olympic bar. Therefore, only post-intervention
The first 6 weeks of the intervention period in this study squat strength scores for the players in this study are
encompassed the pre-season training regime, and it is reported. RFD and 10 m sprint times in the present study
plausible that some of the improvements in Vo2max mani- were unaffected by the aerobic intervention program and the
fested were attributable to the players returning to pre- lifting technique program, although jumping height
season in a de-trained state, due to the 6 week summer improved significantly over the 10 week period (p,0.05).
intermission period. It is also plausible that improvements in Therefore, it appears that power related performance was not
Vo2max in this study may have resulted from the conventional hindered by the aerobic interval training regime used in the
soccer training the players participated in (for example, present study. Similarly, Helgerud et al7 showed substantial
small-sided game play, technical/tactical training), although gains in Vo2max from an 8 week endurance training inter-
it should be noted that the only endurance training that the vention with no reduction in sprinting and jumping abilities.
players performed over the pre-season period in this training High intensity aerobic 4 min intervals are an effective tool
study were the high intensity aerobic interval sessions. Some for increasing Vo2max in soccer players, with the training
studies have not reported large changes in Vo2max of soccer effect of each session being approximately 0.5%. The results
players after pre-season training. For example, Bangsbo1 from this study and that of Helgerud et al7 33 demonstrate that
reported only small increases in Vo2max after a 5 week pre- it is possible to elevate the Vo2max of youth soccer players
season training period in professional soccer players. from typical values (for example, 58–64 ml kg21 min21) to

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Endurance training in professional youth soccer players 277

What is already known on this topic What this study adds

Improving Vo2max in soccer players has previously been This study has shown that high intensity aerobic interval
shown to significantly increase work rate during competitive training designed to increase Vo2max can be performed
soccer match play. It has previously been demonstrated that effectively by dribbling a soccer ball around a specially
the Vo2max of soccer players can be increased by performing designed track. Performing high intensity aerobic interval
high intensity aerobic interval training at 90–95% of Hfmax training in addition to conventional soccer training can
using conventional running. elevate the Vo2max of soccer players to levels approaching
70 ml kg21 min21.

levels approaching or exceeding 70 ml kg21 min21 without

hindering power related performance. For example, soccer 17 Williams C, Reid RM, Couttes R. Observation on the aerobic power of
university rugby players and professional soccer players. Br J Sports Med
players with a moderate initial Vo2max of approximately 1973;7:390–1.
60 ml kg21 min21 can raise their Vo2max to a level approach- 18 Withers RT, Roberts RGD, Davies GJ. The maximum aerobic power,
ing 70 ml kg21 min21 by performing four sets of 4 min high anaerobic power and body composition of South Australian male
representatives in athletics, basketball, field hockey and soccer. J Sports Med
intensity intervals at 90–95% Hfmax twice a week over a Phys Fitness 1977;17:391–400.
10 week training period, in addition to regular soccer 19 Thomas V, Reilly T. Fitness assessment of English League soccer players
training. throughout the competitive season. Br J Sports Med 1979;13:103–9.
20 Rhodes EC, Mosher RE, McKenzie DC, et al. Physiological profiles of the
In conclusion, high intensity aerobic interval training can Canadian Olympic soccer team. Can J Appl Sport Sci 1986;11:31–6.
be effectively performed by dribbling a soccer ball around a 21 Nowacki PE, Cai DY, Buhl C, et al. Biological performance of German soccer
specially designed track. The addition of high intensity players (professionals and juniors) tested by special ergometry and treadmill
methods. In: Reilly T, Lees A, Davis K, et al, eds. Science and football. London:
interval training at 90–95% Hfmax to the training regimes of E & FN Spon, 1988:145–57.
professional youth soccer players can elevate Vo2max levels 22 White JE, Emery TM, Kane JL, et al. Pre-season fitness profiles of professional
from low to moderate values to that of elite Champions soccer players. In: Reilly T, Lees A, Davis K, et al, eds. Science and football.
London: E & FN Spon, 1988:164–71.
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K McMillan, R Macdonald, Glasgow Celtic Football Club, Glasgow, UK et al, eds. Science and football. London: E & FN Spon, 1988:95–107.
J Helgerud, J Hoff, Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, 27 Reilly T, Thomas V. A motion analysis of work-rate in different positional roles
in professional football match-play. J Hum Mov Stud 1976;2:87–97.
Faculty of Medicine, Norwegian University of Science and Technology,
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Trondheim, Norway Proceedings of the 1st International Congress on Sports Medicine Applied to
Competing interests: none declared Football. Rome: D Guanillo, 1980:795–801.
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