Module 1-2 PDF
Module 1-2 PDF
Module 1-2 PDF
Prashansha Srivastava
Assistant Prof.
MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO CLIMATE
Objective – The objective to study climate on global region, local levels and
relating climate to design and human thermal comfort, including day lightning
studies to understand the lightning of indoor spaces.
Solar radiation Quality: The earth receives almost all the energy from the sun
in the form of radiation ,thus the sun is the dominating influence on .+
spectrum of solar radiation extends from 290 to 2300 nm(nanometre=10¯9
m).According to human means of perception we can distinguish
•Ultra-violet radiation,290 to 380 photochemical
effects,bleaching,sunburn,etc.
•Visible lights,380 (violet to 700nm(red)
•Short infra-red radiation,700 to 2300 nm,radiant heat with some photo
chemical effects.
•Tropical climate are those climate where heat is the dominant problem, where
for the greater part of the year building serve to keep the occupants cool,rather
than warm,where the annual mean temperature is not less than 20⁰c.
•In general tropical climates cover a large portion of the earth surface between
latitudes 25 ⁰ N and S.
•In most of this region ,temperature change at least as much from day to night
as from summer to winter.
location Belt near equator 15 0 N-S Islands within the equatorial belt and in
Mombasa, Singapore, Jakarta etc.. the trade wind zone.
Caribbean's and Philippines
Seasonal variation Very little, the only punctuation is Are negligible.
periods with more or less rain,
occurrence of gusty winds and
electric storms.
Humidity HIGH
RH-------------- 55-100% (about 75%) 55-100%
VP------------- 2500-3000N /M 2 . 1750-2500N /M 2 .
Solar radiation Diffused radiation but strong and Strong and mainly direct
mainly cause painful sky glare.
Because of high cloud and vapor
content heat is not easily
dissipated.
wind Low velocity,calm periods are Trade winds blow predominantly at 6/7
frequent but strong wind during m/s.provide relief from heat and
rain squall. humidity.much higher velocity during
Gusts of 30m/s usually in 1 or 2 cyclones.
directions reported
vegetation Grows quickly, red & brown Is less luxuriant and of lighter green
laterite soil generally poor for ag. color than of w-h climate.
Sub soil water table is high. Sub soil water table is fairly low.
Special characters High humidity accelerates mould Serious seasonal hazards due to the
and algal growth,rusting and tropical cyclones
rooting. High salt content encourages the
Organic building material tend to corrosion in costal areas.
decay rapidly.
HOT DRY DESSERT CLIMATE
These climates occur in two belts at latitudes between approximately 15 and 30⁰
north and south of the equator. Air temperature varies between 43 to
49⁰C,humidity varies between 10 to 55%.Precipitation is slight and variaable
throughout the year from 50 to 155 N/m².
Wind are usually local.
HOT-DRY DESERT OR SEMI HOT DRY MARITIME DESERT
DESERT CLIMATE CLIMATE
location Latitude 15 0- 300 N-S of equator. Same latitudes where the sea adjoins
Baghdad,phoenix the land mass. Kuwait,Karachi
Air temperature Mean Hot period cool period Hot period Cool Period
max------- 430-490 C 27 0 -32 0 C about300 C 21 0 c 26 0 c
min--------- 240-300 C 10 0 -18 0 C 240-300 c 10 0 c 18 0 c
Diurnal changes---- 17 0 -22 0 C 09 0 -12 0 C
Humidity
RH-------------- 10-55% 50-90%
VP------------- 750-1500N /M 2 . 1500-2500N /M 2 .
high evaporation can create
uncomfortable conditions
Precipitation Slight and variable. 50- Very low
Annual rain fall 155mm
Flash rain fall may occur in
some areas while some may
not receive fall for years.
Sky conditions Normally clear As in desert climate but little more
cloud in the form of thin transparent
haze can cause glare.
HOT-DRY DESERT OR SEMI HOT DRY MARITIME DESERT
DESERT CLIMATE CLIMATE
Solar radiation Strong and mainly direct. Strong with higher diffuse component
Diffused radiation only during dust than desert climate due to thin cloud
haze periods. and suspended moisture.
wind Usually local. Due to temperature Mostly local. Costal winds due to
inversion local whirl winds often unequal heating and cooling of land
created. and water surface
Winds are hot, caring dust and
sand,often develop in to dust
storm.
vegetation Is sparse due to lack of rain and low Is sparse, not more than some dry
humidity.soil , dusty and dry.would grass. Ground and rocks are brown and
generally be fertile if irrigated. red.
Water table is very low.
Special characters During certain months dust and Dust and sand storms may occur.
sand storms may be frequent. Salt content encourages the corrosion.
The high day time temperatures
and rapid cooling at night may
cause materials to crack and break
up.
COMPOSITE OR MONSOON CLIMATE
These climate usually occurs in large land masses near the tropics of cancer and
capricorn, which are sufficiently far from the equator to experience marked
seasonal changes in solar radiation and wind direction. Two season occur
normally, approximately two-thirds of the year is hot –dry and the one-third is
warm-humid.
COMPOSITE OR MONSOON TROPICAL UPLAND CLIMATE
CLIMATE
location Occur in large land mass near the Mountainous regions and plateaux
tropic of cancer and tropic of more than 900- 1200m above sea
Capricorn level.
Lahore,New Delhi Mexico city,Nairobi
2/3 –hot dry, 1/3-warm
Air temperature Mean Hot dry WH cool dry
max------- 32⁰c - 43⁰c
min---------
Diurnal changes----
Sky conditions Mostly vary with season.heavily Normally clear or partly cloudy.(40%)
overcast and dull during monsoon During monsoon sky is overcast.
and clear in dry seasons.
COMPOSITE OR MONSOON TROPICAL UPLAND CLIMATE
CLIMATE
Solar radiation Alternate between warm humid and Strong and mainly direct during
dessert climate clear periods.
Diffuse as cloud cover increases.
wind Hot & dusty during dry period. Are variable,predominantly N-S
Directional changes in the easterly.
prevailing wind at the beginning of Velocity rarely exceeds 15m/s
warm humid season bringing rain
clouds and humid air from sea.
Monsoon winds are fairly strong
and study.
Massive structure.
Design Criteria
• Increase thermal resistance
• Increase thermal capacity
• Increase buffer spaces
• Decrease air exchange rate Roof insulation,
wall insulation and double glazing
• Thicker walls
• Air locks / lobbies
• Reduce shading
• Utilize heat from appliances
• Trapping heat
• Orientation and shape of the building
• Uses of trees as wind barriers.
COMPOSITE
CLIMATE.. covers the central part
of India.
Composite climate displays the
characteristics of hot & dry,
warm & humid as well as cold climates.
Design here are guided by longer prevailing
climatic conditions Their characteristics
change from season to season alternating
between long hot, dry periods to shorter
periods of concentrated rainfall & high
humidity.
India being a tropical country, most of
design decisions would pertain to cooling.
The general recommendations of hot & dry
climates would be
applicable for New Delhi for most of the year Represents the regions having
except Monsoon Composite
where Ventilation is essential. Eg:Kanpur,
Allahabad.
Some of the design features for buildings in this climate are :
FORM & PLANNING
• Open spaces such as courtyards are beneficial.
•Buildings should be grouped in such a way as to take advantage of prevailing
breezes during the short periods when air movement is necessary.
• A moderately dense low rise is also suitable for this climate , which will ensure
protection of outdoor spaces.
•Mutual sharing of external walls , shelter from the wind in the cold season, shelter
from dust and reduction of surfaces exposed to solar radiation.
ROOFS
•The roof pond system requires a body of
water to be located in the roof, protected
Controlled by exterior movable insulation
• This body of water is exposed to direct
solar Gain which absorbs & Stores. Since
Thermal storage of ceiling of the building
It will radiate uniform low temperature
MICROCLIMATE/SITE CLIMATE
A microclimate is a local set of atmospheric conditions that differ from those in the
surrounding areas, often with a slight difference but sometimes with a substantial
one. The term may refer to areas as small as a few square meters or square feet (for
example a garden bed or a cave) or as large as many square kilometers or square
miles. These conditions are generally grouped under the term of ‘microclimate’, which
includes wind, radiation, temperature, and humidity experienced around a building. A
building by its very presence will change the microclimate by causing a bluff obstruction to
the wind flow, and by casting shadows on the ground and on other buildings. A designer has
to predict this variation and appropriately account for its effect in the design.
The microclimate of a site is affected by the following factors:
(A) landform
(B) vegetation
(C) waterbodies
(D) street width and orientation
(E) open spaces and built form
(A) Landform
Landform represents the topography of a site. It may be flat, undulating or sloping. Major
landforms affecting a site are mountains, valleys and plains. Depending on the macroclimate
and
season, some locations within a particular landform experience a better microclimate than
others.
• In valleys, the hot air (being lighter) rises while cooler air having higher density,
settles into the depressions, resulting in a lower temperature at the bottom. Upward
currents form on sunny slopes in the morning. By night, the airflow reverses
because cold ground surfaces cool the surrounding air, making it heavier and
causing it to flow down the valley. Moreover, the wind flow is higher along the
direction of the valley than across it due to unrestricted movement.
• On mountain slopes, the air speed increases as it moves up the windward side,
reaching a maximum at the crest and a minimum on the leeward side. The
difference in air speed is caused due to the low pressure area developed on the
leeward side.
(B) Waterbodies
• Waterbodies can be in the form of sea, lake, river, pond or fountains. Since
water has a relatively high latent heat of vapourisation, it absorbs a large
amount of heat from the surrounding air for evaporation. The cooled air can
then be introduced in the building. Evaporation of water also raises the
humidity level. This is particularly useful in hot and dry climates.
• Since water has a high specific heat, it provides an ideal medium for
storage of heat that can be used for heating purposes.
• Large water bodies tend to reduce the difference between day and night
temperatures because they act as heat sinks. Thus, sites near oceans and
large lakes have less temperature variation between day and night, as well
as between summer and winter as compared to inland sites. Also, the
maximum temperature in summer is lower near water than on inland sites.
• The wind flow pattern at a site is influenced by the presence of a large
waterbody in thefollowing way. Wind flow is generated due to the
difference in the heat storing capacity of water and land, and the
consequent temperature differentials. During the day, the land heats up
faster than the water, causing the air over the land to rise and be replaced
by cool air from water. Hence, the breeze blows towards the land from
water during the day and in the reverse direction at night. (as land cools
more rapidly than water).
(C) Vegetation
Vegetation plays an important role in changing the climate of a city, as seen in section
2.5. It is also effective in controlling the microclimate. Plants, shrubs and trees cool the
environment when they absorb radiation for photosynthesis. They are useful in shading
a particular part of the structure and ground for reducing the heat gain and reflected
radiation. By releasing moisture, they help raise the humidity level. Vegetation also
creates different air flow patterns by causing minor pressure differences, and thus can
be used to direct or divert the prevailing wind advantage.
Based on the requirement of a climate, an appropriate type of tree can be selected.
Planting deciduous trees such as mulberry to shade east and west walls would prove
beneficial in hot and dry zones. In summer, they provide shade from intense morning
and evening sun, reduce glare, as well as cut off hot breezes. On the other hand,
deciduous trees shed their leaves in winter and allow solar radiation to heat the
building. The cooling effect of vegetation in hot and dry climates comes predominantly
from evaporation, while in hot humid climates the shading effect is more significant.
Trees can be used as windbreaks to protect both buildings and outer areas such as lawns
and patios from both hot and cold winds. The velocity reduction behind the windbreak
depends on their height, density, cross-sectional shape, width, and length, the first two
being the most important factors. When the wind does not blow perpendicular to the
windbreak, the sheltered area is decreased.
The rate of infiltration in buildings is proportional to the wind pressure.
Therefore, it is more important to design windbreaks for maximum wind speed
reduction in extreme climates, than to attempt to maximize the distance over which the
windbreak is effective. In cold climates, windbreaks can reduce the heat loss in
buildings by reducing wind flow over the buildings, thereby reducing convection and
infiltration losses. A single-row of high density trees in the form of a windbreak can
reduce infiltration in a residence by about 60% when planted about four tree heights
from the building. This corresponds to about 15% reduction in energy costs
(D) Street width and orientation
The amount of direct radiation received by a building and the street in an urban area is
determined by the street width and its orientation. The buildings on one side of the
street tend to cast a shadow on the street on the opposite building, by blocking the sun’s
radiation. Thus the width of the street can be relatively narrow or wide depending upon
whether the solar radiation is desirable or not. For instance in Jaisalmer (hot and dry
climate), most of the streets are narrow with buildings shading each other to reduce the
solar radiation, and consequently the street temperature and heat gain of buildings
shows the street temperatures in summer and winter in Jaisalmer as compared to
temperatures recorded at the meteorological station. It is seen that street temperatures
can be upto 2.5oC lower than the ambient air temperatures due to mutual shading of
buildings. At high latitudes in the northern hemisphere, the solar radiation is
predominantly from the south, hence wider east-west streets give better winter solar
access.
(E) Open spaces and built form
The form of a building and the open spaces in its neighbourhood affect the radiation
falling on the building’s surface and the airflow in and around it. Open spaces such as
courtyards can be designed such that solar radiation incident on them during daytime
can be reflected on to building façades for augmenting solar heat. This is desirable in
cold climates, and it is possible if the surface finish of the courtyard is reflective in
nature.
Inside a courtyard, wind conditions are primarily dependent on the proportion
between building height and courtyard width in the section along the wind flow line.
Courtyards can also be designed to act as heat sinks.
Grass and other vegetation in a courtyard can provide cooling due to evaporation and
shading.
Water sprayed on the courtyards would cause cooling effect due to evaporation.
Consequently, the air temperature in the courtyard can be much lower compared to
street or outdoor air temperatures in a hot and dry climate.
MACROCLIMATE
the overall climate of a region usually a large geographic area —distinguished from
microclimate.
URBAN CLIMATE
Man-made environments can create microclimates of their own, deviating from
Urban climate the macroclimate of the region to a degree depending on the extent
of man's intervention. Such intervention with the natural environment is greatest
in large towns or cities, thus it is justifiable to speak of an 'urban climate'.
The factors causing deviations of the urban climate from the regional macro-
climate are the following:
Evaporation
is governed by the rate of evaporation which in turn depends on
the humidity of the air (dryer the air, the faster the evaporation)
and the amount of moisture available for evaporation.
Evaporation takes place through perspiration and sweating and in
lungs through breathing.
REGULATORY MECHANISMS
When the designer wants to assess the effect of climatic conditions on the
bodys heat dissipation processess,he is faced with the difficulty of having to
handle four independent variables simultaneously.
• The ET scale basically combined air temperature and humidity (later air movement
was added) but it lacked the effects of radiation.
• Thus, CET scale (Corrected Effective Temperature) was created by adding
radiation effects.
• It is the most widely used and the most understood scale at present and the results
are accurate under most conditions.
BIOCLIMATIC CHART
• Under over heated conditions when metabolic rates are low (light work), which
already produce discomfort, it was found out that the DBT values correspond better
with subjective judgments than ET values. (Result of some Australian experiments).
• On this basis and similar other doubts, V. Olgyay concluded that it is pointless to
build a single figure index as each of the four components can be controlled by
different means.
• Thus a bioclimatic chart was created in terms of DBT and RH, and by additional
lines it was shown how comfort zone was pushed up by the presence air movement
and lowered by radiation.
Tropical Summer Index (T.S.I)